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drug class. If it is difficult finding five drugs to treat then the clinician can request that high-level INH-resistance be looked for. If the strain has only low-level INH-resistance (resistance at 0.2 mg/L INH, but sensitive at 1.0 mg/L INH), then high dose INH can be used as part of the regimen. When counting drugs, PZA and interferon count as zero; that is to say, when adding PZA to a four-drug regimen, another drug must be chosen to make five. It is not possible to use more than one injectable (STM, capreomycin or amikacin), because the toxic effect of these drugs is additive: If possible, the aminoglycoside should be given daily for a minimum of three months (and perhaps thrice weekly thereafter). Ciprofloxacin should not be used in the treatment of tuberculosis if other fluoroquinolones are available. As of 2008, Cochrane reports that trials of other fluoroquinolones are ongoing. While
Rifampin is an effective drug, lack of adherence has led to relapse. This is why the use of various first-line drugs, along with developing new drugs that are specific towards drug-resistant strains, is essential. There are a number of new anti-TB medications that are currently in the developmental stage that are directed to treat drug resistant strains; a few of these drugs are PA-824 (now
737:
Shrinking the lung cavity, thoracoplasty, to fill void space caused by tuberculosis damage was done by either removing ribs, raising the diaphragm, or implanting fluids or solid materials into lung cavity as a less invasive alternative to artificial pneumothorax. These treatments fell out of favor with the invention anti-tuberculosis drugs in the mid-20th century and have not seen a revival with MDR-TB, except for thoracoplasty done with implanted muscle tissue. Surgically removing portions of the lung, called lung resectioning, was a mostly theoretical possibility until the improved surgical tools and techniques of the mid-20th century. As of 2016, surgery is typically performed after 6–8 months of unsuccessful anti-TB treatment by other means. Surgical treatment has a high success rate, upwards of 80%, but a similarly high failure rate of upwards of 10% including the risk of death. Surgery is first focused on stabilizing cavities, or "destroyed lung", caused by the disease, followed by the removal of
832:
as one of the main causes of interruption in prisoner's TB treatment, in addition to non-compliance within the prison and upon reintegration into civilian life. Fry et al.'s study also listed side effects of TB treatment medications (especially in HIV positive individuals), financial worries, housing insecurities, family problems, and fear of arrest as factors that prevented some prisoners from properly adhering to TB treatment. They also note that some researchers have argued that the short-term gains TB-positive prisoners receive, such as better food or work exclusion, may dis-incentivize becoming cured. In their World Health
Organization article, Gelmanova et al. posit that non-adherence to TB treatment indirectly contributes to bacterial resistance. Although ineffective or inconsistent treatment does not "create" resistant strains, mutations within the high bacterial load in non-adherent prisoners can cause resistance.
802:. Infectious disease researchers Nachega & Chaisson report that 10% of the one million prisoners within the system have active TB. One of their studies found that 75% of newly diagnosed inmates with TB are resistant to at least one drug; 40% of new cases are multidrug-resistant. In 1997, TB accounted for almost half of all Russian prison deaths, and as Bobrik et al. point out in their public health study, the 90% reduction in TB incidence contributed to a consequential fall in the prisoner death rate in the years following 1997. Baussano et al. articulate that concerning statistics like these are especially worrisome because spikes in TB incidence in prisons are linked to corresponding outbreaks in surrounding communities. Additionally, rising rates of incarceration, especially in Central Asian and Eastern European countries like Russia, have been correlated with higher TB rates in civilian populations. Even as the
719:
485:
economic case for treating smear-negative and extra-pulmonary cases in DOTS programs along with treating smear-negative and extra-pulmonary cases in DOTS programs as a new WHO "STOP TB" approach and the second global plan for tuberculosis control. Last but not least, the study shows that a significant scaling-up of all interventions is needed in the next 10 years if the millennium development goal and related goals for tuberculosis control are to be achieved. If the case detection rate can be improved, this will guarantee that people who gain access to treatment facilities are covered and that coverage is widely distributed to people who do not now have access.
845:
Russian society will be greatly impacted by this change. Formerly incarcerated
Russians will re-enter civilian life and remain within that sphere; as they live as civilians, they will infect others with the contagions they were exposed to in prison. Researcher Vivian Stern argues that the risk of transmission from prison populations to the general public calls for an integration of prison healthcare and national health services to better control both TB and MDR-TB. While second-line drugs necessary for treating MDR-TB are arguably more expensive than a typical regimen of DOTS therapy, infectious disease specialist
151:.) Currently the majority of multidrug-resistant cases of TB are due to one strain of TB bacteria called the Beijing lineage. This process accelerates if incorrect or inadequate treatments are used, leading to the development and spread of multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB). Incorrect or inadequate treatment may be due to use of the wrong medications, use of only one medication (standard treatment is at least two drugs), or not taking medication consistently or for the full treatment period (treatment is required for several months). Treatment of MDR-TB requires second-line drugs (i.e.,
42:
816:
correctional colony has 2 meters. Specialized hospitals and treatment facilities within the prison system, known as TB colonies, are intended to isolate infected prisoners to prevent transmission; however, as Ruddy et al. demonstrate, there are not enough of these colonies to sufficiently protect staff and other inmates. Additionally, many cells lack adequate ventilation, which increases likelihood of transmission. Bobrik et al. have also noted food shortages within prisons, which deprive inmates of the nutrition necessary for healthy functioning.
656:
the management of MDR-TB (and some physicians insist on hospitalisation if only for this reason). Some physicians will insist that these patients remain isolated until their sputum is smear-negative, or even culture-negative (which may take many months, or even years). Keeping these patients in hospital for weeks (or months) on end may be a practical or physical impossibility, and the final decision depends on the clinical judgement of the physician treating that patient. The attending physician should make full use of
576:
5661:
715:
course completion or eradication of disease; 15% of those died while in treatment; 15% were lost to follow-up; 8% had treatment failure and there was no data on the remaining 6%. Treatment success rate was highest in the World Health
Organization Mediterranean region at 65%. Treatment success rates were lower than 50% in the Ukraine, Mozambique, Indonesia and India. Areas with poor TB surveillance infrastructure had higher rates of loss to follow-up of treatment.
552:
Group C3 (conditional recommendation, very low certainty in the evidence). If the minimum number of effective TB medicines cannot be composed as given above, an agent from Group D2 and other agents from Group D3 may be added to bring the total to five. It is recommended that the regimen be further strengthened with high-dose isoniazid and/or ethambutol (conditional recommendation, very low certainty in the evidence)." Medicines recommended are the following:
159:, and others), which in general are less effective, more toxic and much more expensive than first-line drugs. Treatment schedules for MDR-TB involving fluoroquinolones and aminoglycosides can run for two years, compared to the six months of first-line drug treatment, and cost over US$ 100,000. If these second-line drugs are prescribed or taken incorrectly, further resistance can develop leading to XDR-TB.
625:), all of which are in Phase II of development. Pretomanid and delamanid are both in the nitroimidazole class and have mechanisms involving bioactive reductive activation. Bedaquiline is a diarylquinoline that has a different mechanism; this drug directly inhibits energy production, so this drug may be a better option because it may not require as long of a treatment course as other drugs.
410:"Opponents of a universal tuberculosis treatment, reasoning from misguided notions of cost-effectiveness, fail to acknowledge that MDRTB is not a disease of poor people in distant places. The disease is infectious and airborne. Treating only one group of patients looks inexpensive in the short run, but will prove disastrous for all in the long run." Paul Farmer
224:
M. tuberculosis cell wall is a major function of the PE11 protein. It is hypothesized that upregulating the production of PE11 protein can decrease the quantity of antibiotics that enter M. tuberculosis. The expression of M. tuberculosis PE11 protein in M. smegmatis can generate raised resistance levels to several antibiotics, including RIF.
191:
Asia and then spreading towards the West and South
America. Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis has a variety of causes, but resistance usually due to treatment failure, drug combinations, coinfections, prior use of anti-TB medications, inadequate absorption of medication, underlying disease, and noncompliance with anti-TB drugs.
775:
are required to treat MDR-TB, are also more toxic, with side effects such as nausea, abdominal pain, and even psychosis. The
Partners in Health team had treated patients in Peru who were sick with strains that were resistant to ten and even twelve drugs. Most such patients require adjuvant surgery for any hope of a cure.
750:
airborne pathogen, persons with active, pulmonary tuberculosis caused by a multidrug-resistant strain can transmit the disease if they are alive and coughing. TB strains are often less fit and less transmissible, and outbreaks occur more readily in people with weakened immune systems (e.g., patients with
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in that area. In New York City, a report issued by city health authorities states that fully 80 percent of all MDR-TB cases could be traced back to prisons and homeless shelters. When patients have MDR-TB, they require longer periods of treatment. Several of the less powerful second-line drugs, which
714:
Treatment success rates remain unacceptably low globally with variation between regions. 2016 data published by the WHO reported treatment success rates of multidrug-resistant TB globally. For those started on treatment for multidrug-resistant TB 56% successfully completed treatment, either treatment
655:
Patients with MDR-TB should be isolated in negative-pressure rooms, if possible. Patients with MDR-TB should not be accommodated on the same ward as immunosuppressed patients (HIV-infected patients, or patients on immunosuppressive drugs). Careful monitoring of compliance with treatment is crucial to
566:
For patients with RR-TB or MDR-TB, "not previously treated with second-line drugs and in whom resistance to fluoroquinolones and second-line injectable agents was excluded or is considered highly unlikely, a shorter MDR-TB regimen of 9–12 months may be used instead of the longer regimens (conditional
484:
A study of cost-effective strategies for tuberculosis control supported three major policies. First, the treatment of smear-positive cases in DOTS programs must be the foundation of any tuberculosis control approach, and should be a basic practice for all control programs. Second, there is a powerful
2104:
Dalton, Tracy; Cegielski, Peter; Akksilp, Somsak; Asencios, Luis; Caoili, Janice Campos; Cho, Sang-Nae; Erokhin, Vladislav V; Ershova, Julia; Gler, Ma
Tarcela; Kazennyy, Boris Y; Kim, Hee Jin; Kliiman, Kai; Kurbatova, Ekaterina; Kvasnovsky, Charlotte; Leimane, Vaira; Van Der Walt, Martie; Via, Laura
722:
Before the discovery of effective antibiotics in the early 1940s, a collapsed lung might be triggered deliberately as a treatment for tuberculosis. Gases such as nitrogen and oxygen would be injected into the chest cavity, collapsing the lung and so allowing it to heal more easily. This
Pneumothorax
651:
There is no intermittent regimen validated for use in MDR-TB, but clinical experience is that giving injectable drugs for five days a week (because there is no-one available to give the drug at weekends) does not seem to result in inferior results. Directly observed therapy helps to improve outcomes
612:
In general, resistance to one drug within a class means resistance to all drugs within that class, but a notable exception is rifabutin: Rifampicin-resistance does not always mean rifabutin-resistance, and the laboratory should be asked to test for it. It is possible to use only one drug within each
525:
tests indicating susceptibility. Hence, a detailed knowledge of the treatment history of each patient is essential. In addition to the obvious risks (i.e., known exposure to a patient with MDR-TB), risk factors for MDR-TB include HIV infection, previous incarceration, failed TB treatment, failure to
396:
Completion of treatment: Previous treatment of TB is an indicator of MDR TB. If the patient does not complete their antibiotic treatment, or if the physician does not prescribe the proper antibiotic regimen, resistance can develop. Also, drugs that are of poor quality or less in quantity, especially
223:
molecules which act as a barrier to stop drugs from entering the cell. In order to lessen its vulnerability, M. tuberculosis can also stop medications from penetrating its cells. RIF resistance is linked to numerous genes and proteins that are involved in the formation of cell walls. Maintaining the
190:
first originated in the East
African region approximately 3 million years ago, with modern strains mutating and arising 20,000 years ago; Archaeologists confirmed this with skeletal analysis of Egyptian remains. As migration out of East Africa increased, so did the spread of the disease, starting in
831:
Non-compliance with treatment plans is often cited as a contributor to MDR-TB transmission and mortality. Indeed, of the 80 newly released TB-infected inmates in Fry et al.'s study, 73.8% did not report visiting a community dispensary for further treatment. Ruddy et al. cite release from facilities
372:
In the past 10 years TB strains have emerged in Italy, Iran, India, and South Africa which are resistant to all available first and second line TB drugs, classified as totally drug-resistant tuberculosis, though there is some controversy over this term. Increasing levels of resistance in TB strains
835:
Nachega & Chaisson argue that inadequate TB control programs are the strongest driver of MDR-TB incidence. They note that prevalence of MDR-TB is 2.5 times higher in areas of poorly controlled TB. Russian-based therapy (i.e., not DOTS) has been criticized by
Kimerling et al. as "inadequate" in
827:
Shin et al. emphasize another factor in MDR-TB prevalence in Russian prisons: alcohol and substance use. Ruddy et al. showed that risk for MDR-TB is three times higher among recreational drug users than non-users. Shin et al.'s study demonstrated that alcohol usage was linked to poorer outcomes in
551:
For treatment of RR- and MDT-TB, WHO treatment guidelines are as follows: "a regimen with at least five effective TB medicines during the intensive phase is recommended, including pyrazinamide and four core second-line TB medicines – one chosen from Group A, one from Group B, and at least two from
823:
within prison populations has also been shown to worsen health outcomes. Nachega & Chaisson articulate that while HIV-infected prisoners are not more susceptible MDR-TB infection, they are more likely to progress to serious clinical illness if infected. According to Stern, HIV infection is 75
749:
Cases of MDR tuberculosis have been reported in every country surveyed. MDR-TB most commonly develops in the course of TB treatment, and is most commonly due to doctors giving inappropriate treatment, or patients missing doses or failing to complete their treatment. Because MDR tuberculosis is an
4370:
Shin S. S.; Pasechnikov A.; Gelmanova I.; Peremitin G.; Strelis A.; Andreev Y.; Golubchikova V.; Tonkel T.; Yanova G.; Nikiforov M.; Yedilbayev A.; Mukherjee J.; Furin J.; Barry D.; Farmer P.; Rich M.; Keshavjee S. (2006). "Treatment outcomes in an integrated civilian and prison MDR-TB treatment
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As Ruddy et al. note, Russia's early 2000s penal reforms could greatly reduce the number of inmates inside prison facilities and thus increase the number of ex-convicts integrated into civilian populations. Because the incidence of MDR-TB is strongly predicted by past imprisonment, the health of
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properly controlling TB incidence and transmission. Bobrik et al. note that treatment for MDR-TB is equally inconsistent; the second-line drugs used to treat the prisoners lack specific treatment guidelines, infrastructure, training, or follow-up protocols for prisoners reentering civilian life.
663:
Some supplements may be useful as adjuncts in the treatment of tuberculosis, but, for the purposes of counting drugs for MDR-TB, they count as zero (if four drugs are already in the regimen, it may be beneficial to add arginine or vitamin D or both, but another drug will be needed to make five).
166:
from an infected person to an uninfected person. In this case a previously untreated person develops a new case of MDR-TB. This is known as primary MDR-TB, and is responsible for up to 75% of cases. Acquired MDR-TB develops when a person with a non-resistant strain of TB is treated inadequately,
736:
In cases of extremely resistant disease, surgery to remove infection portions of the lung is, in general, the final option. Early surgical treatments beginning in the 19th century include inducing lung collapse, as standing tissue heals faster than tissue in use, called artificial pneumothorax.
757:
As of 2013, 3.7% of new tuberculosis cases have MDR-TB. Levels are much higher in those previously treated for tuberculosis – about 20%. WHO estimates that there were about 0.5 million new MDR-TB cases in the world in 2011. About 60% of these cases occurred in Brazil, China, India, the Russian
492:
The treatment of MDR-TB must be undertaken by physicians experienced in the treatment of MDR-TB. Mortality and morbidity in patients treated in non-specialist centers are significantly higher than those of patients treated in specialist centers. Treatment of MDR-TB must be done on the basis of
287:
In some TB bacteria, the acquisition of these mutations can be explained by other mutations in the DNA recombination, recognition and repair machinery. Mutations in these genes allow the bacteria to have a higher overall mutation rate and to accumulate mutations that cause drug resistance more
3070:
Peter r. Donald, Frederick a. Sirge; Sirgel, FA; Venter, A; Parkin, DP; Van De Wal, BW; Barendse, A; Smit, E; Carman, D; Talent, J; Maritz, J (2001). "Early Bactericidal Activity of Amoxicillin in Combination with Clavulanic Acid in Patients with Sputum Smear-positive Pulmonary Tuberculosis".
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uses passive case finding. This means that the system depends on patients coming to health care providers, without conducting compulsory screenings. As medical anthropologists like Erin Koch have shown, this form of implementation does not suit all cultural structures. They urge that the DOTS
727:
57 countries reported outcomes for patients started on extreme-drug resistant TB, this included 9258 patients. 39% completed treatment successfully, 26% of patients died and treatment failed for 18%. 84% of the extreme drug resistant cohort was made up of only three countries; India, Russian
815:
There are several elements of the Russian prison system that enable the spread of MDR-TB and heighten its severity. Overcrowding in prisons is especially conducive to the spread of tuberculosis; an inmate in a prison hospital has (on average) 3 meters of personal space, and an inmate in a
178:, usually four or more anti-TB drugs for a minimum of 6 months, and possibly extending for 18–24 months if rifampin resistance has been identified in the specific strain of TB with which the patient has been infected. Under ideal program conditions, MDR-TB cure rates can approach 70%.
170:
MDR-TB caused an estimated 600,000 new TB cases and 240,000 deaths in 2016 and MDR-TB accounts for 4.1% of all new TB cases and 19% of previously treated cases worldwide. Globally, most MDR-TB cases occur in South America, Southern Africa, India, China, and the former Soviet Union.
2920:
Andries, Koen; Verhasselt, Peter; Guillemont, Jerome; Göhlmann, Hinrich W. H.; Neefs, Jean-Marc; Winkler, Hans; Van Gestel, Jef; Timmerman, Philip; Zhu, Min; Lee, Ennis; Williams, Peter; de Chaffoy, Didier; Huitric, Emma; Hoffner, Sven; Cambau, Emmanuelle (14 January 2005).
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Fry R.; Khoshnood K.; Vdovichenko E.; Granskaya J.; Sazhin V.; Shpakovskaya L; Zhemkov V.; Zhemkova M.; Rowhani-Rahbar A.; Funk M.; Kozlov A. (2005). "Barriers to completion of tuberculosis treatment among prisoners and former prisoners in St. Petersburg, Russia".
548:. The reason for maintaining the patient on INH is that INH is so potent in treating TB that it is foolish to omit it until there is microbiological proof that it is ineffective (even though isoniazid resistance so commonly occurs with rifampicin resistance).
2672:
Mitnick, Carole; Bayona, Jaime; Palacios, Eda; Shin, Sonya; Furin, Jennifer; Alcántara, Felix; Sánchez, Epifanio; Sarria, Madeleny; Becerra, Mercedes; Fawzi, Mary C. Smith; Kapiga, Saidi; Neuberg, Donna; Maguire, James H.; Kim, Jim Yong; Farmer, Paul (2003).
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drugs and have more adverse effects. The treatment and prognosis of MDR-TB are much more akin to those for cancer than to those for infection. MDR-TB has a mortality rate of about 15% with treatment, which further depends on a number of factors, including:
3970:
Fischl, Margaret A.; Uttamchandani, RB; Daikos, GL; Poblete, RB; Moreno, JN; Reyes, RR; Boota, AM; Thompson, LM; Cleary, TJ; Lai, S (1992). "An Outbreak of Tuberculosis Caused by Multiple-Drug-resistant Tubercle Bacilli among Patients with HIV Infection".
741:, and then the removal of fluid and pus build up. Tuberculosis and lung cancer can coexist in patients as a possible complication, however the surgical therapies are similar as lung cancer surgery has its roots in aforementioned tuberculosis treatments.
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times more prevalent in Russian prison populations than in the civilian population. Therefore, prison inmates are both more likely to become infected with MDR-TB initially and to experience severe symptoms because of previous exposure to HIV.
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posits that the outcome of leaving infected prisoners untreated could cause a massive outbreak of MDR-TB in civilian populations, thereby inflicting a heavy toll on society. Additionally, as MDR-TB spreads, the threat of the emergence of
3850:
Edlin, Brian R.; Tokars, Jerome I.; Grieco, Michael H.; Crawford, Jack T.; Williams, Julie; Sordillo, Emelia M.; Ong, Kenneth R.; Kilburn, James O.; Dooley, Samuel W.; Castro, Kenneth G.; Jarvis, William R.; Holmberg, Scott D. (1992).
2105:
E; Volchenkov, Grigory V; Yagui, Martin A; Kang, Hyungseok; Global Petts, Investigators; Akksilp, R; Sitti, W; Wattanaamornkiet, W; Andreevskaya, SN; Chernousova, LN; Demikhova, OV; Larionova, EE; Smirnova, TG; Vasilieva, IA (2012).
706:
The resurgence of tuberculosis in the United States, the advent of HIV-related tuberculosis, and the development of strains of TB resistant to the first-line therapies developed in recent decades serve to reinforce the thesis that
392:
Rapid diagnosis & treatment of TB: One of the greatest risk factors for drug-resistant TB is problems in treatment and diagnosis, especially in developing countries. If TB is identified and treated soon, drug resistance can be
493:
sensitivity testing: it is impossible to treat such patients without this information. When treating a patient with suspected MDR-TB, pending the result of laboratory sensitivity testing, the patient could be started on SHREZ (
373:
threaten to complicate the current global public health approaches to TB control. New drugs are being developed to treat extensively resistant forms but major improvements in detection, diagnosis, and treatment will be needed.
3114:
Jagannath, C; Reddy, M V; Kailasam, S; O'Sullivan, J F; Gangadharam, P R (1995). "Chemotherapeutic activity of clofazimine and its analogues against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In vitro, intracellular, and in vivo studies".
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is available in some countries. This serves as a useful marker for MDR-TB, because isolated RMP resistance is rare (except when patients have a history of being treated with rifampicin alone). If the results of a gene probe
276:
and others. Amino acid replacements in the NADH binding site of InhA apparently result in INH resistance by preventing the inhibition of mycolic acid biosynthesis, which the bacterium uses in its cell wall. Mutations in the
6119:
806:
is expanded throughout Russian prisons, researchers such as Shin et al. have noted that wide-scale interventions have not had their desired effect, especially with regard to the spread of drug-resistant strains of TB.
695:) to treat multidrug-resistant tuberculosis, the first new treatment in 40 years. Sirturo is to be used in a combination therapy for patients who have failed standard treatment and have no other options. Sirturo is an
368:
In a study of MDR-TB patients from 2005 to 2008 in various countries, 43.7% had resistance to at least one second-line drug. About 9% of MDR-TB cases are resistant to a drug from both classes and classified as XDR-TB.
422:(DOTS) initiative, have shown considerable success in the world. In these locales, these programs have proven to be a good option for proper treatment of MDR-TB in poor, rural areas. A successful example has been in
199:
The TB bacterium has natural defenses against some drugs, and can acquire drug resistance through genetic mutations. The bacterium does not have the ability to transfer genes for resistance between organisms through
116:. Almost one in four people in the world are infected with TB bacteria. Only when the bacteria become active do people become ill with TB. Bacteria become active as a result of anything that can reduce the person's
364:
The Group A drugs are currently levofloxacin or moxifloxacin, bedaquiline and linezolid, therefore XDR-TB is MDR/RR-TB that is resistant to a fluoroquinolone and at least one of bedaquiline or linezolid (or both).
4407:
Ruddy M.; Balabanova Y.; Graham C.; Fedorin I.; Malomanova N.; Elisarova E.; Kuznetznov S.; Gusarova G.; Zakharova S.; Melentyev A.; Krukova E.; Golishevskaya V.; Erokhin V.; Dorozhkova I.; Drobniewski F. (2005).
1837:
769:
A study in Los Angeles, California, found that only 6% of cases of MDR-TB were clustered. Likewise, the appearance of high rates of MDR-TB in New York City in the early 1990s was associated with the explosion of
260:
gene changes the sequence of amino acids and eventual conformation, or arrangement, of the beta subunit. In this case, rifampin can no longer bind or prevent transcription, and the bacterium is resistant.
255:
gene, which encodes the beta subunit of the bacterium's RNA polymerase enzyme. In non-resistant TB, rifampin binds the beta subunit of RNA polymerase and disrupts transcription elongation. Mutation in the
2284:
Parida, S. K.; Axelsson-Robertson, R.; Rao, M. V.; Singh, N.; Master, I.; Lutckii, A.; Keshavjee, S.; Andersson, J.; Zumla, A. (1 April 2015). "Totally drug-resistant tuberculosis and adjunct therapies".
4872:
488:
In general, treatment courses are measured in months to years; MDR-TB may require surgery, and death rates remain high despite optimal treatment. However, good outcomes for patients are still possible.
360:
TB caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) strains that fulfill the definition of MDR/RR-TB and which are also resistant to any fluoroquinolone and at least one additional Group A drug.
6064:
1161:
Parwati, Ida; Crevel, Reinout van; Soolingen, Dick van (February 2010). "Possible underlying mechanisms for successful emergence of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Beijing genotype strains".
711:, the causative organism, makes its own preferential option for the poor. The simple truth is that almost all tuberculosis deaths result from a lack of access to existing effective therapy.
477:
The majority of patients with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis do not receive treatment, as they are found in underdeveloped countries or in poverty. Denial of treatment remains a difficult
3941:
Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (March 1991). "Transmission of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis from an HIV-positive client in a residential substance-abuse treatment facility—Michigan".
6109:
6099:
3539:
Butov, Dmitry A; Pashkov, Yuri N; Stepanenko, Anna L; Choporova, Aleksandra I; Butova, Tanya S; Batdelger, Dendev; Jirathitikal, Vichai; Bourinbaiar, Aldar S; Zaitzeva, Svetlana I (2011).
4826:
660:(in particular, of the aminoglycosides) both to monitor compliance and to avoid toxic effects. Response to treatment must be obtained by repeated sputum cultures (monthly if possible).
6084:
828:
MDR-TB treatment; they also noted that a majority of subjects within their study (many of whom regularly used alcohol) were nevertheless cured by their aggressive treatment regimen.
562:
Group C: Other core second-line agents (ethambutol, delamanid, pyrazinamide, imipenem-cilastatin/meropenem, amikacin/streptomycin, ethionamide/prothionamide, p-aminosalicylic acid)
1421:
783:
MDR-TB is widespread in Somalia, where 8.7% of newly discovered TB cases are resistant to Rifampicin and Isoniazid, in patients which were treated previously the share was 47%.
3762:
Subotic, Dragan; Yablonskiy, Piotr; Sulis, Giorgia; Cordos, Ioan; Petrov, Danail; Centis, Rosella; D'Ambrosio, Lia; Sotgiu, Giovanni; Migliori, Giovanni Battista (July 2016).
4865:
786:
Refugees from Somalia brought an until then unknown variant of MDR tuberculosis with them to Europe. A few number of cases in four different countries were considered by the
1923:
Ford, Christopher B.; Shah, Rupal R.; Maeda, Midori Kato; Gagneux, Sebastien; Murray, Megan B.; Cohen, Ted; Johnston, James C.; Gardy, Jennifer; Lipsitch, Marc (July 2013).
1888:
Hanekom, M.; Pittius, N.C. Gey van; McEvoy, C.; Victor, T.C.; Helden, P.D. Van; Warren, R.M. (2011). "Mycobacterium tuberculosis Beijing genotype: A template for success".
400:
Identifying and diagnosing patients with HIV/AIDS as soon as possible. They lack the immunity to fight the TB infection and are at great risk of developing drug resistance.
3821:
Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (August 1991). "Nosocomial transmission of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis among HIV-infected persons—Florida and New York, 1988–1991".
787:
2235:
Zumla, Alimuddin; Abubakar, Ibrahim; Raviglione, Mario; Hoelscher, Michael; Ditiu, Lucica; Mchugh, Timothy D.; Squire, S. Bertel; Cox, Helen; Ford, Nathan (15 May 2012).
5765:
4198:
2336:
264:
Other mutations make the bacterium resistant to other drugs. For example, there are many mutations that confer resistance to isoniazid (INH), including in the genes
2107:"Prevalence of and risk factors for resistance to second-line drugs in people with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in eight countries: A prospective cohort study"
1693:
Mousavi-Sagharchi, Seyyed Mohammad Amin; Afrazeh, Elina; Seyyedian-Nikjeh, Seyyedeh Fatemeh; Meskini, Maryam; Doroud, Delaram; Siadat, Seyed Davar (21 June 2024).
1094:
Stoffels, Karolien; Allix-BĂ©guec, Caroline; Groenen, Guido; Wanlin, Maryse; Berkvens, Dirk; Mathys, Vanessa; Supply, Philip; Fauville-Dufaux, Maryse (9 May 2013).
4858:
3035:
Chambers, Henry F.; Kocagöz, Tanil; Sipit, Tugrul; Turner, Joan; Hopewell, Philip C. (1998). "Activity of Amoxicillin/Clavulanate in Patients with Tuberculosis".
723:
apparatus was made by the Genito-Urinary Manufacturing Co Ltd and would have been used in hospitals, especially those dedicated to treating tuberculosis patients.
6054:
4048:
419:
350:
TB caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) strains that fulfill the definition of MDR/RR-TB and which are also resistant to any fluoroquinolone.
5323:
1980:
Mestre, Olga; Luo, Tao; Vultos, Tiago Dos; Kremer, Kristin; Murray, Alan; Namouchi, Amine; Jackson, CĂ©line; Rauzier, Jean; Bifani, Pablo (20 January 2011).
1925:"Mycobacterium tuberculosis mutation rate estimates from different lineages predict substantial differences in the emergence of drug resistant tuberculosis"
5318:
873:
6049:
3248:
Shubin, H; Sherson, J; Pennes, E; Glaskin, A; Sokmensuer, A (1958). "Prochlorperazine (compazine) as an aid in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis".
281:
gene make the enzyme catalase peroxidase unable to convert INH to its biologically active form. Hence, INH is ineffective and the bacterium is resistant.
3328:; Wells, Charles D (2005). "Clinical outcome of individualised treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Latvia: A retrospective cohort study".
1982:"Phylogeny of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Beijing Strains Constructed from Polymorphisms in Genes Involved in DNA Replication, Recombination and Repair"
1346:
Nathanson, Eva; Nunn, Paul; Uplekar, Mukund; Floyd, Katherine; Jaramillo, Ernesto; Lönnroth, Knut; Weil, Diana; Raviglione, Mario (9 September 2010).
466:
How co-operative the patient is with treatment (treatment is arduous and long, and requires persistence and determination on the part of the patient)
718:
167:
resulting in the development of antibiotic resistance in the TB bacteria infecting them. These people can in turn infect other people with MDR-TB.
5920:
5166:
1544:
Sandhu, P; Akhter, Y (26 September 2017). "Evolution of structural fitness and multifunctional aspects of mycobacterial RND family transporters".
335:
297:
104:
64:
2865:"Powerful Bactericidal and Sterilizing Activity of a Regimen Containing PA-824, Moxifloxacin, and Pyrazinamide in a Murine Model of Tuberculosis"
4508:"Barriers to successful tuberculosis treatment in Tomsk, Russian Federation: non-adherence, default and the acquisition of multidrug resistance"
6251:
6094:
5547:
4952:
3541:"Phase IIb randomized trial of adjunct immunotherapy in patients with first-diagnosed tuberculosis, relapsed and multi-drug-resistant (MDR) TB"
521:. There is evidence that previous therapy with a drug for more than a month is associated with diminished efficacy of that drug regardless of
4729:
4704:
4679:
4656:
4020:
3943:
3892:
Pitchenik, Arthure; Burr, Janice; Laufer, Marla; Miller, Gary; Cacciatore, Robert; Bigler, Williamj.; Witte, Johnj.; Cleary, Timothy (1990).
3823:
3677:
1638:"Mutations inside rifampicin-resistance determining region of rpoB gene associated with rifampicin-resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis"
4839:
3498:
Zaitzeva, S. I.; Matveeva, S. L.; Gerasimova, T. G.; Pashkov, Y. N.; Butov, D. A.; Pylypchuk, V. S.; Frolov, V. M.; Kutsyna, G. A. (2009).
2863:
Nuermberger, Eric; Tyagi, Sandeep; Tasneen, Rokeya; Williams, Kathy N.; Almeida, Deepak; Rosenthal, Ian; Grosset, Jacques H. (April 2008).
120:, such as HIV, advancing age, diabetes or other immunocompromising illnesses. TB can usually be treated with a course of four standard, or
4750:
2047:
Viney, Kerri; Linh, Nguyen Nhat; Gegia, Medea; Zignol, Matteo; Glaziou, Philippe; Ismail, Nazir; Kasaeva, Tereza; Mirzayev, Fuad (2021).
1801:
Ramaswamy, S; Musser, JM (1998). "Molecular genetic basis of antimicrobial agent resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis: 1998 update".
5925:
1429:
884:
851:
377:
915:
5733:
5068:
3379:
728:
Federation and Ukraine. Shorter treatment regimes for MDR-TB have been found to be beneficial having higher treatment success rates.
5861:
5161:
4881:
4844:
2800:
2766:
878:
448:
Usually, multidrug-resistant tuberculosis can be cured with long treatments of second-line drugs, but these are more expensive than
589:
of parts of this article (those related to Pretomanid, delamanid, bedaquiline approval & current clinical experience (if any))
3609:
6089:
5136:
5729:
763:
6256:
5660:
5488:
4091:
Frieden, Thomas R.; Sterling, Timothy; Pablos-Mendez, Ariel; Kilburn, James O.; Cauthen, George M.; Dooley, Samuel W. (1993).
247:: Spontaneous mutations in the TB genome can alter proteins which are the target of drugs, making the bacteria drug-resistant.
5748:
5650:
5205:
5195:
5102:
4671:
4648:
4410:"Rates of drug resistance and risk factor analysis in civilian and prison patients with tuberculosis in Samar Region, Russia"
3201:"Lack of Activity of Orally Administered Clofazimine against Intracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Whole-Blood Culture"
2824:
Ziganshina, L. E.; Squire, S. B. (23 January 2008). Ziganshina, Lilia E (ed.). "Fluoroquinolones for treating tuberculosis".
4172:
2049:"New definitions of pre-extensively and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis: update from the World Health Organization"
41:
6215:
6059:
6044:
2340:
3853:"An Outbreak of Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis among Hospitalized Patients with the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome"
6069:
5468:
5313:
4946:
3594:
2458:
684:
147:
for TB in 1943, some strains of the TB bacteria developed resistance to the standard drugs through genetic changes (see
1838:"Target discovery focused approaches to overcome bottlenecks in the exploitation of antimycobacterial natural products"
6205:
5588:
5454:
5360:
5299:
5225:
657:
3664:
1264:
1030:
955:
4052:
2715:
Goble, Marian; Iseman, Michael D.; Madsen, Lorie A.; Waite, Dennis; Ackerson, Lynn; Horsburgh Jr, C. Robert (1993).
6180:
6003:
5699:
5540:
5014:
3445:
Rockett, Kirk A.; Brookes, Roger; Udalova, Irina; Vidal, Vincent; Hill, Adrian V. S.; Kwiatkowski, Dominic (1998).
1845:
1096:"From Multidrug- to Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis: Upward Trends as Seen from a 15-Year Nationwide Study"
585:
112:
50:
3150:
Adams, Linda B.; Sinha, Indu; Franzblau, Scott G.; Krahenbuhl, James L. Krahenbuhl; Mehta, Reeta T. Mehta (1999).
235:) that inactivate drug molecules. These enzymes are usually phosphorylate, acetylate, or adenylate drug compounds.
6028:
5968:
5645:
5618:
5345:
5129:
5063:
4746:
4696:
3660:
1425:
922:
6150:
5482:
5146:
4960:
4807:
4557:"Inadequacy of the current WHO re-treatment regimen in a central Siberian prison: treatment failure and MDR-TB"
1587:
Louw, G. E.; Warren, R. M.; Gey Van Pittius, N. C.; McEvoy, C. R. E.; Van Helden, P. D.; Victor, T. C. (2009).
205:
84:
5718:
4506:
Gelmanova I.; Keshavjee S.; Golubchikova V.; Berezina V.; Strelis A.; Yanova G.; Atwood S.; Murray M. (2007).
2456:(2004). "Community-based treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Lima, Peru: 7 years of experience".
3500:"Treatment of cavitary and infiltrating pulmonary tuberculosis with and without the immunomodulator Dzherelo"
6155:
5935:
5797:
5738:
5678:
5603:
5384:
5370:
5151:
4980:
4922:
4076:
981:"The Impact of First-Line Anti-Tubercular Drugs' Pharmacokinetics on Treatment Outcome: A Systematic Review"
863:
303:
175:
144:
100:
88:
3590:
3404:
Schon, T.; Elias, D.; Moges, F.; Melese, E.; Tessema, T.; Stendahl, O.; Britton, S.; Sundqvist, T. (2003).
6230:
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6114:
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5572:
5377:
5331:
5279:
5244:
5156:
5107:
5076:
5051:
696:
443:
406:
Research: Much research and funding is needed in the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of TB and MDR TB.
434:
protocol be constantly reformed in the context of local practices, forms of knowledge and everyday life.
6261:
6210:
6104:
5871:
5816:
5723:
5533:
5513:
5416:
5356:
5290:
5269:
5251:
5234:
4830:
4271:
Bobrik A.; Danishevski K.; Eroshina K.; McKee M. (2005). "Prison Health in Russia: The Larger Picture".
3324:
Leimane, Vaira; Riekstina, Vija; Holtz, Timothy H; Zarovska, Evija; Skripconoka, Vija; Thorpe, Lorna E;
890:
238:
5978:
2795:. WHO Guidelines Approved by the Guidelines Review Committee. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2016.
2761:. WHO Guidelines Approved by the Guidelines Review Committee. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2016.
1452:
418:
Community-based treatment programs such as DOTS-Plus, a MDR-TB-specialized treatment using the popular
4555:
Kimerling M.E.; Kluge H.; Vezhnina N.; Iacovazzi T.; Demeulenaere T.; Portaels F.; Matthys F. (1999).
1506:
766:
was noted to be "a very hot region for drug resistant TB", though the number of cases remained small.
6160:
6074:
5692:
5628:
5177:
5141:
5119:
4971:
4938:
4911:
3152:"Effective Treatment of Acute and Chronic Murine Tuberculosis with Liposome-Encapsulated Clofazimine"
2934:
1993:
1107:
692:
449:
388:
There are several ways that drug resistance to TB, and drug resistance in general, can be prevented:
307:
4850:
2237:"Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis—Current Dilemmas, Unanswered Questions, Challenges, and Priority Needs"
481:
issue, as the high cost of second-line medications often precludes those who cannot afford therapy.
6124:
6079:
5685:
5635:
5608:
5412:
5307:
5210:
5190:
5097:
5019:
4931:
1347:
2493:
Koch, Erin (2011). "Local Microbiologies of Tuberculosis: Insights from the Republic of Georgia".
677:
241:
systems: The TB cell contains molecular systems that actively pump drug molecules out of the cell.
5504:
5420:
5257:
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4296:
3996:
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2418:
2318:
2144:
2086:
1870:
1675:
1569:
1240:
1059:
Wood, Alastair J.J.; Iseman, Michael D. (1993). "Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis".
117:
1836:
Baptista, Rafael; Bhowmick, Sumana; Nash, Robert J; Baillie, Les; Mur, Luis AJ (23 March 2018).
1754:"Evolution of Drug Resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Clinical and Molecular Perspective"
403:
Identifying contacts who could have contracted TB: family members, people in close contact, etc.
2588:
Farmer, Paul (2001). "The Major Infectious Diseases in the World — to Treat or Not to Treat?".
5743:
5581:
5112:
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2510:
2475:
2410:
2310:
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2258:
2214:
2136:
2078:
2070:
2029:
2011:
1962:
1944:
1905:
1862:
1818:
1783:
1734:
1716:
1667:
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1618:
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1526:
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1178:
1143:
1125:
1076:
1012:
673:
430:
59:
4074:
McKay, Betsy (9–10 March 2013). "Risk of Deadly TB Exposure Grows Along U.S.—Mexico Border".
2674:
2166:
1396:
926:
6008:
5593:
5434:
4902:
4607:
4599:
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3511:
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3007:
2999:
2942:
2892:
2876:
2829:
2728:
2689:
2644:
2636:
2625:"Cost effectiveness analysis of strategies for tuberculosis control in developing countries"
2597:
2502:
2467:
2402:
2371:
2294:
2248:
2204:
2126:
2118:
2060:
2019:
2001:
1952:
1936:
1897:
1854:
1810:
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1765:
1724:
1706:
1649:
1608:
1600:
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1518:
1464:
1362:
1301:
1216:
1170:
1133:
1115:
1068:
1002:
992:
641:
152:
3372:
2717:"Treatment of 171 Patients with Pulmonary Tuberculosis Resistant to Isoniazid and Rifampin"
648:
have been used in desperation, though it is not certain whether they are effective at all.
6225:
5998:
5988:
5958:
5953:
5948:
5943:
5445:
5215:
4995:
4834:
3406:"Arginine as an adjuvant to chemotherapy improves clinical outcome in active tuberculosis"
868:
799:
284:
The discovery of new molecular targets is essential to overcome drug-resistance problems.
6018:
4015:
1031:"Chapter 168. Antimycobacterial Agents | Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 18e"
162:
Resistant strains of TB are already present in the population, so MDR-TB can be directly
3700:"Tuberculosis: mother of thoracic surgery then and now, past and prospectives: a review"
2938:
2131:
2106:
1997:
1729:
1694:
1111:
595:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
460:
How many drugs the patient is given (patients treated with five or more drugs do better)
5963:
5613:
5092:
4893:
4885:
4721:
4715:
4641:
4612:
4587:
4532:
4507:
4434:
4409:
4342:
4315:
3798:
3763:
3734:
3699:
3567:
3540:
3325:
3012:
2987:
2897:
2864:
2649:
2624:
2209:
2192:
2024:
1981:
1957:
1924:
1613:
1588:
1138:
1095:
1007:
980:
754:). Outbreaks among non-immunocompromised healthy people do occur, but are less common.
319:
156:
3475:
3446:
3341:
3301:
3276:
3225:
3200:
2122:
1778:
1753:
1174:
334:). When MDR-TB is resistant to at least one drug from each group, it is classified as
17:
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6013:
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5004:
4917:
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2090:
645:
4459:
Stern, V. (2001). Problems in Prisons Worldwide, with a Particular Focus on Russia.
4000:
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3357:
3216:
3003:
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Chambers, H. F.; Turner, J.; Schecter, G. F.; Kawamura, M.; Hopewell, P. C. (2005).
2972:
2522:
2471:
2422:
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2148:
1679:
1573:
1507:"Recent advances in the diagnosis and treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis"
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5856:
5846:
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5780:
5598:
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5403:
5337:
5041:
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1874:
700:
633:
541:
514:
510:
494:
478:
470:
311:
163:
133:
80:
4284:
4016:"Outbreak of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis—Texas, California, and Pennsylvania"
1769:
4812:
4332:
3447:"1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Induces Nitric Oxide Synthase and Suppresses Growth of
3422:
3405:
3128:
2923:"A Diarylquinoline Drug Active on the ATP Synthase of Mycobacterium tuberculosis"
2506:
2406:
2006:
1120:
6129:
5993:
5879:
5851:
5831:
5826:
5753:
5426:
4171:Ă„rzteblatt, Deutscher Ă„rzteverlag GmbH, Redaktion Deutsches (27 December 2016).
4109:
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2790:
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2733:
2716:
2640:
2601:
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2375:
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2048:
1522:
1072:
846:
738:
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652:
in MDR-TB and should be considered an integral part of the treatment of MDR-TB.
637:
622:
545:
518:
331:
327:
4801:
1901:
1711:
1654:
1637:
1469:
526:
respond to standard TB treatment, and relapse following standard TB treatment.
341:
WHO has revised the definitions of pre-XDR-TB and XDR-TB in 2021 as following:
6195:
5973:
5836:
5821:
5770:
5640:
5577:
5474:
5460:
5124:
5056:
5032:
3277:"Metronidazole is bactericidal to dormant cells of Mycobacterium tuberculosis"
3084:
1557:
798:
One of the so-called "hot-spots" of drug-resistant tuberculosis is within the
614:
556:
Group A: Fluoroquinolones (levofloxacin, moxifloxicin), linezolid, bedaquiline
540:) are known to be positive, then it is reasonable to omit RMP and to use SHEZ+
506:
502:
137:
129:
96:
3789:
3725:
3716:
2956:
2888:
2841:
2306:
2262:
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2015:
1948:
1720:
1663:
1530:
1478:
1374:
1315:
1228:
1129:
5887:
5811:
5785:
5775:
5758:
4603:
4425:
3780:
2947:
2922:
2675:"Community-Based Therapy for Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Lima, Peru"
2253:
2236:
669:
618:
498:
315:
212:
125:
92:
4621:
4572:
4541:
4492:
4443:
4384:
4351:
4292:
4248:
3807:
3764:"Surgery and pleuro-pulmonary tuberculosis: a scientific literature review"
3743:
3576:
3525:
3431:
3349:
3261:
3234:
3185:
3092:
3021:
2964:
2906:
2849:
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2776:
2701:
2658:
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2514:
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2414:
2314:
2270:
2218:
2140:
2082:
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1966:
1909:
1866:
1822:
1814:
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1738:
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1622:
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1147:
1016:
979:
Sileshi, Tesemma; Tadesse, Esayas; Makonnen, Eyasu; Aklillu, Eleni (2021).
628:
When it is not possible to find five drugs from the lists above; the drugs
4845:"The Strange, Isolated Life of a Tuberculosis Patient in the 21st Century"
4692:
The coming plague : newly emerging diseases in a world out of balance
4523:
4118:
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3992:
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3919:
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3557:
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1858:
1366:
1306:
1289:
1204:
1203:
Millard, James; Ugarte-Gil, Cesar; Moore, David A. J. (26 February 2015).
1080:
960:(18th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. pp. Chapter 165: Tuberculosis
762:, the crumbling health system has led to the rise of MDR-TB. In 2013, the
6185:
2880:
2693:
1604:
997:
665:
629:
323:
244:
6120:
Phipps Institute for the Study, Treatment and Prevention of Tuberculosis
6134:
5186:
4668:
Pathologies of Power: health, human rights, and the new war on the poor
2298:
759:
232:
201:
121:
4784:
6170:
6165:
5897:
5892:
4796:
2792:
WHO Treatment Guidelines for Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis, 2016 Update
2758:
WHO Treatment Guidelines for Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis, 2016 Update
1220:
228:
2390:
1940:
4239:
4222:
3048:
1336:
Kaplan, Jeffrey. 2017. "Tuberculosis" American University. Lecture.
1290:"Tuberculosis, Drug Resistance, and the History of Modern Medicine"
4314:
Baussano I.; Williams B.; Nunn P.; Beggiato M.; Fedeli U. (2010).
1695:"New insight in molecular detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis"
717:
457:
How many drugs the organism is resistant to (the fewer the better)
220:
1589:"A Balancing Act: Efflux/Influx in Mycobacterial Drug Resistance"
473:
or not (HIV co-infection is associated with increased mortality).
148:
803:
771:
531:
423:
5529:
5525:
4854:
4840:
MDR-TB (DOTS Plus) protocol followed under RNTCP in India (PDF)
4093:"The Emergence of Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis in New York City"
3610:"J&J wins accelerated OK for first new TB drug in 40 years"
2362:
Gao, Qian; Li, Xia (2010). "Transmission of MDR tuberculosis".
87:
to treatment with at least two of the most powerful first-line
4556:
3199:
Janulionis, E.; Sofer, C.; Song, H.-Y.; Wallis, R. S. (2004).
1348:"MDR Tuberculosis — Critical Steps for Prevention and Control"
1258:
1256:
1254:
820:
751:
569:
6065:
European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership
3373:"TB Fact Sheet Series: Sputum Collection During TB Treatment"
2988:"Imipenem for Treatment of Tuberculosis in Mice and Humans"
2197:
International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Medicine
426:, Peru, where the program has seen cure rates of over 80%.
103:
medications, and are called extensively drug-resistant TB (
4588:"Pathologies of power: rethinking health and human rights"
4561:
The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease
4481:
The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease
4373:
The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease
3117:
American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine
2448:
Shin, Sonya; Furin, Jennifer; Bayona, Jaime; Mate, Kedar;
1422:"Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) – 2015 Update"
6110:
Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Structural Genomics Consortium
6100:
International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease
3894:"Outbreaks of drug-resistant tuberculosis at AIDS centre"
1636:
Zaw, Myo T.; Emran, Nor A.; Lin, Zaw (1 September 2018).
463:
The expertise and experience of the physician responsible
4316:"Tuberculosis Incidence in Prisons: A Systematic Review"
2337:"WHO | Drug-resistant TB: Totally drug-resistant TB FAQ"
1288:
Keshavjee, Salmaan; Farmer, Paul E. (6 September 2012).
1266:
Understanding Global Health. Chapter 10: TB and HIV/AIDS
380:, but such strains of TB are not recognized by the WHO.
6085:
The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria
4717:
Betrayal of trust: the collapse of global public health
2167:"Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) 2013 Update"
110:
Tuberculosis is caused by infection with the bacterium
916:"Diagnosis and notification of multidrug-resistant TB"
567:
recommendation, very low certainty in the evidence)."
4643:
Infections and inequalities : the modern plagues
4051:. Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting. Archived from
4774:
2583:
2581:
2579:
6143:
6037:
5934:
5908:
5870:
5796:
5709:
5668:
5563:
5503:
5444:
5402:
5355:
5289:
5268:
5233:
5224:
5175:
5012:
5003:
4994:
4970:
4901:
4892:
4778:
58:
34:
4640:
2193:"The totally drug resistant tuberculosis (TDR-TB)"
788:European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
5766:Microscopic Observation Drug Susceptibility assay
2537:"Scientific Facts on Drug-resistant Tuberculosis"
1505:Ahmad, Suhail; Mokaddas, Eiman (1 January 2010).
591:may be compromised due to out-of-date information
985:Clinical Pharmacology: Advances and Applications
4223:"Tuberculosis Drug Resistance: A Global Threat"
3655:
3653:
3651:
1198:
1196:
1194:
1192:
208:). Some mechanisms of drug resistance include:
3545:Journal of Immune Based Therapies and Vaccines
2230:
2228:
429:However, the DOTS program administered in the
397:in developing countries, contribute to MDR TB.
6055:Center for Global Infectious Disease Research
5541:
4866:
4751:"Multidrug Resistant Tuberculosis Fact Sheet"
4173:"MDR-Tuberkulose unter Migranten aus Somalia"
4166:
4164:
949:
947:
143:However, beginning with the first antibiotic
8:
4197:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1054:
1052:
1050:
1048:
559:Group B: Clofazimine, cycloserine/terizidone
186:Researchers hypothesize that an ancestor of
174:Treatment of MDR-TB requires treatment with
3073:Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases
2826:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
83:(TB) infection caused by bacteria that are
6050:Campaign for Access to Essential Medicines
5548:
5534:
5526:
5230:
5009:
5000:
4898:
4873:
4859:
4851:
4775:
4461:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
4216:
4214:
4212:
4210:
4208:
957:Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine
790:to pose no risk to the native population.
40:
31:
4611:
4531:
4512:Bulletin of the World Health Organization
4433:
4341:
4331:
4266:
4264:
4262:
4260:
4258:
4238:
4108:
3909:
3868:
3797:
3779:
3733:
3715:
3566:
3556:
3515:
3474:
3421:
3300:
3224:
3175:
3011:
2946:
2896:
2732:
2648:
2391:"Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis"
2252:
2208:
2191:Velayati, A; Farnia P; Masjedi M (2013).
2130:
2064:
2023:
2005:
1956:
1777:
1728:
1710:
1653:
1612:
1468:
1305:
1137:
1119:
1006:
996:
910:
908:
906:
302:MDR-TB can become resistant to the major
99:. Some forms of TB are also resistant to
4455:
4453:
4402:
4400:
4398:
4396:
4394:
3250:Antibiotic Medicine and Clinical Therapy
2623:Baltussen, R.; Floyd, K; Dye, C (2005).
2364:Drug Discovery Today: Disease Mechanisms
420:Directly Observed Therapy – Short Course
5921:Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis
5167:Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis
4670:. Berkeley, California, United States:
4647:. Berkeley, California, United States:
4365:
4363:
4361:
4143:
4131:
902:
336:extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis
298:Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis
6095:International Congress on Tuberculosis
4953:Arcanobacterium haemolyticum infection
4833:event featuring Salmaan Keshavjee and
4473:
4471:
4469:
4190:
4155:
3642:
3630:
2435:
2395:Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases
2160:
2158:
1642:Journal of Infection and Public Health
1500:
1498:
1496:
1033:. AccessMedicine | McGraw-Hill Medical
758:Federation and South Africa alone. In
4720:. New York, New York, United States:
4695:. New York, New York, United States:
4021:Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
3944:Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
3824:Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
3757:
3755:
3753:
3693:
3691:
3689:
3451:in a Human Macrophage-Like Cell Line"
3281:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
3205:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
3156:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
2992:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
2869:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
1758:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
1593:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
1451:Daniel, Thomas M. (1 November 2006).
7:
4049:"Moldova: Fighting a Deadly Disease"
4014:Centers for Disease Control (1990).
5926:Totally drug-resistant tuberculosis
3504:Clinical Microbiology and Infection
3385:from the original on 12 August 2022
954:Longo, Fausci; et al. (2012).
885:Totally drug-resistant tuberculosis
378:totally drug-resistant tuberculosis
231:: The TB genome codes for enzymes (
5069:Tuberculous cervical lymphadenitis
4827:Video: Drug-Resistant TB in Russia
3608:Carroll, John (31 December 2012).
2339:. 11 December 2015. Archived from
1205:"Multidrug resistant tuberculosis"
227:Drug modifying & inactivating
25:
5162:Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis
4882:Gram-positive bacterial infection
4592:American Journal of Public Health
4047:Rochkind, David (9 August 2010).
2559:"Global tuberculosis report 2019"
879:Vancomycin-resistant enterococcus
251:One example is a mutation in the
35:Multidrug-resistance tuberculosis
6090:Global Plan to Stop Tuberculosis
5916:Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis
5659:
5137:Primary inoculation tuberculosis
4221:Nachega J., Chaisson R. (2003).
3698:Molnar, Tamas F. (August 2018).
3517:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02760.x
3467:10.1128/iai.66.11.5314-5321.1998
3371:Wisconsin DHS (12 August 2022).
3275:Wayne, L G; Sramek, H A (1994).
2053:The European Respiratory Journal
574:
73:Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis
5489:Group JK corynebacterium sepsis
4273:Journal of Public Health Policy
4097:New England Journal of Medicine
3857:New England Journal of Medicine
3666:Global Tuberculosis Report 2019
3217:10.1128/AAC.48.8.3133-3135.2004
3004:10.1128/AAC.49.7.2816-2821.2005
2721:New England Journal of Medicine
2682:New England Journal of Medicine
2590:New England Journal of Medicine
2472:10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.01.027
1355:New England Journal of Medicine
1294:New England Journal of Medicine
1061:New England Journal of Medicine
854:becomes increasingly apparent.
5749:Interferon gamma release assay
5651:Post-tuberculosis lung disease
5206:Borderline lepromatous leprosy
5196:Borderline tuberculoid leprosy
5103:Tuberculosis cutis orificialis
4672:University of California Press
4649:University of California Press
2834:10.1002/14651858.CD004795.pub3
2539:. GreenFacts. 18 December 2008
2241:Journal of Infectious Diseases
1163:The Lancet Infectious Diseases
683:On 28 December 2012, the U.S.
1:
6252:Antibiotic-resistant bacteria
6216:Tuberculosis in human culture
6060:Cure Cottages of Saranac Lake
6045:Adirondack Cottage Sanitarium
4285:10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200002
3672:. World Health Organization.
3342:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)17786-1
2459:Social Science & Medicine
2123:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60734-X
1770:10.1128/AAC.46.2.267-274.2002
1453:"The history of tuberculosis"
1397:"Drug-resistant tuberculosis"
1175:10.1016/s1473-3099(09)70330-5
668:(peanuts are a good source),
292:Extensively drug-resistant TB
5469:Corynebacterium minutissimum
5314:Mycobacterium intracellulare
4947:Arcanobacterium haemolyticum
4333:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000381
4227:Clinical Infectious Diseases
3911:10.1016/0140-6736(90)91987-L
3595:Food and Drug Administration
3423:10.1183/09031936.03.00090702
3410:European Respiratory Journal
3129:10.1164/ajrccm.151.4.7697235
3037:Clinical Infectious Diseases
2507:10.1080/01459740.2010.531064
2407:10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283229fab
2287:Journal of Internal Medicine
2007:10.1371/journal.pone.0016020
1269:(12th ed.). McGraw Hill
1121:10.1371/journal.pone.0063128
685:Food and Drug Administration
195:Mechanism of drug resistance
6206:Tuberculosis classification
5589:Extrapulmonary tuberculosis
5455:Corynebacterium diphtheriae
4110:10.1056/NEJM199302253280801
3985:10.7326/0003-4819-117-3-177
3973:Annals of Internal Medicine
3870:10.1056/NEJM199206043262302
3768:Journal of Thoracic Disease
3704:Journal of Thoracic Disease
2734:10.1056/NEJM199302253280802
2641:10.1136/bmj.38645.660093.68
2602:10.1056/NEJM200107193450310
2376:10.1016/j.ddmec.2010.09.006
2172:. World Health Organization
2066:10.1183/13993003.00361-2021
1523:10.1016/j.rmedc.2010.08.001
1073:10.1056/NEJM199309093291108
764:Mexico–United States border
658:therapeutic drug monitoring
376:There have been reports of
54:bacteria seen by microscope
6278:
6181:List of tuberculosis cases
5700:Mycobacterium tuberculosis
3449:Mycobacterium tuberculosis
1902:10.1016/j.tube.2011.07.005
1846:Future Medicinal Chemistry
1712:10.1186/s13568-024-01730-3
1655:10.1016/j.jiph.2018.04.005
1470:10.1016/j.rmed.2006.08.006
709:Mycobacterium tuberculosis
441:
295:
188:Mycobacterium tuberculosis
113:Mycobacterium tuberculosis
51:Mycobacterium tuberculosis
6070:Glen Lake Children's Camp
6029:Edward Livingston Trudeau
5969:Friedrich Franz Friedmann
5657:
5646:Giant multinucleated cell
5619:Tuberculous lymphadenitis
5130:Papulonecrotic tuberculid
5064:Tuberculous lymphadenitis
4747:American Lung Association
4697:Farrar, Straus and Giroux
3661:World Health Organization
3085:10.1080/00365540152029954
1803:Tubercle and Lung Disease
1752:Gillespie, S. H. (2002).
1558:10.1007/s00203-017-1434-6
1426:World Health Organization
1401:World Health Organization
1263:Adams and Woelke (2014).
923:World Health Organization
852:totally-drug-resistant TB
48:
39:
6151:Tuberculosis elimination
5730:Löwenstein–Jensen medium
5483:Corynebacterium jeikeium
5147:Tuberculous pericarditis
4961:Actinomyces gerencseriae
4714:Garrett, Laurie (2000).
4689:Garrett, Laurie (1994).
3717:10.21037/jtd.2018.04.131
1546:Archives of Microbiology
1511:Respiratory Medicine CME
691:(marketed as Sirturo by
6156:2007 tuberculosis scare
5936:History of tuberculosis
5739:Chest photofluorography
5679:Mycobacterium africanum
5152:Urogenital tuberculosis
4981:Propionibacterium acnes
4923:Cutaneous actinomycosis
4604:10.2105/ajph.89.10.1486
4426:10.1136/thx.2004.026922
4077:The Wall Street Journal
3781:10.21037/jtd.2016.05.59
2948:10.1126/science.1106753
864:2007 tuberculosis scare
469:Whether the patient is
206:see horizontal transfer
124:, anti-TB drugs (i.e.,
6257:Pharmaceuticals policy
6231:World Tuberculosis Day
6221:Tuberculosis radiology
6115:National Jewish Health
5711:Tuberculosis diagnosis
5624:Tuberculous meningitis
5573:Pulmonary tuberculosis
5157:Tuberculous dactylitis
5108:Tuberculous cellulitis
3455:Infection and Immunity
2389:Lobue, Philip (2009).
2247:(suppl 2): S228–S240.
1815:10.1054/tuld.1998.0002
724:
697:adenosine triphosphate
499:isonicotinyl Hydrazine
444:Tuberculosis treatment
322:or polypeptide drugs (
219:(TB) contains complex
18:Multidrug-resistant TB
6211:Tuberculosis in China
6105:Millennium Foundation
5817:4-Aminosalicylic acid
5724:Auramine phenol stain
5670:Mycobacterium species
5566:associated conditions
5514:Gardnerella vaginalis
5417:Nocardia brasiliensis
4831:Woodrow Wilson Center
4666:Farmer, Paul (2005).
4639:Farmer, Paul (1999).
4524:10.2471/BLT.06.038331
3558:10.1186/1476-8518-9-3
3293:10.1128/AAC.38.9.2054
3168:10.1128/AAC.43.7.1638
2254:10.1093/infdis/jir858
1859:10.4155/fmc-2017-0273
1428:(WHO). Archived from
1367:10.1056/NEJMra0908076
1307:10.1056/NEJMra1205429
925:(WHO). Archived from
891:Medicines Patent Pool
800:Russian prison system
721:
693:Johnson & Johnson
664:Supplements include:
6161:Baumgarten-Tangl law
6075:Glen Lake Sanatorium
5693:Mycobacterium caprae
5629:Miliary tuberculosis
5604:Canga's bead symptom
5564:Symptoms, signs and
5120:Lichen scrofulosorum
4972:Propionibacteriaceae
4912:Actinomyces israelii
4371:program in Russia".
4177:Deutsches Ă„rzteblatt
4080:(paper). p. A1.
4055:on 11 September 2012
2881:10.1128/AAC.00074-08
2694:10.1056/NEJMoa022928
2495:Medical Anthropology
1605:10.1128/AAC.01577-08
1457:Respiratory Medicine
1432:on 18 September 2013
998:10.2147/CPAA.S289714
811:Contributing factors
621:), and R207910 (now
6125:Stop TB Partnership
6080:Glenn Dale Hospital
5719:Ziehl–Neelsen stain
5686:Mycobacterium bovis
5636:Latent tuberculosis
5413:Nocardia asteroides
5308:Mycobacterium avium
5211:Lepromatous leprosy
5191:Tuberculoid leprosy
4932:Tropheryma whipplei
4757:on 30 November 2006
3612:. fiercebiotech.com
3597:. 31 December 2012.
3591:"FDA Press Release"
2939:2005Sci...307..223A
2343:on 11 December 2015
1998:2011PLoSO...616020M
1112:2013PLoSO...863128S
431:Republic of Georgia
215:: The cell wall of
89:anti-TB medications
5979:Philip D'Arcy Hart
5505:Bifidobacteriaceae
5446:Corynebacteriaceae
5421:Nocardia farcinica
5258:Aquarium granuloma
5201:Borderline leprosy
5088:Erythema induratum
3710:(1): S2628–S2642.
2299:10.1111/joim.12264
932:on 25 October 2013
725:
617:), OPC-67683 (now
65:Infectious disease
6239:
6238:
5744:GeneXpert MTB/RIF
5523:
5522:
5499:
5498:
5398:
5397:
5394:
5393:
5113:Tuberculous gumma
4996:Corynebacterineae
4990:
4989:
4939:Whipple's disease
4822:
4821:
4731:978-0-7868-6522-2
4706:978-0-374-12646-9
4681:978-0-520-93147-3
4658:978-0-520-22913-6
4598:(10): 1486–1496.
4586:Farmer P (1999).
3679:978-92-4-156571-4
3326:Laserson, Kayla F
2933:(5707): 223–227.
2117:(9851): 1406–17.
1463:(11): 1862–1870.
1361:(11): 1050–1058.
610:
609:
529:A gene probe for
318:) and injectable
176:second-line drugs
70:
69:
29:Medical condition
16:(Redirected from
6269:
6009:Mario Raviglione
5663:
5609:Prosector's wart
5594:Caseous necrosis
5550:
5543:
5536:
5527:
5435:Rhodococcus equi
5231:
5098:Prosector's wart
5010:
5005:Mycobacteriaceae
5001:
4903:Actinomycetaceae
4899:
4875:
4868:
4861:
4852:
4776:
4766:
4764:
4762:
4753:. Archived from
4735:
4710:
4685:
4662:
4646:
4626:
4625:
4615:
4583:
4577:
4576:
4552:
4546:
4545:
4535:
4503:
4497:
4496:
4487:(9): 1027–1033.
4475:
4464:
4463:, 953b, 113-119.
4457:
4448:
4447:
4437:
4404:
4389:
4388:
4367:
4356:
4355:
4345:
4335:
4326:(12): e1000381.
4311:
4305:
4304:
4268:
4253:
4252:
4242:
4218:
4203:
4202:
4196:
4188:
4186:
4184:
4168:
4159:
4153:
4147:
4141:
4135:
4134:, p. 266ff.
4129:
4123:
4122:
4112:
4088:
4082:
4081:
4071:
4065:
4064:
4062:
4060:
4044:
4038:
4037:
4011:
4005:
4004:
3967:
3961:
3960:
3938:
3932:
3931:
3913:
3889:
3883:
3882:
3872:
3847:
3841:
3840:
3818:
3812:
3811:
3801:
3783:
3774:(7): E474–E485.
3759:
3748:
3747:
3737:
3719:
3695:
3684:
3683:
3671:
3657:
3646:
3640:
3634:
3628:
3622:
3621:
3619:
3617:
3605:
3599:
3598:
3587:
3581:
3580:
3570:
3560:
3536:
3530:
3529:
3519:
3495:
3489:
3488:
3478:
3442:
3436:
3435:
3425:
3401:
3395:
3394:
3392:
3390:
3384:
3377:
3368:
3362:
3361:
3336:(9456): 318–26.
3321:
3315:
3314:
3304:
3272:
3266:
3265:
3245:
3239:
3238:
3228:
3196:
3190:
3189:
3179:
3147:
3141:
3140:
3111:
3105:
3104:
3067:
3061:
3060:
3032:
3026:
3025:
3015:
2983:
2977:
2976:
2950:
2917:
2911:
2910:
2900:
2875:(4): 1522–1524.
2860:
2854:
2853:
2821:
2815:
2814:
2787:
2781:
2780:
2753:
2747:
2746:
2736:
2712:
2706:
2705:
2679:
2669:
2663:
2662:
2652:
2620:
2614:
2613:
2585:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2544:
2533:
2527:
2526:
2490:
2484:
2483:
2445:
2439:
2433:
2427:
2426:
2386:
2380:
2379:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2333:
2327:
2326:
2281:
2275:
2274:
2256:
2232:
2223:
2222:
2212:
2188:
2182:
2181:
2179:
2177:
2171:
2162:
2153:
2152:
2134:
2101:
2095:
2094:
2068:
2044:
2038:
2037:
2027:
2009:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1960:
1920:
1914:
1913:
1885:
1879:
1878:
1842:
1833:
1827:
1826:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1781:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1732:
1714:
1690:
1684:
1683:
1657:
1633:
1627:
1626:
1616:
1584:
1578:
1577:
1541:
1535:
1534:
1502:
1491:
1490:
1472:
1448:
1442:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1418:
1412:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1393:
1387:
1386:
1352:
1343:
1337:
1334:
1328:
1327:
1309:
1285:
1279:
1278:
1276:
1274:
1260:
1249:
1248:
1221:10.1136/bmj.h882
1200:
1187:
1186:
1158:
1152:
1151:
1141:
1123:
1091:
1085:
1084:
1056:
1043:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1027:
1021:
1020:
1010:
1000:
976:
970:
969:
967:
965:
951:
942:
941:
939:
937:
931:
920:
912:
642:prochlorperazine
605:
602:
596:
586:factual accuracy
578:
577:
570:
308:fluoroquinolones
306:TB drug groups:
153:fluoroquinolones
44:
32:
21:
6277:
6276:
6272:
6271:
6270:
6268:
6267:
6266:
6242:
6241:
6240:
6235:
6226:Tygerberg score
6139:
6033:
5999:Charles Mantoux
5989:George M. Heath
5959:Christopher Dye
5954:Albert Calmette
5949:Hermann Brehmer
5944:Manuel de Abreu
5930:
5904:
5866:
5800:
5792:
5705:
5664:
5655:
5565:
5559:
5554:
5524:
5519:
5495:
5440:
5390:
5351:
5285:
5264:
5220:
5216:Histoid leprosy
5171:
5018:
5015:M. tuberculosis
4986:
4966:
4888:
4879:
4835:Murray Feshbach
4823:
4818:
4817:
4787:
4773:
4760:
4758:
4745:
4742:
4740:Further reading
4732:
4713:
4707:
4688:
4682:
4665:
4659:
4638:
4630:
4629:
4585:
4584:
4580:
4554:
4553:
4549:
4505:
4504:
4500:
4477:
4476:
4467:
4458:
4451:
4406:
4405:
4392:
4369:
4368:
4359:
4313:
4312:
4308:
4270:
4269:
4256:
4220:
4219:
4206:
4189:
4182:
4180:
4170:
4169:
4162:
4154:
4150:
4142:
4138:
4130:
4126:
4090:
4089:
4085:
4073:
4072:
4068:
4058:
4056:
4046:
4045:
4041:
4013:
4012:
4008:
3969:
3968:
3964:
3940:
3939:
3935:
3904:(8712): 440–1.
3891:
3890:
3886:
3863:(23): 1514–21.
3849:
3848:
3844:
3820:
3819:
3815:
3761:
3760:
3751:
3697:
3696:
3687:
3680:
3669:
3659:
3658:
3649:
3641:
3637:
3629:
3625:
3615:
3613:
3607:
3606:
3602:
3589:
3588:
3584:
3538:
3537:
3533:
3510:(12): 1154–62.
3497:
3496:
3492:
3461:(11): 5314–21.
3444:
3443:
3439:
3403:
3402:
3398:
3388:
3386:
3382:
3375:
3370:
3369:
3365:
3323:
3322:
3318:
3274:
3273:
3269:
3247:
3246:
3242:
3198:
3197:
3193:
3149:
3148:
3144:
3113:
3112:
3108:
3069:
3068:
3064:
3034:
3033:
3029:
2985:
2984:
2980:
2919:
2918:
2914:
2862:
2861:
2857:
2828:(1): CD004795.
2823:
2822:
2818:
2803:
2789:
2788:
2784:
2769:
2755:
2754:
2750:
2714:
2713:
2709:
2677:
2671:
2670:
2666:
2622:
2621:
2617:
2587:
2586:
2577:
2567:
2565:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2542:
2540:
2535:
2534:
2530:
2492:
2491:
2487:
2447:
2446:
2442:
2434:
2430:
2388:
2387:
2383:
2361:
2360:
2356:
2346:
2344:
2335:
2334:
2330:
2283:
2282:
2278:
2234:
2233:
2226:
2190:
2189:
2185:
2175:
2173:
2169:
2164:
2163:
2156:
2103:
2102:
2098:
2046:
2045:
2041:
1979:
1978:
1974:
1941:10.1038/ng.2656
1929:Nature Genetics
1922:
1921:
1917:
1887:
1886:
1882:
1840:
1835:
1834:
1830:
1800:
1799:
1795:
1751:
1750:
1746:
1692:
1691:
1687:
1635:
1634:
1630:
1586:
1585:
1581:
1543:
1542:
1538:
1504:
1503:
1494:
1450:
1449:
1445:
1435:
1433:
1420:
1419:
1415:
1405:
1403:
1395:
1394:
1390:
1350:
1345:
1344:
1340:
1335:
1331:
1300:(10): 931–936.
1287:
1286:
1282:
1272:
1270:
1262:
1261:
1252:
1202:
1201:
1190:
1160:
1159:
1155:
1093:
1092:
1088:
1058:
1057:
1046:
1036:
1034:
1029:
1028:
1024:
978:
977:
973:
963:
961:
953:
952:
945:
935:
933:
929:
918:
914:
913:
904:
899:
869:Drug resistance
860:
842:
819:Comorbidity of
813:
796:
794:Russian prisons
781:
747:
734:
687:(FDA) approved
606:
600:
597:
594:
579:
575:
446:
440:
416:
386:
300:
294:
217:M. tuberculosis
197:
184:
157:aminoglycosides
79:) is a form of
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6275:
6273:
6265:
6264:
6259:
6254:
6244:
6243:
6237:
6236:
6234:
6233:
6228:
6223:
6218:
6213:
6208:
6203:
6198:
6193:
6188:
6183:
6178:
6173:
6168:
6163:
6158:
6153:
6147:
6145:
6141:
6140:
6138:
6137:
6132:
6127:
6122:
6117:
6112:
6107:
6102:
6097:
6092:
6087:
6082:
6077:
6072:
6067:
6062:
6057:
6052:
6047:
6041:
6039:
6035:
6034:
6032:
6031:
6026:
6021:
6016:
6011:
6006:
6004:Richard Morton
6001:
5996:
5991:
5986:
5981:
5976:
5971:
5966:
5964:Marcos Espinal
5961:
5956:
5951:
5946:
5940:
5938:
5932:
5931:
5929:
5928:
5923:
5918:
5912:
5910:
5906:
5905:
5903:
5902:
5901:
5900:
5895:
5890:
5882:
5876:
5874:
5868:
5867:
5865:
5864:
5859:
5854:
5849:
5844:
5839:
5834:
5829:
5824:
5819:
5814:
5808:
5806:
5794:
5793:
5791:
5790:
5789:
5788:
5783:
5778:
5768:
5763:
5762:
5761:
5756:
5746:
5741:
5736:
5726:
5721:
5715:
5713:
5707:
5706:
5704:
5703:
5696:
5689:
5682:
5674:
5672:
5666:
5665:
5658:
5656:
5654:
5653:
5648:
5643:
5638:
5633:
5632:
5631:
5626:
5621:
5616:
5614:Lupus vulgaris
5611:
5606:
5601:
5596:
5586:
5585:
5584:
5582:Ghon's complex
5569:
5567:
5561:
5560:
5555:
5553:
5552:
5545:
5538:
5530:
5521:
5520:
5518:
5517:
5509:
5507:
5501:
5500:
5497:
5496:
5494:
5493:
5492:
5491:
5479:
5478:
5477:
5465:
5464:
5463:
5450:
5448:
5442:
5441:
5439:
5438:
5431:
5430:
5429:
5408:
5406:
5400:
5399:
5396:
5395:
5392:
5391:
5389:
5388:
5381:
5374:
5366:
5364:
5353:
5352:
5350:
5349:
5346:M. haemophilum
5342:
5341:
5340:
5328:
5327:
5326:
5296:
5294:
5287:
5286:
5284:
5283:
5275:
5273:
5266:
5265:
5263:
5262:
5261:
5260:
5248:
5240:
5238:
5228:
5226:Nontuberculous
5222:
5221:
5219:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5198:
5193:
5183:
5181:
5173:
5172:
5170:
5169:
5164:
5159:
5154:
5149:
5144:
5139:
5134:
5133:
5132:
5122:
5117:
5116:
5115:
5110:
5105:
5100:
5095:
5093:Lupus vulgaris
5090:
5085:
5073:
5072:
5071:
5061:
5060:
5059:
5054:
5044:
5039:
5037:Ghon's complex
5025:
5023:
5007:
4998:
4992:
4991:
4988:
4987:
4985:
4984:
4976:
4974:
4968:
4967:
4965:
4964:
4957:
4956:
4955:
4943:
4942:
4941:
4927:
4926:
4925:
4920:
4907:
4905:
4896:
4894:Actinomycineae
4890:
4889:
4886:Actinomycetota
4880:
4878:
4877:
4870:
4863:
4855:
4849:
4848:
4842:
4837:
4829:24 July 2007,
4820:
4819:
4816:
4815:
4804:
4788:
4783:
4782:
4780:
4779:Classification
4772:
4771:External links
4769:
4768:
4767:
4749:(April 2007).
4741:
4738:
4737:
4736:
4730:
4722:Hyperion Books
4711:
4705:
4686:
4680:
4663:
4657:
4635:
4634:
4628:
4627:
4578:
4567:(5): 451–453.
4547:
4498:
4465:
4449:
4420:(2): 130–135.
4390:
4379:(4): 402–407.
4357:
4306:
4254:
4240:10.1086/344657
4233:(1): S24–S30.
4204:
4160:
4158:, p. 118.
4148:
4146:, p. 524.
4136:
4124:
4083:
4066:
4039:
4028:(22): 369–72.
4006:
3962:
3933:
3884:
3842:
3831:(34): 585–91.
3813:
3749:
3685:
3678:
3647:
3645:, p. 148.
3635:
3623:
3600:
3582:
3531:
3490:
3437:
3396:
3363:
3316:
3267:
3240:
3191:
3162:(7): 1638–43.
3142:
3106:
3062:
3049:10.1086/513945
3027:
2998:(7): 2816–21.
2978:
2912:
2855:
2816:
2801:
2782:
2767:
2748:
2707:
2664:
2635:(7529): 1364.
2615:
2575:
2550:
2528:
2485:
2466:(7): 1529–39.
2440:
2438:, p. 133.
2428:
2381:
2354:
2328:
2293:(4): 388–405.
2276:
2224:
2203:(4): 307–309.
2183:
2154:
2096:
2059:(4): 2100361.
2039:
1972:
1935:(7): 784–790.
1915:
1896:(6): 510–523.
1880:
1853:(7): 811–822.
1828:
1793:
1744:
1685:
1648:(5): 605–610.
1628:
1579:
1536:
1492:
1443:
1413:
1388:
1338:
1329:
1280:
1250:
1188:
1169:(2): 103–111.
1153:
1086:
1067:(11): 784–91.
1044:
1022:
971:
943:
901:
900:
898:
895:
894:
893:
888:
882:
876:
871:
866:
859:
856:
841:
840:Policy impacts
838:
812:
809:
795:
792:
780:
777:
746:
743:
733:
730:
608:
607:
582:
580:
573:
564:
563:
560:
557:
475:
474:
467:
464:
461:
458:
439:
436:
415:
412:
408:
407:
404:
401:
398:
394:
385:
382:
320:aminoglycoside
296:Main article:
293:
290:
249:
248:
242:
236:
225:
196:
193:
183:
180:
68:
67:
62:
56:
55:
46:
45:
37:
36:
28:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6274:
6263:
6260:
6258:
6255:
6253:
6250:
6249:
6247:
6232:
6229:
6227:
6224:
6222:
6219:
6217:
6214:
6212:
6209:
6207:
6204:
6202:
6199:
6197:
6194:
6192:
6189:
6187:
6184:
6182:
6179:
6177:
6174:
6172:
6169:
6167:
6164:
6162:
6159:
6157:
6154:
6152:
6149:
6148:
6146:
6142:
6136:
6133:
6131:
6128:
6126:
6123:
6121:
6118:
6116:
6113:
6111:
6108:
6106:
6103:
6101:
6098:
6096:
6093:
6091:
6088:
6086:
6083:
6081:
6078:
6076:
6073:
6071:
6068:
6066:
6063:
6061:
6058:
6056:
6053:
6051:
6048:
6046:
6043:
6042:
6040:
6038:Organizations
6036:
6030:
6027:
6025:
6022:
6020:
6017:
6015:
6012:
6010:
6007:
6005:
6002:
6000:
5997:
5995:
5992:
5990:
5987:
5985:
5984:F. R. G. Heaf
5982:
5980:
5977:
5975:
5972:
5970:
5967:
5965:
5962:
5960:
5957:
5955:
5952:
5950:
5947:
5945:
5942:
5941:
5939:
5937:
5933:
5927:
5924:
5922:
5919:
5917:
5914:
5913:
5911:
5907:
5899:
5896:
5894:
5891:
5889:
5886:
5885:
5884:Experimental
5883:
5881:
5878:
5877:
5875:
5873:
5869:
5863:
5860:
5858:
5855:
5853:
5850:
5848:
5845:
5843:
5842:Thioacetazone
5840:
5838:
5835:
5833:
5830:
5828:
5825:
5823:
5820:
5818:
5815:
5813:
5810:
5809:
5807:
5804:
5799:
5795:
5787:
5784:
5782:
5779:
5777:
5774:
5773:
5772:
5769:
5767:
5764:
5760:
5757:
5755:
5752:
5751:
5750:
5747:
5745:
5742:
5740:
5737:
5735:
5731:
5727:
5725:
5722:
5720:
5717:
5716:
5714:
5712:
5708:
5702:
5701:
5697:
5695:
5694:
5690:
5688:
5687:
5683:
5681:
5680:
5676:
5675:
5673:
5671:
5667:
5662:
5652:
5649:
5647:
5644:
5642:
5639:
5637:
5634:
5630:
5627:
5625:
5622:
5620:
5617:
5615:
5612:
5610:
5607:
5605:
5602:
5600:
5597:
5595:
5592:
5591:
5590:
5587:
5583:
5579:
5576:
5575:
5574:
5571:
5570:
5568:
5562:
5558:
5551:
5546:
5544:
5539:
5537:
5532:
5531:
5528:
5516:
5515:
5511:
5510:
5508:
5506:
5502:
5490:
5487:
5486:
5485:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5473:
5472:
5471:
5470:
5466:
5462:
5459:
5458:
5457:
5456:
5452:
5451:
5449:
5447:
5443:
5437:
5436:
5432:
5428:
5425:
5424:
5423:
5422:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5409:
5407:
5405:
5401:
5387:
5386:
5382:
5380:
5379:
5375:
5373:
5372:
5368:
5367:
5365:
5362:
5358:
5354:
5348:
5347:
5343:
5339:
5336:
5335:
5334:
5333:
5329:
5325:
5324:MAI infection
5322:
5321:
5320:
5316:
5315:
5310:
5309:
5304:
5302:
5298:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5288:
5282:
5281:
5277:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5267:
5259:
5256:
5255:
5254:
5253:
5249:
5247:
5246:
5242:
5241:
5239:
5236:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5223:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5197:
5194:
5192:
5188:
5185:
5184:
5182:
5180:
5179:
5174:
5168:
5165:
5163:
5160:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5150:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5140:
5138:
5135:
5131:
5128:
5127:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5114:
5111:
5109:
5106:
5104:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5086:
5084:
5083:Scrofuloderma
5081:
5080:
5079:
5078:
5074:
5070:
5067:
5066:
5065:
5062:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5049:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5034:
5030:
5027:
5026:
5024:
5022:
5021:
5016:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4993:
4983:
4982:
4978:
4977:
4975:
4973:
4969:
4963:
4962:
4958:
4954:
4951:
4950:
4949:
4948:
4944:
4940:
4937:
4936:
4934:
4933:
4928:
4924:
4921:
4919:
4918:Actinomycosis
4916:
4915:
4914:
4913:
4909:
4908:
4906:
4904:
4900:
4897:
4895:
4891:
4887:
4883:
4876:
4871:
4869:
4864:
4862:
4857:
4856:
4853:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4832:
4828:
4825:
4824:
4814:
4810:
4809:
4805:
4803:
4799:
4798:
4794:
4790:
4789:
4786:
4781:
4777:
4770:
4756:
4752:
4748:
4744:
4743:
4739:
4733:
4727:
4723:
4719:
4718:
4712:
4708:
4702:
4698:
4694:
4693:
4687:
4683:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4664:
4660:
4654:
4650:
4645:
4644:
4637:
4636:
4632:
4631:
4623:
4619:
4614:
4609:
4605:
4601:
4597:
4593:
4589:
4582:
4579:
4574:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4558:
4551:
4548:
4543:
4539:
4534:
4529:
4525:
4521:
4518:(9): 703–11.
4517:
4513:
4509:
4502:
4499:
4494:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4474:
4472:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4456:
4454:
4450:
4445:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4427:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4411:
4403:
4401:
4399:
4397:
4395:
4391:
4386:
4382:
4378:
4374:
4366:
4364:
4362:
4358:
4353:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4320:PLOS Medicine
4317:
4310:
4307:
4302:
4298:
4294:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4267:
4265:
4263:
4261:
4259:
4255:
4250:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4217:
4215:
4213:
4211:
4209:
4205:
4200:
4194:
4178:
4174:
4167:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4152:
4149:
4145:
4140:
4137:
4133:
4128:
4125:
4120:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4087:
4084:
4079:
4078:
4070:
4067:
4054:
4050:
4043:
4040:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4022:
4017:
4010:
4007:
4002:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3979:(3): 177–83.
3978:
3974:
3966:
3963:
3958:
3954:
3951:(8): 129–31.
3950:
3946:
3945:
3937:
3934:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3912:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3895:
3888:
3885:
3880:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3846:
3843:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3825:
3817:
3814:
3809:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3758:
3756:
3754:
3750:
3745:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3694:
3692:
3690:
3686:
3681:
3675:
3668:
3667:
3662:
3656:
3654:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3639:
3636:
3632:
3627:
3624:
3611:
3604:
3601:
3596:
3592:
3586:
3583:
3578:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3535:
3532:
3527:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3494:
3491:
3486:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3450:
3441:
3438:
3433:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3400:
3397:
3381:
3374:
3367:
3364:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3320:
3317:
3312:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3287:(9): 2054–8.
3286:
3282:
3278:
3271:
3268:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3244:
3241:
3236:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3211:(8): 3133–5.
3210:
3206:
3202:
3195:
3192:
3187:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3146:
3143:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3123:(4): 1083–6.
3122:
3118:
3110:
3107:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3066:
3063:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3031:
3028:
3023:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2982:
2979:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2916:
2913:
2908:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2859:
2856:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2820:
2817:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2802:9789241549639
2798:
2794:
2793:
2786:
2783:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2768:9789241549639
2764:
2760:
2759:
2752:
2749:
2744:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2727:(8): 527–32.
2726:
2722:
2718:
2711:
2708:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2688:(2): 119–28.
2687:
2683:
2676:
2668:
2665:
2660:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2619:
2616:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2596:(3): 208–10.
2595:
2591:
2584:
2582:
2580:
2576:
2564:
2560:
2554:
2551:
2538:
2532:
2529:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2501:(1): 81–101.
2500:
2496:
2489:
2486:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2460:
2455:
2451:
2450:Kim, Jim Yong
2444:
2441:
2437:
2432:
2429:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2401:(2): 167–73.
2400:
2396:
2392:
2385:
2382:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2358:
2355:
2342:
2338:
2332:
2329:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2280:
2277:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2231:
2229:
2225:
2220:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2187:
2184:
2168:
2161:
2159:
2155:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2100:
2097:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2043:
2040:
2035:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1992:(1): e16020.
1991:
1987:
1983:
1976:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1919:
1916:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1884:
1881:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1847:
1839:
1832:
1829:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1797:
1794:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1764:(2): 267–74.
1763:
1759:
1755:
1748:
1745:
1740:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1689:
1686:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1632:
1629:
1624:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1599:(8): 3181–9.
1598:
1594:
1590:
1583:
1580:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1540:
1537:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1493:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1447:
1444:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1417:
1414:
1402:
1398:
1392:
1389:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1349:
1342:
1339:
1333:
1330:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1284:
1281:
1268:
1267:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1251:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1199:
1197:
1195:
1193:
1189:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1157:
1154:
1149:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1106:(5): e63128.
1105:
1101:
1097:
1090:
1087:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1049:
1045:
1032:
1026:
1023:
1018:
1014:
1009:
1004:
999:
994:
990:
986:
982:
975:
972:
959:
958:
950:
948:
944:
928:
924:
917:
911:
909:
907:
903:
896:
892:
889:
886:
883:
880:
877:
875:
872:
870:
867:
865:
862:
861:
857:
855:
853:
848:
839:
837:
833:
829:
825:
822:
817:
810:
808:
805:
801:
793:
791:
789:
784:
778:
776:
773:
767:
765:
761:
755:
753:
744:
742:
740:
731:
729:
720:
716:
712:
710:
704:
703:) inhibitor.
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
681:
679:
675:
671:
667:
661:
659:
653:
649:
647:
646:metronidazole
643:
639:
635:
631:
626:
624:
620:
616:
604:
601:November 2023
592:
588:
587:
581:
572:
571:
568:
561:
558:
555:
554:
553:
549:
547:
543:
539:
534:
533:
527:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
490:
486:
482:
480:
472:
468:
465:
462:
459:
456:
455:
454:
451:
445:
437:
435:
432:
427:
425:
421:
413:
411:
405:
402:
399:
395:
391:
390:
389:
383:
381:
379:
374:
370:
366:
362:
361:
358:
357:
352:
351:
348:
347:
342:
339:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
299:
291:
289:
285:
283:
280:
275:
271:
267:
262:
259:
254:
246:
243:
240:
237:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
211:
210:
209:
207:
203:
194:
192:
189:
181:
179:
177:
172:
168:
165:
160:
158:
154:
150:
146:
141:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
114:
108:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
66:
63:
61:
57:
53:
52:
47:
43:
38:
33:
27:
19:
6262:Tuberculosis
6201:Sunshine Way
6191:Preventorium
6176:Iowa Cow War
6024:Madonna Swan
6019:Lucius RĂĽedi
5915:
5857:Pyrazinamide
5847:Streptomycin
5803:ATC code J04
5781:Mantoux test
5698:
5691:
5684:
5677:
5599:Pott disease
5557:Tuberculosis
5512:
5481:
5467:
5453:
5433:
5411:
5404:Nocardiaceae
5385:M. abscessus
5383:
5376:
5371:M. fortuitum
5369:
5344:
5338:Buruli ulcer
5330:
5312:
5306:
5300:
5278:
5250:
5243:
5176:
5075:
5046:
5042:Pott disease
5029:Tuberculosis
5013:
4979:
4959:
4945:
4930:
4910:
4806:
4791:
4759:. Retrieved
4755:the original
4716:
4691:
4667:
4642:
4595:
4591:
4581:
4564:
4560:
4550:
4515:
4511:
4501:
4484:
4480:
4460:
4417:
4413:
4376:
4372:
4323:
4319:
4309:
4279:(1): 30–59.
4276:
4272:
4230:
4226:
4183:27 September
4181:. Retrieved
4176:
4151:
4144:Garrett 1994
4139:
4132:Garrett 2000
4127:
4103:(8): 521–6.
4100:
4096:
4086:
4075:
4069:
4059:23 September
4057:. Retrieved
4053:the original
4042:
4025:
4019:
4009:
3976:
3972:
3965:
3948:
3942:
3936:
3901:
3897:
3887:
3860:
3856:
3845:
3828:
3822:
3816:
3771:
3767:
3707:
3703:
3665:
3638:
3626:
3614:. Retrieved
3603:
3585:
3548:
3544:
3534:
3507:
3503:
3493:
3458:
3454:
3448:
3440:
3416:(3): 483–8.
3413:
3409:
3399:
3387:. Retrieved
3366:
3333:
3329:
3319:
3284:
3280:
3270:
3256:(5): 305–9.
3253:
3249:
3243:
3208:
3204:
3194:
3159:
3155:
3145:
3120:
3116:
3109:
3079:(6): 466–9.
3076:
3072:
3065:
3043:(4): 874–7.
3040:
3036:
3030:
2995:
2991:
2981:
2930:
2926:
2915:
2872:
2868:
2858:
2825:
2819:
2791:
2785:
2757:
2751:
2724:
2720:
2710:
2685:
2681:
2667:
2632:
2628:
2618:
2593:
2589:
2568:24 September
2566:. Retrieved
2562:
2553:
2541:. Retrieved
2531:
2498:
2494:
2488:
2463:
2457:
2454:Farmer, Paul
2443:
2431:
2398:
2394:
2384:
2367:
2363:
2357:
2345:. Retrieved
2341:the original
2331:
2290:
2286:
2279:
2244:
2240:
2200:
2196:
2186:
2174:. Retrieved
2114:
2110:
2099:
2056:
2052:
2042:
1989:
1985:
1975:
1932:
1928:
1918:
1893:
1890:Tuberculosis
1889:
1883:
1850:
1844:
1831:
1806:
1802:
1796:
1761:
1757:
1747:
1702:
1698:
1688:
1645:
1641:
1631:
1596:
1592:
1582:
1552:(1): 19–31.
1549:
1545:
1539:
1517:(2): 51–61.
1514:
1510:
1460:
1456:
1446:
1434:. Retrieved
1430:the original
1416:
1404:. Retrieved
1400:
1391:
1358:
1354:
1341:
1332:
1297:
1293:
1283:
1271:. Retrieved
1265:
1212:
1208:
1166:
1162:
1156:
1103:
1099:
1089:
1064:
1060:
1035:. Retrieved
1025:
988:
984:
974:
962:. Retrieved
956:
934:. Retrieved
927:the original
843:
834:
830:
826:
818:
814:
804:DOTS program
797:
785:
782:
768:
756:
748:
745:Epidemiology
739:tuberculomas
735:
726:
713:
708:
705:
701:ATP synthase
682:
678:V5 Immunitor
662:
654:
650:
634:co-amoxiclav
627:
611:
598:
590:
584:
565:
550:
537:
530:
528:
522:
515:moxifloxacin
511:pyraZinamide
495:Streptomycin
491:
487:
483:
479:human rights
476:
471:HIV-positive
447:
428:
417:
409:
387:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
354:
353:
349:
345:
344:
343:
340:
312:moxifloxacin
301:
286:
282:
278:
273:
269:
265:
263:
257:
252:
250:
216:
198:
187:
185:
173:
169:
161:
142:
134:pyrazinamide
111:
109:
81:tuberculosis
76:
72:
71:
49:
26:
6130:TB Alliance
5994:Robert Koch
5880:BCG vaccine
5852:Bedaquiline
5832:Cycloserine
5827:Capreomycin
5754:QuantiFERON
5728:Culture on
5427:Nocardiosis
5378:M. chelonae
5332:M. ulcerans
5280:M. gordonae
5245:M. kansasii
4761:29 November
4179:(in German)
4156:Farmer 2005
3643:Farmer 2005
3633:, p. .
3631:Farmer 1999
2563:www.who.int
2436:Farmer 2005
1809:(1): 3–29.
1699:AMB Express
847:Paul Farmer
689:bedaquiline
638:clofazimine
623:bedaquiline
546:cycloserine
519:cycloserine
346:Pre-XDR-TB:
328:capreomycin
304:second-line
239:Drug efflux
164:transmitted
101:second-line
6246:Categories
6196:Sanatorium
6014:Carl RĂĽedi
5974:Max Gerson
5909:Resistance
5837:Rifampicin
5822:Ethambutol
5798:Management
5771:Tuberculin
5641:Paronychia
5578:Ghon focus
5475:Erythrasma
5461:Diphtheria
5252:M. marinum
5125:Tuberculid
5057:Rich focus
5052:Meningitis
5033:Ghon focus
4847:, Buzzfeed
3898:The Lancet
3389:7 December
3330:The Lancet
2347:7 December
2111:The Lancet
1436:7 December
1037:7 December
964:7 December
936:7 December
897:References
699:synthase (
615:pretomanid
507:Ethambutol
503:Rifampicin
450:first-line
442:See also:
384:Prevention
338:(XDR-TB).
149:mechanisms
138:ethambutol
130:rifampicin
122:first-line
97:rifampicin
5888:M72/AS01E
5812:Isoniazid
5786:Tine test
5776:Heaf test
5759:T-SPOT.TB
5178:M. leprae
5077:cutaneous
3790:2077-6624
3726:2077-6624
3616:3 January
3101:218876137
2957:0036-8075
2889:0066-4804
2842:1469-493X
2370:: e61–5.
2307:1365-2796
2263:0022-1899
2091:233192729
2075:1399-3003
2016:1932-6203
1949:1061-4036
1721:2191-0855
1705:(1): 74.
1664:1876-0341
1531:1755-0017
1479:0954-6111
1406:2 October
1375:0028-4793
1316:0028-4793
1229:1756-1833
1130:1932-6203
670:vitamin D
619:delamanid
438:Treatment
414:DOTS-Plus
332:kanamycin
316:ofloxacin
288:quickly.
245:Mutations
213:Cell wall
145:treatment
126:isoniazid
93:isoniazid
91:(drugs):
85:resistant
60:Specialty
6186:Plombage
5872:Vaccines
5301:M. avium
5020:M. bovis
4622:10511828
4573:10331736
4542:18026627
4493:16158896
4444:15681501
4385:16602404
4352:21203587
4293:15906874
4249:12516027
4193:cite web
4001:45415966
3928:39041093
3808:27499980
3744:30345099
3663:(2019).
3577:21244690
3526:19456829
3432:12662006
3380:Archived
3358:32752884
3350:15664227
3262:13521769
3235:15273133
3186:10390215
3093:11450868
3022:15980354
2973:33219841
2965:15591164
2907:18285479
2850:18254061
2811:27748093
2777:27748093
2702:12519922
2659:16282379
2610:11463018
2543:26 March
2523:27735359
2515:21218357
2480:15246180
2423:24995375
2415:19283912
2323:43844933
2315:24809736
2271:22476720
2219:23641309
2149:10446754
2141:22938757
2132:11019390
2083:33833074
2034:21283803
1986:PLOS ONE
1967:23749189
1910:21835699
1867:29569936
1823:10645439
1788:11796329
1739:38907086
1730:11192714
1680:14058414
1672:29706316
1623:19451293
1574:13656026
1566:28951954
1487:16949809
1383:20825317
1324:22931261
1245:11683912
1237:25721508
1215:: h882.
1183:20113979
1148:23671662
1100:PLOS ONE
1017:33469389
991:: 1–12.
887:(TDR-TB)
858:See also
674:Dzherelo
666:arginine
630:imipenem
523:in vitro
393:avoided.
324:amikacin
233:proteins
202:plasmids
118:immunity
6135:Unitaid
5862:Rifater
5732:and/or
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