1246:. For a nearly circular orbit, this would mean that one side would be in perpetual daylight and the other in eternal night. This could create enormous temperature variations from one side of the planet to the other. Such conditions would appear to make it difficult for forms of life similar to those on Earth to evolve. And it appears there is a great problem with the atmosphere of such tidally locked planets: the perpetual night zone would be cold enough to freeze the main gases of their atmospheres, leaving the daylight zone bare and dry. On the other hand, though, a theory proposes that either a thick atmosphere or planetary ocean could potentially circulate heat around such a planet.
998:
primarily upon the
Boeshaar standards, a group at Steward Observatory (Kirkpatrick, Henry, & McCarthy, 1991) filled in the spectral sequence from K5V to M9V. It is these M type dwarf standard stars which have largely survived as the main standards to the modern day. There have been negligible changes in the red dwarf spectral sequence since 1991. Additional red dwarf standards were compiled by Henry et al. (2002), and D. Kirkpatrick has recently reviewed the classification of red dwarfs and standard stars in Gray & Corbally's 2009 monograph. The M dwarf primary spectral standards are:
1223:
45:
1047:
1253:, which can emit gigantic flares, doubling their brightness in minutes. This variability makes it difficult for life to develop and persist near a red dwarf. While it may be possible for a planet orbiting close to a red dwarf to keep its atmosphere even if the star flares, more-recent research suggests that these stars may be the source of constant high-energy flares and very large magnetic fields, diminishing the possibility of life as we know it.
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237:
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1082:" class planet orbiting in the habitable zone where liquid water can exist on the surface. Computer simulations of the formation of planets around low-mass stars predict that Earth-sized planets are most abundant, but more than 90% of the simulated planets are at least 10% water by mass, suggesting that many Earth-sized planets orbiting red dwarf stars are covered in deep oceans.
4649:
1066:-sized planets are comparatively rare. Doppler surveys of a wide variety of stars indicate about 1 in 6 stars with twice the mass of the Sun are orbited by one or more of Jupiter-sized planets, versus 1 in 16 for Sun-like stars and the frequency of close-in giant planets (Jupiter size or larger) orbiting red dwarfs is only 1 in 40. On the other hand,
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903:) should still exist today. Low-metallicity red dwarfs, however, are rare. The accepted model for the chemical evolution of the universe anticipates such a scarcity of metal-poor dwarf stars because only giant stars are thought to have formed in the metal-poor environment of the early universe. As giant stars end their short lives in
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Modern evidence suggests that planets in red dwarf systems are extremely unlikely to be habitable. In spite of their great numbers and long lifespans, there are several factors which may make life difficult on planets around a red dwarf. First, planets in the habitable zone of a red dwarf would be so
907:
explosions, they spew out the heavier elements needed to form smaller stars. Therefore, dwarfs became more common as the universe aged and became enriched in metals. While the basic scarcity of ancient metal-poor red dwarfs is expected, observations have detected even fewer than predicted. The sheer
997:
In the mid-1970s, red dwarf standard stars were published by Keenan & McNeil (1976) and
Boeshaar (1976), but there was little agreement among the standards. As later cooler stars were identified through the 1980s, it was clear that an overhaul of the red dwarf standards was needed. Building
521:
have not had time to leave the main sequence. The lower the mass of a red dwarf, the longer the lifespan. It is believed that the lifespan of these stars exceeds the expected 10-billion-year lifespan of the Sun by the third or fourth power of the ratio of the solar mass to their masses; thus, a
529:
red dwarf may continue burning for 10 trillion years. As the proportion of hydrogen in a red dwarf is consumed, the rate of fusion declines and the core starts to contract. The gravitational energy released by this size reduction is converted into heat, which is carried throughout the star by
203:
The term "red dwarf" when used to refer to a star does not have a strict definition. One of the earliest uses of the term was in 1915, used simply to contrast "red" dwarf stars from hotter "blue" dwarf stars. It became established use, although the definition remained vague. In terms of which
168:. Some definitions include any stellar M dwarf and part of the K dwarf classification. Other definitions are also in use. Many of the coolest, lowest mass M dwarfs are expected to be brown dwarfs, not true stars, and so those would be excluded from any definition of red dwarf.
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The spectral standards for M type stars have changed slightly over the years, but settled down somewhat since the early 1990s. Part of this is due to the fact that even the nearest red dwarfs are fairly faint, and their colors do not register well on
898:
model predicts that the first generation of stars should have only hydrogen, helium, and trace amounts of lithium, and hence would be of low metallicity. With their extreme lifespans, any red dwarfs that were a part of that first generation
2180:
Cifuentes, C.; Caballero, J.A.; Cortés-Contreras, M.; Montes, D.; Abellán, F.J.; Dorda, R.; Holgado, G. (2020). "CARMENES input catalogue of M dwarfs. V. Luminosities, colours, and spectral energy distributions".
509:
Because low-mass red dwarfs are fully convective, helium does not accumulate at the core, and compared to larger stars such as the Sun, they can burn a larger proportion of their hydrogen before leaving the
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The most recent surveys place the coolest true main-sequence stars into spectral types L2 or L3. At the same time, many objects cooler than about M6 or M7 are brown dwarfs, insufficiently massive to sustain
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of hydrogen is constantly remixed throughout the star, avoiding helium buildup at the core, thereby prolonging the period of fusion. Low-mass red dwarfs therefore develop very slowly, maintaining a constant
1831:
Dieterich, Sergio B.; Henry, Todd J.; Jao, Wei-Chun; Winters, Jennifer G.; Hosey, Altonio D.; Riedel, Adric R.; Subasavage, John P. (2014). "The Solar
Neighborhood. XXXII. The Hydrogen Burning Limit".
498:
is decreased, and instead convection is the main form of energy transport to the surface of the star. Above this mass, a red dwarf will have a region around its core where convection does not occur.
87:. However, due to their low luminosity, individual red dwarfs cannot be easily observed. From Earth, not one star that fits the stricter definitions of a red dwarf is visible to the naked eye.
1196:
approximately 39 light-years away in the constellation
Aquarius. The planets were discovered through the transit method, meaning we have mass and radius information for all of them.
219:
and early to mid-M-class stars, but in many cases it is restricted just to M-class stars. In some cases all K stars are included as red dwarfs, and occasionally even earlier stars.
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The boundary between the least massive red dwarfs and the most massive brown dwarfs depends strongly on the metallicity. At solar metallicity the boundary occurs at about 0.07
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used in the early to mid 20th century. The study of mid- to late-M dwarfs has significantly advanced only in the past few decades, primarily due to development of new
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difficulty of detecting objects as dim as red dwarfs was thought to account for this discrepancy, but improved detection methods have only confirmed the discrepancy.
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The fact that red dwarfs and other low-mass stars still remain on the main sequence when more massive stars have moved off the main sequence allows the age of
847:) would stay on the main sequence for 2.5 trillion years, followed by five billion years as a blue dwarf, during which the star would have one third of the
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has survived as a M2V standard through many compendia. The review on MK classification by Morgan & Keenan (1973) did not contain red dwarf standards.
128:
Definitions and usage of the term "red dwarf" vary on how inclusive they are on the hotter and more massive end. One definition is synonymous with stellar
982:
The revised Yerkes Atlas system (Johnson & Morgan, 1953) listed only two M type spectral standard stars: HD 147379 (M0V) and HD 95735/
2321:
Johnson, H.L.; Morgan, W.W. (1953). "Fundamental stellar photometry for standards of spectral type on the revised system of the Yerkes spectral atlas".
2851:
227:
fusion. This gives a significant overlap in spectral types for red and brown dwarfs. Objects in that spectral range can be difficult to categorize.
2523:; Barto, Todd C.; Golimowski, David A. (2002). "The Solar neighborhood. VI. New southern nearby stars identified by optical spectroscopy".
2798:
Tuomi, Mikko (2011). "Bayesian re-analysis of the radial velocities of Gliese 581. Evidence in favour of only four planetary companions".
1189:, detected September 2010, has a near-circular orbit in the middle of the star's habitable zone. However, the planet's existence is contested.
4494:
2076:
1137:; it lies 390 million kilometres (2.6 AU) from the star and its surface temperature is −220 °C (53.1 K; −364.0 °F).
2635:
have been extensively probed by
Doppler and transit surveys with the following results: the frequency of close-in giant planets (1−10
2265:
Burrows, Adam; Hubbard, William B.; Lunine, Jonathan I.; Liebert, James (2001). "The theory of brown dwarfs and extrasolar giant planets".
433:. As a result, they have relatively low pressures, a low fusion rate, and hence, a low temperature. The energy generated is the product of
1707:
Farihi, J.; Hoard, D. W.; Wachter, S. (2006). "White Dwarf-Red Dwarf
Systems Resolved with the Hubble Space Telescope. I. First Results".
3049:
1613:
Engle, S. G.; Guinan, E. F. (2011). "Red Dwarf Stars: Ages, Rotation, Magnetic Dynamo
Activity and the Habitability of Hosted Planets".
1054:, an M-type (spectral class M1Ve) red dwarf star less than 0.7% the age of the Sun. The dark areas represent huge sunspot-like regions.
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1959:
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and spectral classes of about L2. Theory predicts that the coolest red dwarfs at zero metallicity would have temperatures of about
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1306:
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to be estimated by finding the mass at which the stars move off the main sequence. This provides a lower limit to the age of the
514:. As a result, red dwarfs have estimated lifespans far longer than the present age of the universe, and stars less than 0.8
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techniques, dispensing with photographic plates and progressing to charged-couple devices (CCDs) and infrared-sensitive arrays.
241:
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44:
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4111:
3130:
2010:
Fred C. Adams & Gregory
Laughlin (1997). "A Dying Universe: The Long Term Fate and Evolution of Astrophysical Objects".
204:
spectral types qualify as red dwarfs, different researchers picked different limits, for example K8–M5 or "later than K5".
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that of the Sun, although this would still imply a power output on the order of 10 watts (10 trillion gigawatts or 10
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Variability in stellar energy output may also have negative impacts on the development of life. Red dwarfs are often
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is still a primary standard for M2V. Robert
Garrison does not list any "anchor" standards among the red dwarfs, but
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4639:
4509:
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4410:
932:, while measurements of red dwarfs in the solar neighbourhood suggest the coolest stars have temperatures of about
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of the host star, and are two of the most likely candidates for habitability of any exoplanets discovered so far.
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986:(M2V). While HD 147379 was not considered a standard by expert classifiers in later compendia of standards,
150:
2239:
1373:
Reiners, Ansgar; Basri, Gibor (March 2009). "On the magnetic topology of partially and fully convective stars".
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3533:
3168:
1192:
On 23 February 2017 NASA announced the discovery of seven Earth-sized planets orbiting the red dwarf star
4186:
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2386:
Keenan, Philip C.; McNeil, Raymond C. (1989). "The
Perkins catalog of revised MK types for the cooler stars".
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3334:
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3210:
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is a pair of red dwarfs, with GJ 623a on the left and the fainter GJ 623b to the right of center.
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and spectral type for trillions of years, until their fuel is depleted. Because of the comparatively short
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825:; less massive objects, as they age, would increase their surface temperatures and luminosities becoming
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of the interior, which has a high density compared to the temperature. As a result, energy transfer by
95:. According to some estimates, red dwarfs make up three-quarters of the fusing stars in the Milky Way.
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An atlas of spectra of the cooler stars: Types G, K, M, S, and C. Part 1: Introduction and tables
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According to computer simulations, the minimum mass a red dwarf must have to eventually evolve into a
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The predicted main-sequence lifetime of a red dwarf plotted against its mass relative to the Sun.
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9th Pacific Rim Conference on Stellar Astrophysics. Proceedings of a Conference Held at Lijiang
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925:. At solar metallicity, the least massive red dwarfs theoretically have temperatures around
852:
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476:
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48:
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Pettersen, B. R.; Hawley, S. L. (1989). "A spectroscopic survey of red dwarf flare stars".
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208:, abbreviated dM, was also used, but sometimes it also included stars of spectral type K.
179:
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2702:
Alibert, Yann (2017). "Formation and composition of planets around very low mass stars".
2434:"A standard stellar spectral sequence in the red / near-infrared - Classes K5 to M9"
17:
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1996:
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1282: – Hypothetical star orbiting the Sun, supposedly responsible for extinction events
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Mawet, Dimitri; Jovanovic, Nemanja; Delorme, Jacques-Robert; et al. (2018-07-10).
2094:"Intrinsic Colors, Temperatures, and Bolometric Corrections of Pre-main-sequence Stars"
1231:
1182:
884:
561:
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1126:), despite the dimness of its star. In 2006, an even smaller exoplanet (only 5.5
4687:
4566:
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4291:
4166:
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3669:
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3238:
3215:
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2415:
2365:
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1270: – Hypothetical examples of a planet and a moon supporting extraterrestrial life
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At least four and possibly up to six exoplanets were discovered orbiting within the
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The less massive the star, the longer this evolutionary process takes. A 0.16
565:
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mechanism. Hence, these stars emit relatively little light, sometimes as little as
383:
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106:
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Heath, Martin J.; Doyle, Laurance R.; Joshi, Manoj M.; Haberle, Robert M. (1999).
1404:
501:
3050:"VLT Interferometer Measures the Size of Proxima Centauri and Other Nearby Stars"
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appear to be within the habitable zone and may have liquid water on the surface.
875:
and also allows formation timescales to be placed upon the structures within the
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Burrows, Adam; Hubbard, William B.; Saumon, Didier; Lunine, Jonathan I. (1993).
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891:
830:
600:
325:
318:
236:
118:
38:
2942:
2907:
1502:
Dyer, Edward R. (1956). "An analysis of the space motions of red dwarf stars".
947:, while both more massive red dwarfs and less massive brown dwarfs are larger.
4126:
3823:
3796:
3773:
3753:
3738:
3590:
3494:
3472:
3450:
3445:
3309:
2906:
Vida, K.; Kővári, Zs.; Pál, A.; Oláh, K.; Kriskovics, L.; et al. (2017).
2296:
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30:
This article is about the type of star. For the British comedy franchise, see
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1911:"Mass-Luminosity Relationship and Lithium Depletion for Very Low Mass Stars"
1114:) from its star, and is estimated to have a surface temperature of 150
1107:
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904:
876:
815:
495:
468:
369:
121:, since the most massive brown dwarfs at lower metallicity can be as hot as
80:
31:
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1685:
1165:. The discoverers estimate its radius to be 1.5 times that of Earth (
1074:-mass planets are found around one in three red dwarfs. Observations with
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2024:
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1023:
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894:, which in astronomy are elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. The
98:
The coolest red dwarfs near the Sun have a surface temperature of about
4581:
4056:
3818:
3585:
3538:
3521:
3516:
3435:
2615:
1789:"Starspots and active regions on the emission red dwarf star LQ Hydrae"
1578:
Vyssotsky, A. N. (1956). "Dwarf M stars found spectrophotometrically".
1227:
1115:
1090:
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1063:
1003:
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2159:"A Modern Mean Dwarf Stellar Color and Effective Temperature Sequence"
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1980:
Adams, Fred C.; Laughlin, Gregory; Graves, Genevieve J. M. (2004).
1935:
1910:
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1523:
91:, the star nearest to the Sun, is a red dwarf, as are fifty of the
3099:
Red Star Rising : Small, cool stars may be hot spots for life
3052:. European Southern Observatory. November 19, 2002. Archived from
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2986:"This Stormy Star Means Alien Life May Be Rarer Than We Thought"
2908:"Frequent Flaring in the TRAPPIST-1 System - Unsuited for Life?"
2677:"Billions of rocky planets in habitable zones around red dwarfs"
1991:. Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica. pp. 46–49.
68:
3112:
2432:
Kirkpatrick, J.D.; Henry, Todd J.; McCarthy, Donald W. (1991).
1154:. The minimum mass estimated by its discoverers (a team led by
4286:
3016:"An expanded set of brown dwarf and very low mass star models"
2606:. In Schmidt, Dirk; Schreiber, Laura; Close, Laird M. (eds.).
2161:. University of Rochester, Department of Physics and Astronomy
84:
3089:
Publications about Flares by the Stellar Activity Group (UCM)
1276: – Stars with irregular large fluctuations in brightness
940:. The least massive red dwarfs have radii of about 0.09
918:, while at zero metallicity the boundary is around 0.09
215:
still varies. When explicitly defined, it typically includes
2852:"NASA telescope reveals record-breaking exoplanet discovery"
2601:"Keck Planet Imager and Characterizer (KPIC): status update"
1309: – Classification of stars based on spectral properties
171:
Stellar models indicate that red dwarfs less than 0.35
3068:
Neptune-Size Planet Orbiting Common Star Hints at Many More
2659:
Johnson, J.A. (April 2011). "The stars that host planets".
195:, no red dwarfs yet exist at advanced stages of evolution.
2871:"Planets Orbiting Red Dwarfs May Stay Wet Enough for Life"
117:
of L0 to L2. There is some overlap with the properties of
2778:"Scientists find potentially habitable planet near Earth"
2757:"Major discovery: New planet could harbor water and life"
1353:"Exoplanets near red dwarfs suggest another Earth nearer"
51:, the closest star to the Sun, at a distance of 4.2
3108:
2873:. Astrobiology. Archived from the original on 2015-09-21
1089:
between 2005 and 2010. One planet has about the mass of
149:. One includes all stellar M-type main-sequence and all
2646:, consistent with core accretion plus migration models.
1311:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1178:, which is also potentially habitable, was discovered.
2228:
may also exhibit spectra similar to late M-type stars.
2092:
Pecaut, Mark J.; Mamajek, Eric E. (1 September 2013).
37:"M dwarf" redirects here. For substellar objects, see
4637:
2500:(Ph.D. thesis). Columbus, OH: Ohio State University.
2316:
2314:
1989:
Gravitational Collapse: From Massive Stars to Planets
1290:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
4530:
4379:
4277:
4205:
4104:
3961:
3836:
3714:
3623:
3350:
3229:
3159:
1242:close to the parent star that they would likely be
2473:Keenan, Philip Childs; McNeil, Raymond C. (1976).
2064:
2498:The spectral classification of M dwarf stars
1426:Lindemann, F. A. (1915). "The age of the Earth".
1303: – Subdwarf star in the constellation Pictor
534:Properties of typical M-type main-sequence stars
486:transport energy from the core to the surface by
2576:Gray, Richard O.; Corbally, Christopher (2009).
1652:"Habitability of planets around red dwarf stars"
843:red dwarf (approximately the mass of the nearby
75:. Red dwarfs are by far the most common type of
1539:"The motions and distribution of dwarf M stars"
2360:. Department of Astronomy & Astrophysics.
2240:"And now there's a problem with M dwarfs, too"
1954:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 96–99.
1656:Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere
3124:
2477:. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press.
2427:
2425:
1982:"Red Dwarfs and the End of the Main Sequence"
1889:"Late stages of evolution for low-mass stars"
1297: – Changes to stars over their lifespans
479:. In general, red dwarfs less than 0.35
8:
1975:
1973:
1971:
1909:Chabrier, G.; Baraffe, I.; Plez, B. (1996).
1226:An artist's impression of a planet with two
463:). Even the largest red dwarfs (for example
2098:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
1882:
1880:
1826:
1824:
1078:further indicate 40% of red dwarfs have a "
860:) and a surface temperature of 6,500–8,500
3356:
3131:
3117:
3109:
1070:surveys indicate that long-orbital-period
532:
3039:
2941:
2923:
2811:
2715:
2536:
2457:
2278:
2194:
2109:
2023:
1934:
1844:
1812:
1787:Alekseev, I. Yu.; Kozlova, O. V. (2002).
1720:
1675:
1626:
1562:
1478:
1386:
27:Dim, low mass stars on the main sequence
4644:
2438:Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
2388:Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
2364:. University of Toronto. Archived from
1887:Richmond, Michael (November 10, 2004).
1322:
2884:
1181:Gliese 581c and d are within the
83:, at least in the neighborhood of the
211:In modern usage, the definition of a
157:), yielding a maximum temperature of
136:), yielding a maximum temperature of
105:and the smallest have radii about 9%
7:
182:. Hence, the helium produced by the
2869:Charles Q. Choi (9 February 2015).
2071:. Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
1891:. Rochester Institute of Technology
1288: – bookkeeping survey of stars
1133:) was found orbiting the red dwarf
25:
2358:"MK anchor-point standards table"
2238:Elisabeth Newton (Feb 15, 2012).
1218:Habitability of red dwarf systems
1106:). It orbits just 6 million
4671:
4659:
4647:
4620:
4610:
4609:
2965:Alpert, Mark (1 November 2005).
1351:Jason Palmer (6 February 2013).
1307:Yerkes luminosity classification
1087:Gliese 581 planetary system
890:All observed red dwarfs contain
235:
125:and have late M spectral types.
2578:Stellar Spectral Classification
1058:Many red dwarfs are orbited by
490:. Convection occurs because of
231:Description and characteristics
2580:. Princeton University Press.
2157:Mamajek, Eric (2 March 2021).
1:
4522:Timeline of stellar astronomy
2984:George Dvorsky (2015-11-19).
2681:European Southern Observatory
1915:Astrophysical Journal Letters
475:) have only about 10% of the
2800:Astronomy & Astrophysics
1140:In 2007, a new, potentially
4182:Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
2830:10.1051/0004-6361/201015995
2755:Than, Ker (24 April 2007).
2734:10.1051/0004-6361/201629671
2213:10.1051/0004-6361/202038295
1950:Padmanabhan, Thanu (2001).
1537:Mumford, George S. (1956).
1405:10.1051/0004-6361:200811450
1280:Nemesis (hypothetical star)
243:Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
4720:
4096:Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism
2704:Astronomy and Astrophysics
2608:Adaptive Optics Systems VI
2183:Astronomy and Astrophysics
1863:10.1088/0004-6256/147/5/94
1814:10.1051/0004-6361:20021424
1793:Astronomy and Astrophysics
1762:Astronomy and Astrophysics
1375:Astronomy and Astrophysics
1215:
151:K-type main-sequence stars
134:M-type main sequence stars
36:
29:
4605:
3359:
3146:
2912:The Astrophysical Journal
2891:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
2297:10.1103/RevModPhys.73.719
2267:Reviews of Modern Physics
2128:10.1088/0067-0049/208/1/9
2042:10.1103/RevModPhys.69.337
2012:Reviews of Modern Physics
1709:The Astrophysical Journal
1453:Edgeworth, K. E. (1946).
1332:"The Brightest Red Dwarf"
1274:Cataclysmic variable star
234:
109:, with masses about 7.5%
18:M-type main-sequence star
4475:With multiple exoplanets
2943:10.3847/1538-4357/aa6f05
2525:The Astronomical Journal
2067:In Quest of the Universe
1952:Theoretical Astrophysics
1833:The Astronomical Journal
447:proton–proton (PP) chain
113:. These red dwarfs have
67:is the smallest kind of
3261:Asymptotic giant branch
2822:2011A&A...528L...5T
2726:2017A&A...598L...5A
2496:Boeshaar, P.C. (1976).
2205:2020A&A...642A.115C
2063:Koupelis, Theo (2007).
1805:2002A&A...396..203A
1774:1989A&A...217..187P
1677:10.1023/A:1006596718708
1397:2009A&A...496..787R
1050:Illustration depicting
951:Spectral standard stars
4597:Tidal disruption event
4086:Circumstellar envelope
3320:Luminous blue variable
2710:(12 October 2016): 8.
2521:Walkowicz, Lucianne M.
1238:
1150:, was found, orbiting
1055:
969:photographic emulsions
963:
506:
60:
4122:Effective temperature
3020:Astrophysical Journal
2323:Astrophysical Journal
1268:Aurelia and Blue Moon
1225:
1049:
958:
504:
47:
4592:Planet-hosting stars
4470:With resolved images
4441:Historical brightest
4371:Photometric-standard
4297:Solar radio emission
4091:Eddington luminosity
3871:Triple-alpha process
3809:Thorne–Żytkow object
3184:Young stellar object
2356:Garrison, Robert F.
2226:Younger brown dwarfs
2189:(October 2020): 32.
1580:Astronomical Journal
1543:Astronomical Journal
1504:Astronomical Journal
901:population III stars
184:thermonuclear fusion
4416:Highest temperature
4187:Color–color diagram
4052:Protoplanetary disk
3856:Proton–proton chain
3534:Chemically peculiar
3103:Scientific American
3032:1993ApJ...406..158B
2971:Scientific American
2934:2017ApJ...841..124V
2858:. 22 February 2017.
2662:Sky & Telescope
2610:. SPIE. p. 6.
2586:2009ssc..book.....G
2547:2002AJ....123.2002H
2506:1976PhDT........14B
2483:1976aasc.book.....K
2450:1991ApJS...77..417K
2400:1989ApJS...71..245K
2335:1953ApJ...117..313J
2289:2001RvMP...73..719B
2120:2013ApJS..208....9P
2034:1997RvMP...69..337A
1997:2004RMxAC..22...46A
1927:1996ApJ...459L..91C
1855:2014AJ....147...94D
1731:2006ApJ...646..480F
1668:1999OLEB...29..405H
1637:2011ASPC..451..285E
1592:1956AJ.....61..201V
1555:1956AJ.....61..224M
1516:1956AJ.....61..228D
1471:1946Natur.157..481E
1440:1915Obs....38..299L
535:
431:very-low-mass stars
193:age of the universe
93:sixty nearest stars
4421:Lowest temperature
4172:Photometric system
4142:Absolute magnitude
4076:Circumstellar dust
3689:Stellar black hole
3325:Stellar population
3211:Herbig–Haro object
3056:on January 3, 2007
2631:Close separations
2616:10.1117/12.2314037
1263:List of red dwarfs
1239:
1135:OGLE-2005-BLG-390L
1056:
964:
533:
507:
61:
59:), is a red dwarf.
4704:Stellar phenomena
4635:
4634:
4538:Substellar object
4517:Planetary nebulae
3936:Luminous red nova
3846:Deuterium burning
3832:
3831:
3315:Instability strip
3295:Wolf-Rayet nebula
3249:Horizontal branch
3194:Pre-main-sequence
2967:"Red Star Rising"
2665:. pp. 22–27.
2519:Henry, Todd J .;
2362:astro.utoronto.ca
2078:978-0-7637-4387-1
1455:"Red Dwarf Stars"
1295:Stellar evolution
812:
811:
16:(Redirected from
4711:
4676:
4675:
4674:
4664:
4663:
4652:
4651:
4650:
4643:
4627:Stars portal
4625:
4624:
4613:
4612:
4269:Planetary system
4192:Strömgren sphere
4064:Asteroseismology
3785:Black hole star
3357:
3283:Planetary nebula
3244:Red-giant branch
3133:
3126:
3119:
3110:
3064:
3062:
3061:
3045:
3043:
3000:
2999:
2997:
2996:
2981:
2975:
2974:
2962:
2956:
2955:
2945:
2927:
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2897:
2896:
2890:
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2815:
2795:
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2774:
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2752:
2746:
2745:
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2699:
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2690:
2688:
2673:
2667:
2666:
2656:
2650:
2649:
2647:
2645:
2638:
2634:
2605:
2596:
2590:
2589:
2573:
2567:
2566:
2540:
2538:astro-ph/0112496
2516:
2510:
2509:
2493:
2487:
2486:
2470:
2464:
2463:
2461:
2429:
2420:
2419:
2383:
2377:
2376:
2374:
2373:
2353:
2347:
2346:
2318:
2309:
2308:
2282:
2280:astro-ph/0103383
2262:
2256:
2255:
2253:
2252:
2235:
2229:
2223:
2217:
2216:
2198:
2177:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2166:
2154:
2148:
2147:
2113:
2089:
2083:
2082:
2070:
2060:
2054:
2053:
2027:
2025:astro-ph/9701131
2007:
2001:
2000:
1986:
1977:
1966:
1965:
1947:
1941:
1940:
1938:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1897:
1896:
1884:
1875:
1874:
1848:
1828:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1784:
1778:
1777:
1757:
1751:
1750:
1724:
1722:astro-ph/0603747
1704:
1698:
1697:
1679:
1647:
1641:
1640:
1630:
1610:
1604:
1603:
1575:
1569:
1568:
1566:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1499:
1493:
1492:
1482:
1480:10.1038/157481d0
1450:
1444:
1443:
1423:
1417:
1416:
1390:
1370:
1364:
1363:
1361:
1360:
1348:
1342:
1341:
1339:
1338:
1327:
1312:
1291:
1230:orbiting in the
1149:
1028:van Biesbroeck 8
939:
935:
931:
849:Sun's luminosity
608:
536:
477:Sun's luminosity
458:
457:
453:
424:
407:
400:
393:
386:
379:
372:
365:
358:
351:
342:
335:
328:
321:
314:
307:
300:
293:
286:
279:
272:
265:
258:
251:
244:
239:
160:
139:
124:
104:
89:Proxima Centauri
49:Proxima Centauri
21:
4719:
4718:
4714:
4713:
4712:
4710:
4709:
4708:
4684:
4683:
4682:
4672:
4670:
4658:
4648:
4646:
4638:
4636:
4631:
4619:
4601:
4526:
4495:Milky Way novae
4431:Smallest volume
4375:
4356:Radial velocity
4279:
4273:
4225:Common envelope
4201:
4100:
4069:Helioseismology
4040:Bipolar outflow
3981:Microturbulence
3976:Convection zone
3957:
3851:Lithium burning
3838:Nucleosynthesis
3828:
3710:
3619:
3346:
3225:
3174:Molecular cloud
3155:
3142:
3137:
3105:(November 2005)
3077:
3072:
3059:
3057:
3048:
3013:
3009:
3004:
3003:
2994:
2992:
2983:
2982:
2978:
2964:
2963:
2959:
2905:
2904:
2900:
2883:
2876:
2874:
2868:
2867:
2863:
2850:
2849:
2845:
2797:
2796:
2792:
2783:
2781:
2776:
2775:
2771:
2762:
2760:
2754:
2753:
2749:
2701:
2700:
2696:
2686:
2684:
2683:. 28 March 2012
2675:
2674:
2670:
2658:
2657:
2653:
2643:
2641:
2636:
2632:
2630:
2626:
2603:
2598:
2597:
2593:
2575:
2574:
2570:
2518:
2517:
2513:
2495:
2494:
2490:
2472:
2471:
2467:
2431:
2430:
2423:
2385:
2384:
2380:
2371:
2369:
2355:
2354:
2350:
2320:
2319:
2312:
2264:
2263:
2259:
2250:
2248:
2237:
2236:
2232:
2224:
2220:
2179:
2178:
2174:
2164:
2162:
2156:
2155:
2151:
2091:
2090:
2086:
2079:
2062:
2061:
2057:
2009:
2008:
2004:
1984:
1979:
1978:
1969:
1962:
1949:
1948:
1944:
1908:
1907:
1903:
1894:
1892:
1886:
1885:
1878:
1830:
1829:
1822:
1786:
1785:
1781:
1759:
1758:
1754:
1706:
1705:
1701:
1649:
1648:
1644:
1612:
1611:
1607:
1577:
1576:
1572:
1536:
1535:
1531:
1501:
1500:
1496:
1452:
1451:
1447:
1428:The Observatory
1425:
1424:
1420:
1372:
1371:
1367:
1358:
1356:
1350:
1349:
1345:
1336:
1334:
1329:
1328:
1324:
1319:
1310:
1289:
1259:
1220:
1214:
1172:
1169:
1164:
1161:
1158:) is 5.36
1145:
1132:
1129:
1104:
1101:
1044:
953:
946:
943:
937:
933:
926:
924:
921:
917:
914:
858:
855:
842:
839:
824:
821:
606:
605:
602:
596:
593:
586:
583:
571:
568:
556:
553:
541:
528:
525:
520:
517:
485:
482:
455:
451:
450:
429:Red dwarfs are
427:
426:
422:
418:
416:
414:
412:
409:
405:
402:
398:
395:
391:
388:
384:
381:
377:
374:
370:
367:
363:
360:
356:
353:
349:
347:
344:
340:
337:
333:
330:
326:
323:
319:
316:
312:
309:
305:
302:
298:
295:
291:
288:
284:
281:
277:
274:
270:
267:
263:
260:
256:
253:
249:
246:
242:
233:
201:
177:
174:
167:
164:
158:
147:
144:
137:
122:
111:that of the Sun
107:that of the Sun
99:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4717:
4715:
4707:
4706:
4701:
4696:
4686:
4685:
4681:
4680:
4668:
4656:
4633:
4632:
4630:
4629:
4617:
4606:
4603:
4602:
4600:
4599:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4574:
4569:
4564:
4563:
4562:
4557:
4556:
4555:
4550:
4534:
4532:
4528:
4527:
4525:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4513:
4512:
4507:
4497:
4492:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4466:
4465:
4460:
4459:
4458:
4448:
4443:
4438:
4433:
4428:
4426:Largest volume
4423:
4418:
4413:
4403:
4402:
4401:
4396:
4385:
4383:
4377:
4376:
4374:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4353:
4352:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4310:
4309:
4304:
4299:
4294:
4283:
4281:
4275:
4274:
4272:
4271:
4266:
4265:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4244:
4239:
4238:
4237:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4211:
4209:
4203:
4202:
4200:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4174:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4137:Magnetic field
4134:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4114:
4108:
4106:
4102:
4101:
4099:
4098:
4093:
4088:
4083:
4078:
4073:
4072:
4071:
4061:
4060:
4059:
4054:
4047:Accretion disk
4044:
4043:
4042:
4037:
4027:
4026:
4025:
4023:Alfvén surface
4020:
4018:Stellar corona
4015:
4010:
4005:
3995:
3993:Radiation zone
3990:
3989:
3988:
3983:
3973:
3967:
3965:
3959:
3958:
3956:
3955:
3950:
3949:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3842:
3840:
3834:
3833:
3830:
3829:
3827:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3800:
3799:
3794:
3791:
3783:
3782:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3731:
3726:
3720:
3718:
3712:
3711:
3709:
3708:
3703:
3702:
3701:
3691:
3686:
3685:
3684:
3679:
3678:
3677:
3672:
3662:
3652:
3651:
3650:
3640:
3635:
3629:
3627:
3621:
3620:
3618:
3617:
3615:Blue straggler
3612:
3611:
3610:
3600:
3595:
3594:
3593:
3583:
3582:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3531:
3526:
3525:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3504:
3503:
3502:
3492:
3491:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3470:
3465:
3464:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3427:
3426:
3421:
3411:
3410:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3373:Main sequence
3371:
3366:
3360:
3354:
3352:Classification
3348:
3347:
3345:
3344:
3343:
3342:
3337:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3291:
3290:
3288:Protoplanetary
3280:
3275:
3274:
3273:
3268:
3258:
3257:
3256:
3246:
3241:
3235:
3233:
3227:
3226:
3224:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3207:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3165:
3163:
3157:
3156:
3154:
3153:
3147:
3144:
3143:
3138:
3136:
3135:
3128:
3121:
3113:
3107:
3106:
3096:
3090:
3087:Stellar Flares
3084:
3081:Variable stars
3076:
3075:External links
3073:
3071:
3070:
3065:
3046:
3041:10.1086/172427
3010:
3008:
3005:
3002:
3001:
2976:
2957:
2898:
2861:
2843:
2790:
2769:
2747:
2694:
2668:
2651:
2639:
2624:
2591:
2568:
2555:10.1086/339315
2511:
2488:
2465:
2459:10.1086/191611
2421:
2408:10.1086/191373
2378:
2348:
2343:10.1086/145697
2310:
2273:(3): 719–765.
2257:
2230:
2218:
2172:
2149:
2084:
2077:
2055:
2018:(2): 337–372.
2002:
1967:
1960:
1942:
1936:10.1086/309951
1921:(2): L91–L94.
1901:
1876:
1820:
1779:
1752:
1739:10.1086/504683
1715:(1): 480–492.
1699:
1642:
1605:
1600:10.1086/107328
1570:
1564:10.1086/107331
1529:
1524:10.1086/107332
1494:
1445:
1418:
1381:(3): 787–790.
1365:
1343:
1330:Ken Croswell.
1321:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1314:
1313:
1304:
1301:Kapteyn's Star
1298:
1292:
1283:
1277:
1271:
1265:
1258:
1255:
1244:tidally locked
1235:of a red dwarf
1232:habitable zone
1216:Main article:
1213:
1210:
1183:habitable zone
1174:). Since then
1170:
1167:
1162:
1159:
1130:
1127:
1102:
1099:
1043:
1040:
952:
949:
944:
941:
922:
919:
915:
912:
879:, such as the
856:
853:
845:Barnard's Star
840:
837:
822:
819:
810:
809:
806:
803:
800:
797:
794:
790:
789:
786:
783:
780:
777:
774:
770:
769:
766:
763:
760:
757:
754:
750:
749:
746:
743:
740:
737:
734:
730:
729:
726:
723:
720:
717:
714:
710:
709:
706:
703:
700:
697:
694:
690:
689:
686:
683:
680:
677:
674:
670:
669:
666:
663:
660:
657:
654:
650:
649:
646:
643:
640:
637:
634:
630:
629:
626:
623:
620:
617:
614:
610:
609:
598:
589:
584:
581:
574:
569:
566:
559:
554:
551:
544:
526:
523:
518:
515:
483:
480:
445:by way of the
435:nuclear fusion
420:
410:
403:
399:Red supergiant
396:
389:
382:
375:
368:
361:
354:
345:
338:
331:
324:
317:
310:
303:
296:
289:
282:
275:
268:
261:
254:
247:
240:
232:
229:
200:
197:
175:
172:
165:
162:
145:
142:
115:spectral types
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4716:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4691:
4689:
4679:
4669:
4667:
4662:
4657:
4655:
4645:
4641:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4616:
4608:
4607:
4604:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4587:Intergalactic
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4567:Galactic year
4565:
4561:
4558:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4545:
4544:
4541:
4540:
4539:
4536:
4535:
4533:
4529:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4511:
4508:
4506:
4503:
4502:
4501:
4498:
4496:
4493:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4464:
4461:
4457:
4454:
4453:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4446:Most luminous
4444:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4434:
4432:
4429:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4408:
4407:
4404:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4391:
4390:
4387:
4386:
4384:
4382:
4378:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4361:Proper motion
4359:
4357:
4354:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4336:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4324:Constellation
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4292:Solar eclipse
4290:
4289:
4288:
4285:
4284:
4282:
4278:Earth-centric
4276:
4270:
4267:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4249:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4240:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4228:
4226:
4223:
4221:
4218:
4217:
4216:
4213:
4212:
4210:
4208:
4204:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4120:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4109:
4107:
4103:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4070:
4067:
4066:
4065:
4062:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4050:
4049:
4048:
4045:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4032:
4031:
4028:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
4000:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3978:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3968:
3966:
3964:
3960:
3954:
3951:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3923:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3876:Alpha process
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3843:
3841:
3839:
3835:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3798:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3786:
3784:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3736:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3721:
3719:
3717:
3713:
3707:
3704:
3700:
3697:
3696:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3683:
3680:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3667:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3657:
3656:
3653:
3649:
3648:Helium planet
3646:
3645:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3638:Parker's star
3636:
3634:
3631:
3630:
3628:
3626:
3622:
3616:
3613:
3609:
3606:
3605:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3592:
3589:
3588:
3587:
3584:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3569:Lambda Boötis
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3536:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3509:
3508:
3505:
3501:
3498:
3497:
3496:
3493:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3475:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3448:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3416:
3415:
3412:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3374:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3361:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3349:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3335:Superluminous
3333:
3332:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3289:
3286:
3285:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3263:
3262:
3259:
3255:
3252:
3251:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3239:Main sequence
3237:
3236:
3234:
3232:
3228:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3216:Hayashi track
3214:
3212:
3209:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3186:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3166:
3164:
3162:
3158:
3152:
3149:
3148:
3145:
3141:
3134:
3129:
3127:
3122:
3120:
3115:
3114:
3111:
3104:
3100:
3097:
3094:
3091:
3088:
3085:
3082:
3079:
3078:
3074:
3069:
3066:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3042:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3026:(1): 158–71.
3025:
3021:
3017:
3012:
3011:
3006:
2991:
2987:
2980:
2977:
2972:
2968:
2961:
2958:
2953:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2902:
2899:
2894:
2888:
2872:
2865:
2862:
2857:
2853:
2847:
2844:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2794:
2791:
2780:. Physorg.com
2779:
2773:
2770:
2758:
2751:
2748:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2698:
2695:
2682:
2678:
2672:
2669:
2664:
2663:
2655:
2652:
2648:
2627:
2625:9781510619593
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2602:
2595:
2592:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2572:
2569:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2515:
2512:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2492:
2489:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2469:
2466:
2460:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2428:
2426:
2422:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2382:
2379:
2368:on 2019-06-25
2367:
2363:
2359:
2352:
2349:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2261:
2258:
2247:
2246:
2241:
2234:
2231:
2227:
2222:
2219:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2176:
2173:
2160:
2153:
2150:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2088:
2085:
2080:
2074:
2069:
2068:
2059:
2056:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2006:
2003:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1983:
1976:
1974:
1972:
1968:
1963:
1961:0-521-56241-4
1957:
1953:
1946:
1943:
1937:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1905:
1902:
1890:
1883:
1881:
1877:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1827:
1825:
1821:
1815:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1783:
1780:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1756:
1753:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1703:
1700:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1662:(4): 405–24.
1661:
1657:
1653:
1646:
1643:
1638:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1609:
1606:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1574:
1571:
1565:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1533:
1530:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1498:
1495:
1490:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1465:(3989): 481.
1464:
1460:
1456:
1449:
1446:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1422:
1419:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1369:
1366:
1354:
1347:
1344:
1333:
1326:
1323:
1316:
1308:
1305:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1293:
1287:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1272:
1269:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1260:
1256:
1254:
1252:
1247:
1245:
1236:
1233:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1190:
1188:
1184:
1179:
1177:
1173:
1157:
1156:Stephane Udry
1153:
1148:
1143:
1138:
1136:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1096:
1093:, or 16
1092:
1088:
1083:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1053:
1048:
1041:
1039:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1008:Lalande 21185
1005:
1001:
995:
993:
992:Lalande 21185
989:
988:Lalande 21185
985:
984:Lalande 21185
980:
978:
977:spectroscopic
974:
970:
961:
957:
950:
948:
930:
909:
906:
902:
897:
893:
888:
886:
885:Galactic disk
882:
881:Galactic halo
878:
874:
870:
869:star clusters
865:
863:
859:
850:
846:
834:
832:
828:
818:is 0.25
817:
807:
804:
801:
798:
795:
792:
791:
787:
784:
781:
778:
775:
772:
771:
767:
764:
761:
758:
755:
752:
751:
747:
744:
741:
738:
735:
732:
731:
727:
724:
721:
718:
715:
712:
711:
707:
704:
701:
698:
695:
692:
691:
687:
684:
681:
678:
675:
672:
671:
667:
664:
661:
658:
655:
652:
651:
647:
644:
641:
638:
635:
632:
631:
627:
624:
621:
618:
615:
612:
611:
604:
599:
595:
590:
587:
578:
575:
572:
563:
560:
557:
548:
545:
543:
538:
537:
531:
513:
512:main sequence
503:
499:
497:
493:
489:
478:
474:
473:Lacaille 8760
470:
466:
462:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
425:
408:
401:
394:
387:
385:Bright giants
380:
373:
366:
359:
352:
348:Main sequence
343:
336:
329:
322:
315:
308:
301:
294:
287:
280:
273:
266:
259:
252:
250:Spectral type
245:
238:
230:
228:
226:
220:
218:
214:
209:
207:
198:
196:
194:
190:
185:
181:
169:
161:and 0.8
156:
152:
148:
140:and 0.6
135:
131:
126:
120:
116:
112:
108:
103:
96:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
73:main sequence
70:
66:
58:
54:
50:
46:
40:
33:
19:
4490:White dwarfs
4480:Brown dwarfs
4463:Most distant
4411:Most massive
4389:Proper names
4349:Photographic
4302:Solar System
4280:observations
4207:Star systems
4030:Stellar wind
4013:Chromosphere
3986:Oscillations
3866:Helium flash
3716:Hypothetical
3694:X-ray binary
3633:Compact star
3468:Bright giant
3406:
3221:Henyey track
3199:Herbig Ae/Be
3102:
3058:. Retrieved
3054:the original
3023:
3019:
2993:. Retrieved
2989:
2979:
2970:
2960:
2915:
2911:
2901:
2875:. Retrieved
2864:
2856:www.nasa.gov
2855:
2846:
2803:
2799:
2793:
2782:. Retrieved
2772:
2761:. Retrieved
2750:
2707:
2703:
2697:
2685:. Retrieved
2671:
2660:
2654:
2629:
2607:
2594:
2577:
2571:
2528:
2524:
2514:
2497:
2491:
2474:
2468:
2441:
2437:
2391:
2387:
2381:
2370:. Retrieved
2366:the original
2361:
2351:
2326:
2322:
2270:
2266:
2260:
2249:. Retrieved
2243:
2233:
2221:
2186:
2182:
2175:
2163:. Retrieved
2152:
2101:
2097:
2087:
2066:
2058:
2015:
2011:
2005:
1988:
1951:
1945:
1918:
1914:
1904:
1893:. Retrieved
1836:
1832:
1796:
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1765:
1761:
1755:
1712:
1708:
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1659:
1655:
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1583:
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1507:
1503:
1497:
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1458:
1448:
1431:
1427:
1421:
1378:
1374:
1368:
1357:. Retrieved
1346:
1335:. Retrieved
1325:
1248:
1240:
1212:Habitability
1191:
1180:
1139:
1110:(0.040
1095:Earth masses
1084:
1068:microlensing
1062:, but large
1057:
996:
981:
973:astrographic
965:
938:3,600 K
934:2,075 K
910:
889:
866:
835:
831:white dwarfs
829:and finally
813:
530:convection.
508:
428:
332:
327:White dwarfs
320:Brown dwarfs
221:
212:
210:
206:Dwarf M star
205:
202:
170:
159:5,200 K
154:
138:3,900 K
133:
129:
127:
123:3,600 K
119:brown dwarfs
97:
79:star in the
64:
62:
4678:Outer space
4543:Brown dwarf
4319:Circumpolar
4197:Kraft break
4177:Color index
4152:Metallicity
4112:Designation
4081:Cosmic dust
4003:Photosphere
3769:Dark-energy
3744:Electroweak
3729:Black dwarf
3660:Radio-quiet
3643:White dwarf
3529:White dwarf
3179:Bok globule
2759:. SPACE.com
2633:(< 1 AU)
2531:(4): 2002.
1799:: 203–211.
1251:flare stars
1198:TRAPPIST-1e
1187:Gliese 581g
1176:Gliese 581d
1147:Gliese 581c
1144:exoplanet,
1122:; 302
1080:super-Earth
927:1,700
827:blue dwarfs
594:temperature
406:Hypergiants
392:Supergiants
378:Blue giants
100:2,000
39:brown dwarf
4699:Star types
4694:Red dwarfs
4688:Categories
4505:Candidates
4500:Supernovae
4485:Red dwarfs
4344:Extinction
4132:Kinematics
4127:Luminosity
4105:Properties
3998:Atmosphere
3896:Si burning
3886:Ne burning
3824:White hole
3797:Quasi-star
3724:Blue dwarf
3579:Technetium
3495:Hypergiant
3473:Supergiant
3093:Red Dwarfs
3060:2007-01-12
2995:2019-07-10
2925:1703.10130
2877:15 January
2784:2013-03-26
2763:2019-07-10
2717:1610.03460
2644:2.5 ± 0.9%
2642:) is only
2372:2011-12-18
2251:2019-07-10
2245:Astrobites
2196:2007.15077
1895:2019-07-10
1359:2019-07-10
1337:2019-07-10
1317:References
1286:Star count
1194:TRAPPIST-1
1152:Gliese 581
1118:(423
1108:kilometres
1060:exoplanets
1016:Gliese 402
1012:Gliese 581
960:Gliese 623
577:Luminosity
488:convection
371:Red giants
350:("dwarfs")
334:Red dwarfs
225:hydrogen-1
199:Definition
189:luminosity
180:convective
178:are fully
55:(1.3
4654:Astronomy
4436:Brightest
4334:Magnitude
4314:Pole star
4235:Symbiotic
4230:Eclipsing
4162:Starlight
3963:Structure
3953:Supernova
3946:Micronova
3941:Recurrent
3926:Symbiotic
3911:p-process
3906:r-process
3901:s-process
3891:O burning
3881:C burning
3861:CNO cycle
3804:Gravastar
3340:Hypernova
3330:Supernova
3305:Dredge-up
3278:Blue loop
3271:super-AGB
3254:Red clump
3231:Evolution
3189:Protostar
3169:Accretion
3161:Formation
2952:118827117
2813:1102.3314
2416:123149047
2305:204927572
2144:119308564
2136:0067-0049
2111:1307.2657
1846:1312.1736
1839:(5): 94.
1628:1111.2872
1388:0901.1659
1142:habitable
905:supernova
877:Milky Way
816:red giant
592:Effective
522:0.1
496:radiation
469:HIP 12961
465:HD 179930
357:Subgiants
341:Subdwarfs
213:red dwarf
81:Milky Way
65:red dwarf
32:Red Dwarf
4615:Category
4510:Remnants
4406:Extremes
4366:Parallax
4339:Apparent
4329:Asterism
4307:Sunlight
4257:Globular
4242:Multiple
4167:Variable
4157:Rotation
4117:Dynamics
4008:Starspot
3682:Magnetar
3625:Remnants
3441:Subgiant
3414:Subdwarf
3266:post-AGB
2918:(2): 2.
2887:cite web
2838:11439465
2742:54002704
2563:17735847
2104:(1): 9.
2050:12173790
1871:21036959
1747:16750158
1694:12329736
1686:10472629
1413:15159121
1257:See also
1228:exomoons
1036:LHS 2924
1024:Wolf 359
945:☉
923:☉
916:☉
896:Big Bang
892:"metals"
873:Universe
857:☉
841:☉
823:☉
585:☉
570:☉
555:☉
540:Spectral
527:☉
519:☉
484:☉
439:hydrogen
413:absolute
176:☉
166:☉
146:☉
130:M dwarfs
4640:Portals
4582:Gravity
4531:Related
4451:Nearest
4399:Chinese
4247:Cluster
4220:Contact
4057:Proplyd
3931:Remnant
3819:Blitzar
3793:Hawking
3749:Strange
3699:Burster
3655:Neutron
3608:Extreme
3559:He-weak
3204:T Tauri
3095:Jumk.de
3028:Bibcode
3007:Sources
2990:Gizmodo
2930:Bibcode
2818:Bibcode
2722:Bibcode
2687:10 July
2582:Bibcode
2543:Bibcode
2502:Bibcode
2479:Bibcode
2446:Bibcode
2444:: 417.
2396:Bibcode
2394:: 245.
2331:Bibcode
2329:: 313.
2285:Bibcode
2201:Bibcode
2116:Bibcode
2030:Bibcode
1993:Bibcode
1923:Bibcode
1851:Bibcode
1801:Bibcode
1770:Bibcode
1768:: 187.
1727:Bibcode
1664:Bibcode
1633:Bibcode
1621:: 285.
1588:Bibcode
1586:: 201.
1551:Bibcode
1549:: 224.
1512:Bibcode
1510:: 228.
1489:4106298
1467:Bibcode
1436:Bibcode
1434:: 299.
1393:Bibcode
1091:Neptune
1072:Neptune
1064:Jupiter
1042:Planets
1038:(M9V).
1034:(M8V),
1030:(M7V),
1026:(M6V),
1022:(M5V),
1018:(M4V),
1014:(M3V),
1010:(M2V),
1006:(M1V),
1004:GJ 229A
1002:(M0V),
862:kelvins
607:(B − V)
492:opacity
454:⁄
217:late K-
155:K dwarf
71:on the
4572:Galaxy
4560:Planet
4548:Desert
4456:bright
4394:Arabic
4215:Binary
4035:Bubble
3759:Planck
3734:Exotic
3670:Binary
3665:Pulsar
3603:Helium
3564:Barium
3507:Carbon
3500:Yellow
3488:Yellow
3461:Yellow
3300:PG1159
2950:
2836:
2806:: L5.
2740:
2622:
2561:
2414:
2303:
2165:5 July
2142:
2134:
2075:
2048:
1958:
1869:
1745:
1692:
1684:
1487:
1459:Nature
1411:
1204:, and
1052:AU Mic
1000:GJ 270
802:3.0x10
782:5.2x10
762:6.5x10
742:1.0x10
722:3.0x10
702:7.2x10
562:Radius
456:10,000
443:helium
415:magni-
364:Giants
77:fusing
4666:Stars
4577:Guest
4381:Lists
4262:Super
3916:Fusor
3789:Black
3774:Quark
3754:Preon
3739:Boson
3675:X-ray
3591:Shell
3544:Ap/Bp
3446:Giant
3364:Early
3310:OH/IR
3140:Stars
3083:AAVSO
2948:S2CID
2920:arXiv
2834:S2CID
2808:arXiv
2738:S2CID
2712:arXiv
2604:(PDF)
2559:S2CID
2533:arXiv
2412:S2CID
2301:S2CID
2275:arXiv
2191:arXiv
2140:S2CID
2106:arXiv
2046:S2CID
2020:arXiv
1985:(PDF)
1867:S2CID
1841:arXiv
1743:S2CID
1717:arXiv
1690:S2CID
1623:arXiv
1485:S2CID
1409:S2CID
1383:arXiv
1355:. BBC
1076:HARPS
1032:VB 10
1020:GJ 51
808:2.17
805:2,380
799:0.102
796:0.079
788:2.15
785:2,570
779:0.114
776:0.085
768:2.12
765:2,680
759:0.120
756:0.090
748:2.01
745:2,810
739:0.137
736:0.102
728:1.83
725:3,060
719:0.196
716:0.162
708:1.65
705:3,210
699:0.274
688:1.53
685:3,430
682:0.016
679:0.361
668:1.51
665:3,560
662:0.029
659:0.446
648:1.49
645:3,660
642:0.041
639:0.501
628:1.42
625:3,850
622:0.069
619:0.588
603:index
601:Color
441:into
4252:Open
4147:Mass
3971:Core
3921:Nova
3814:Iron
3764:Dark
3574:Lead
3554:HgMn
3549:CEMP
3478:Blue
3451:Blue
3369:Late
3151:List
2893:link
2879:2017
2689:2019
2620:ISBN
2167:2021
2132:ISSN
2073:ISBN
1956:ISBN
1682:PMID
975:and
883:and
696:0.23
676:0.37
656:0.44
636:0.50
616:0.57
597:(K)
547:Mass
542:type
471:and
417:tude
69:star
4553:Sub
4287:Sun
3706:SGR
3483:Red
3456:Red
3036:doi
3024:406
2938:doi
2916:841
2826:doi
2804:528
2730:doi
2708:539
2640:Jup
2612:doi
2551:doi
2529:123
2454:doi
2404:doi
2339:doi
2327:117
2293:doi
2209:doi
2187:642
2124:doi
2102:208
2038:doi
1931:doi
1919:459
1859:doi
1837:147
1809:doi
1797:396
1766:217
1735:doi
1713:646
1672:doi
1619:451
1596:doi
1559:doi
1520:doi
1475:doi
1463:157
1401:doi
1379:496
793:M9V
773:M8V
753:M7V
733:M6V
713:M5V
693:M4V
673:M3V
653:M2V
633:M1V
613:M0V
437:of
85:Sun
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