73:, one unique distinction is the variation in the time interval between the stimulus and seizure among different patients. Unlike most focal seizures, the duration between the triggering musical stimulus and seizure varies among patients; some patients encounter the seizure imminently after the trigger, while some experience a wide time gap between the stimulus and seizure. During this latent prolonged time lapse, the symptoms experienced are
340:
34:. There are challenges when diagnosing a music-induced seizure due to the broad scope of triggers, and time delay between a stimulus and seizure. In addition, the causes of musicogenic seizures are not well-established as solely limited cases and research have been discovered and conducted respectively. Nevertheless, the current understanding of the mechanism behind musicogenic seizure is that music triggers the part of the
256:(EEG), physical examination and a review of patient history. However, an EEG may not be appropriate to diagnose and test a person with music-evoked seizures since EEG is used to test photosensitive epilepsy, a form of epilepsy where seizures are stimulated by light. While an EEG typically tests varied frequencies of a light stimulus, musicogenic seizures are stimulated differently by music.
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160:
139:
miscellaneous musical stimuli. Examples of musical triggers not only include listening to noise, sound, volume, pure words, genre, singer, song, and anthem, but also playing, thinking and dreaming of music. Among these triggers, most patients tend to be triggered by a specific tune, song or singer. Musical characteristics such as
380:
and seizures are among the most severe of the common neurological disorders . Active epilepsy, defined as people who have continuing seizures or require treatment, can be found in 4-10 individuals per 1000 worldwide. A higher prevalence has been reported in low-income and middle-income countries at 7
171:
Although the understanding of the exact causes of musicogenic seizures is currently not fully known, a commonly understood mechanism is that this epilepsy is associated with emotional responses to music rather than the music itself. Specifically, music creates an emotional response that is activated
384:
The actual prevalence is perceived to be greater than reported. Due to the limited number of reported cases, insufficient research has been conducted on musicogenic seizures and musicogenic epilepsy. It has been suggested that the disorder has a higher tendency to affect females, while the average
138:
A wide spectrum of triggers has been noted to stimulate musicogenic seizures and musicogenic epilepsy as the type of music and method of perceiving music varies from one patient to another. It has been reported that 17% of music-evoked seizures are induced solely by music, while 53% are induced by
335:
Behavioral or psychotherapeutic interventions may be effective in treating musicogenic epilepsy. These therapies work by helping patients gain emotional control and thereby reducing the frequency of seizure. In fact, many patients often assert that their seizures are stopped after this behavioral
237:
provide a possible mechanism of music-induced seizure by helping the brain to relate music to emotion and dopamine release. Dysfunction in this sensory relay network leads to an abnormal release of dopamine, eventually inducing hyperexcitability of neurons and seizure when certain music is heard.
176:
areas. This emotional effect of the music then triggers the increase of dopamine in the different parts of the brain, eventually leading to hyperexcitation, which is an abnormal excitation of neurons, and generation of seizures in those areas when there is a dysfunction in this system.
268:(AEEG) to test music-evoked seizures. However, further obstacles arise in deducing the type of sound, song, and style of music which affects the patients with musicogenic seizures. There is a large range of possible sounds that may trigger musicogenic seizures, such as
293:
259:
Moreover, there may be a time period delay between the music or sound stimulus received and seizure triggered. The time gap between the stimulus and the response heightens the challenge of diagnoses. Recent hypotheses recommended testing
393:
is usually at 39, therefore suggesting an underestimated prevalence. Moreover, the underestimated prevalence of musicogenic seizures could also be due to challenges in diagnosis such as deducing music as a seizure trigger.
242:
involved in this connection between music, emotion, and seizure. Hence, this suggests that the mechanism behind musicogenic seizure still remains obscure and more research is required to fully understand it.
30:, with an estimated prevalence of 1 in 10,000,000 individuals, that arises from disorganized or abnormal brain electrical activity when a person hears or is exposed to a specific type of sound or musical
251:
The diagnoses of music-induced seizures are complicated as the nature of stimulus is relatively unique in the ambit of seizure triggers. The usual diagnosis of seizures is routinely carried out through
222:
connection in the brain encodes the association of positive/negative emotions with certain music in the memory. Given this memory, when a person receives musical information from the environment, the
647:
Salimpoor, Valorie N; Benovoy, Mitchel; Larcher, Kevin; Dagher, Alain; Zatorre, Robert J (2011). "Anatomically distinct dopamine release during anticipation and experience of peak emotion to music".
1205:"The long-term effect of vagus nerve stimulation on quality of life in patients with pharmacoresistant focal epilepsy: The PuLsE (Open Prospective Randomized Long-term Effectiveness) trial"
356:, commonly used for general epilepsy treatment, are prescribed to patients with music-induced seizure. In some patients, these medications show better results when combined with
300:
Once the patient is diagnosed with the disease, there are diverse interventions that patients can choose from including surgical, behavioral, and medicinal treatments.
1203:
Ryvlin, Philippe; Gilliam, Frank G.; Nguyen, Dang K.; Colicchio, Gabriella; Iudice, Alfonso; Tinuper, Paolo; Zamponi, Nelia; Aguglia, Umberto; Wagner, Louis (2015).
1113:"Functional centrality of amygdala, striatum and hypothalamus in a "small-world" network underlying joy: An fMRI study with music: A Neural Network Underlying Joy"
381:
to 15 cases of active epilepsy per 1000 individuals. Musicogenic epilepsy is a rare subtype of these, with an estimated prevalence of 1 in 10,000,000 individuals.
327:
may be effective alternatives; however, results suggest that it is often difficult for both deep brain and vagus nerve stimulation to completely stop seizures.
1314:
Hirtz, D.; Thurman, D. J.; Gwinn-Hardy, K.; Mohamed, M.; Chaudhuri, A. R.; Zalutsky, R. (2007-01-29). "How common are the "common" neurologic disorders?".
265:
214:
The general relationship of the association between emotion and music is that after the auditory sensory relay of the musical information to the
1017:
Hix, H. L. (2009). "What Is Your
Favorite Song?, and: When Did You First Learn about Your Father?, and: What Have You Kept Secret for Years?".
181:
151:
are possible reasoning behind the musical stimuli. Hence, this proposes that a particular rhythmic activity or pattern induces a seizure.
205:
A diagram that shows the process involved in the auditory sensory relay from air vibrations from music to the primary auditory cortex
38:
that is responsible for evoking an emotion associated with that music. Dysfunction in this system leads to an abnormal release of
135:
areas of the brain are affected. Musicogenic seizures have complex stimuli due to the broad scope of possibilities of triggers.
45:
Currently, there are diverse intervention strategies that patients can choose from depending on their situations. They can have
192:
which suggested that patients of the musicogenic seizure often express emotional feelings before the onset of the seizure.
112:
may also develop due to epilepsy in the temporal lobe, which is found to be affected in 75% cases of musicogenic seizures.
1060:
Morocz, I.A.; Karni, A.; Haut, S.; Lantos, G.; Liu, G. (2003-02-25). "fMRI of triggerable aurae in musicogenic epilepsy".
185:
711:
Rohan, Deirdre; Cunningham, Anthony J. (2002). "A Randomized, Controlled Trial of
Surgery for Temporal-Lobe Epilepsy".
53:
is also available; patients are trained to gain emotional control to reduce the frequency of seizure. Medications like
595:"Musicogenic Epilepsy: Review of the Literature and Case Report with Ictal Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography"
261:
159:
746:
Nevitt, Sarah J.; Sudell, Maria; Weston, Jennifer; Tudur Smith, Catrin; Marson, Anthony G. (15 December 2017).
74:
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of the part of the brain that generates a seizure. This region is identified by imaging techniques like EEG.
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109:
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390:
309:
31:
932:
748:"Antiepileptic drug monotherapy for epilepsy: a network meta-analysis of individual participant data"
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132:
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Many pharmacological interventions have shown positive results. Often carbamazepine, phenytoin, and
313:
1347:
1185:
1093:
1042:
964:
905:
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558:
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are often experienced when encountering a seizure triggered by a musical stimulus. For example,
61:(medication for general seizure) also suggest effectiveness to mitigate music-induced seizures.
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Kaplan, Peter W.; Stoker, Guy (2010). "2. Musicogenic epilepsy – From sound to seizure".
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Structural formula of carbamazepine, a commonly used medication for epilepsy treatment.
292:
82:
825:
812:
Kaplan, Peter W (2003). "Musicogenic epilepsy and epileptic music: a seizure's song".
593:
Wieser, Heinz Gregor; Hungerbohler, Hansjorg; Siegel, Adrian M.; Buck, Alfred (1997).
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While the signs and symptoms of musicogenic seizures are similar to that of other
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436:"The potential mechanism of musicogenic epilepsy and future research avenues"
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Moreover, scientists discovered that there are other parts of the brain like
944:
361:
273:
58:
1343:
1300:
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1181:
1160:
Koelsch, Stefan (2010). "Towards a neural basis of music-evoked emotions".
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are the most common hallucinations associated with music-induced seizures.
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system, which regulates the association of emotion and dopamine release.
39:
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For patients who are not suitable to undergo a resectioning treatment,
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Musicogenic seizures are generally defined as a focal seizure, as the
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368:, which are also other medications for general epilepsy treatment.
338:
233:
These connections between the hippocampus, mesolimbic system, and
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35:
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This notion is supported by many functional imaging studies like
226:
relays the emotional information related to that music to the
49:
to remove the region of the brain that generates a seizure.
167:(EEG) of the mesial temporal lobe of a patient in seizure.
1257:"Reflex epilepsy: triggers and management strategies"
308:
Surgical intervention is suitable for patients with
923:AVANZINI, GIULIANO (2003). "Musicogenic Seizures".
93:, leading them to feel distressed and agitated.
481:The Journal of the American Medical Association
1255:Okudan, Zeynep Vildan; Ozkara, Cigdem (2018).
312:. Specifically, the patients undergo partial
8:
752:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
266:amplitude-integrated electroencephalography
1111:Koelsch, Stefan; Skouras, Stavros (2014).
925:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
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883:
779:
610:
492:
451:
475:Sugerman, Deborah Tolmach (2013-09-18).
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868:"Music and epilepsy: A critical review"
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1261:Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment
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296:Illustration of deep brain stimulation
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866:Maguire, Melissa Jane (2012-05-21).
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77:. Patients may encounter changes in
1328:10.1212/01.wnl.0000252807.38124.a3
1074:10.1212/01.WNL.0000047346.96206.A9
612:10.1111/j.1528-1157.1997.tb01098.x
14:
885:10.1111/j.1528-1167.2012.03523.x
725:10.1097/00132586-200206000-00024
210:Emotional associations of music
110:Musical auditory hallucinations
42:, eventually inducing seizure.
764:10.1002/14651858.CD011412.pub3
262:routine electroencephalography
102:musical release hallucinations
1:
826:10.1016/s1525-5050(03)00172-0
1162:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
1221:10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.02.056
547:10.1016/j.yebeh.2010.01.027
434:Ellis, Liddy (2017-03-01).
1412:
1174:10.1016/j.tics.2010.01.002
453:10.1093/biohorizons/hzx004
272:, a song associated with
218:(shown in figure 1), the
713:Survey of Anesthesiology
494:10.1001/jama.2013.277840
389:is 28. Nonetheless, the
1209:Epilepsy & Behavior
945:10.1196/annals.1284.008
814:Epilepsy & Behavior
535:Epilepsy & Behavior
325:vagus nerve stimulation
216:primary auditory cortex
106:synesthetic experiences
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321:deep brain stimulation
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254:electroencephalography
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1031:10.1353/col.2009.0110
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24:music-induced seizure
990:"Music and epilepsy"
240:basolateral amygdala
165:electroencephalogram
65:Signs & symptoms
26:, is a rare type of
20:Musicogenic seizure,
16:Rare type of seziure
1274:10.2147/ndt.s107669
1117:Human Brain Mapping
937:2003NYASA.999...95A
649:Nature Neuroscience
440:Bioscience Horizons
391:age of presentation
310:refractory epilepsy
75:autonomic responses
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331:Behavioral therapy
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51:Behavioral therapy
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278:dissonant sounds
190:clinical studies
79:respiratory rate
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1373:. Retrieved
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387:age of onset
383:
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372:Epidemiology
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314:resectioning
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270:church bells
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1267:: 327–337.
354:lamotrigine
224:hippocampus
220:hippocampal
91:tachycardia
1375:2019-04-10
1366:"Epilepsy"
1000:2019-04-10
541:(4): 579.
477:"Seizures"
398:References
376:Globally,
264:(REEG) or
228:mesolimbic
87:heart rate
1336:0028-3878
1316:Neurology
1283:1178-2021
1082:0028-3878
1062:Neurology
1047:185885443
1039:2325-730X
953:0077-8923
894:0013-9580
872:Epilepsia
834:1525-5050
772:1469-493X
733:0039-6206
685:205433454
669:1097-6256
621:0013-9580
599:Epilepsia
555:1525-5050
503:0098-7484
462:1754-7431
336:therapy.
288:Treatment
274:nostalgia
247:Diagnosis
155:Mechanism
145:frequency
59:phenytoin
1390:Category
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1344:17261678
1301:29403278
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1190:15460319
1182:20153242
1147:25050430
1090:12601117
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902:22612325
850:12986887
842:14527486
790:29243813
677:21217764
563:54267436
511:24045753
378:epilepsy
348:Medicine
186:PET scan
129:temporal
89:such as
40:dopamine
1292:5779309
1230:4283995
1138:6869778
933:Bibcode
781:6486134
629:9048673
304:Surgery
172:by the
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