352:
numbers of satellite cells to activate. The activation of satellite cells from their dormant state is controlled through signals from the muscle niche. This signaling induces an inflammatory response in the muscle tissue. The behavior of satellite cells is a highly regulated process to accommodate the balance between dormant and active states. In times of injury, satellite cells in myofibers receive signals to proliferate from proteins in the crushed skeletal muscle. Myofibers are fundamental elements in muscle made up of actin and myosin myofibrils. The proteins responsible for signaling the activation of satellite cells are called mitogens. A mitogen is a small protein that induces a cell to enter the cell cycle. When the cells receive signals from the neurons, it causes the myofibers to depolarize and release calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The release of calcium induces the actin and myosin filaments to move and contract the muscle. Studies found that transplanted satellite cells onto myofibers supported multiple regenerations of new muscle tissue. These findings support the hypothesis that satellite cells are the stem cells in muscles. Dependent on their relative position to daughter cells on myofibers, satellite cells undergo asymmetric and symmetric division. The niche and location determines the behavior of satellite cells in their proliferation and differentiation. In general, mammalian skeletal muscle is relatively stable with little myonuclei turnover. Minor injuries from daily activities can be repaired without inflammation or cell death. Major injuries contribute to myofiber necrosis, inflammation, and cause satellite cells to activate and proliferate. The process of myofiber necrosis to myofiber formation results in muscle regeneration.
339:
356:
sarcolemma leads to an increase in myofiber permeability. The disruption in myofiber integrity is seen in increased plasma levels in muscle proteins. The death of myofibers drives a calcium influx from the sarcoplasmic reticulum to induce tissue degradation. An inflammatory response follows the necrosis of myofibers. During times of muscle growth and regeneration, satellite cells can travel over between myofibers and muscle and over connective tissue barriers. Signals from the damaged environment induce these behavioral changes in satellite cells.
312:(FGF) enhance satellite cell proliferation rate following activation. Studies have demonstrated that intense exercise generally increases IGF-1 production, though individual responses vary significantly. More specifically, IGF-1 exists in two isoforms: mechano growth factor (MGF) and IGF-IEa. While the former induces activation and proliferation, the latter causes differentiation of proliferating satellite cells.
219:. Satellite cells in the head musculature have a unique developmental program, and are Pax3-negative. Moreover, both quiescent and activated human satellite cells can be identified by the membrane-bound neural cell adhesion molecule (N-CAM/CD56/Leu-19), a cell-surface glycoprotein. Myocyte nuclear factor (MNF), and c-met proto-oncogene (receptor for hepatocyte growth factor (
397:, which effectively cured the disease. However, the sample size used was relatively small and the study has since been criticized for a lack of appropriate controls for the use of immunosuppressive drugs. Recently, it has been reported that Pax7 expressing cells contribute to dermal wound repair by adopting a fibrotic phenotype through a Wnt/β-catenin mediated process.
484:, a device used to grow microorganisms or cells in a media that can be easily controlled. Whatever media chosen will simulate the cells being in prime condition to proliferate within an organism. After proliferation the cells are shaped using a scaffold. These scaffolds can be an organic structure like decellularized plant or animal tissues, inorganic such as
287:
hallmark. One of the first roles described for IGF-1 was its involvement in the proliferation and differentiation of satellite cells. In addition, IGF-1 expression in skeletal muscle extends the capacity to activate satellite cell proliferation (Charkravarthy, et al., 2000), increasing and prolonging the beneficial effects to the aging muscle.
159:
location between sarcolemma and basal lamina, a high nuclear-to-cytoplasmic volume ratio, few organelles (e.g. ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, golgi complexes), small nuclear size, and a large quantity of nuclear heterochromatin relative to myonuclei. On the other hand, activated satellite cells have an increased number of
275:. They become activated and re-enter the cell cycle. These dividing cells are known as the "transit amplifying pool" before undergoing myogenic differentiation to form new (post-mitotic) myotubes. There is also evidence suggesting that these cells are capable of fusing with existing myofibers to facilitate growth and repair.
335:, free ribosomes, and mitochondria of the stimulated muscle groups. Additionally, satellite cells have been shown to fuse with muscle fibers, developing new muscle fibers. Other ultrastructural evidence for activated satellite cells include increased concentration of Golgi apparatus and pinocytotic vesicles.
295:
Satellite cell activation is measured by the extent of proliferation and differentiation. Typically, satellite cell content is expressed per muscle fiber or as a percentage of total nuclear content, the sum of satellite cell nuclei and myonuclei. While the adaptive response to exercise largely varies
286:
Satellite cells proliferate following muscle trauma and form new myofibers through a process similar to fetal muscle development. After several cell divisions, the satellite cells begin to fuse with the damaged myotubes and undergo further differentiations and maturation, with peripheral nuclei as in
384:
have all been shown to be able to contribute to muscle repair in a similar manner to the endogenous satellite cell. The advantage of using these cell types for therapy in muscle diseases is that they can be systemically delivered, autonomously migrating to the site of injury. Particularly successful
375:
Unfortunately, it seems that transplanted satellite cells have a limited capacity for migration, and are only able to regenerate muscle in the region of the delivery site. As such, systemic treatments or even the treatment of an entire muscle in this way is not possible. However, other cells in the
351:
Satellite cells have a crucial role in muscle regeneration due to their ability to proliferate, differentiate, and self-renew. Prior to a severe injury to the muscle, satellite cells are in a dormant state. Slight proliferation can occur in times of light injuries but major injuries require greater
315:
Human studies have shown that both high resistance training and endurance training have yielded an increased number of satellite cells. These results suggest that a light, endurance training regimen may be useful to counteract the age-correlated satellite cell decrease. In high-resistance training,
355:
Muscle regeneration occurs in three overlapping stages. The inflammatory response, activation and differentiation of satellite cells, and maturation of the new myofibers are essential for muscle regeneration. This process begins with the death of damaged muscle fibers where dissolution of myofiber
479:
An overview of the culturing process first involves the selection of a cell source. This initial stage is where the selection of a meat type happens, for example if the desired product is beef then cells are taken from a cow. The next part involves isolating and sorting out the myosatellite cells
158:
of muscle fibers, and can lie in grooves either parallel or transversely to the longitudinal axis of the fibre. Their distribution across the fibre can vary significantly. Non-proliferative, quiescent myosatellite cells, which adjoin resting skeletal muscles, can be identified by their distinct
233:
markers specifically define the majority of quiescent satellite cells. Activated satellite cells prove problematic to identify, especially as their markers change with the degree of activation; for example, greater activation results in the progressive loss of Pax7 expression as they enter the
468:, it was theorized that if these cells could be grown in a lab and placed on scaffolds to make fibers, the muscle cells could then be used for food production. This theory has been proven true with many companies sprouting around the globe in the field of cultured meat including
278:
The process of muscle regeneration involves considerable remodeling of extracellular matrix and, where extensive damage occurs, is incomplete. Fibroblasts within the muscle deposit scar tissue, which can impair muscle function, and is a significant part of the pathology of
461:. These satellite cells are the main source of most muscle cell formation postnatally, with embryonic myoblasts being responsible for prenatal muscle generation. A single satellite cell can proliferate and become a larger amount of muscle cells.
257:
and fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis, which gives no information about cell lineage or behaviour. As such, the satellite cell niche is relatively ill-defined and it is likely that it consists of multiple sub-populations.
488:, or a mix of both. Once the cells have attached themselves to the scaffold and fully matured, they have become a raw meat product. The final step will include any necessary food processes needed for the desired final product.
1227:
Hellsten Y, Hansson HA, Johnson L, Frandsen U, Sjödin B (June 1996). "Increased expression of xanthine oxidase and insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) immunoreactivity in skeletal muscle after strenuous exercise in humans".
246:– all responsible for the induction of myocyte-specific genes. HGF testing is also used to identify active satellite cells. Activated satellite cells also begin expressing muscle-specific filament proteins such as
299:
It is suggested that exercise triggers the release of signaling molecules including inflammatory substances, cytokines and growth factors from surrounding connective tissues and active skeletal muscles. Notably,
234:
proliferative stage. However, Pax7 is expressed prominently after satellite cell differentiation. Greater activation also results in increased expression of myogenic basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors
413:
currently form the definitive satellite markers, Pax genes are notoriously poor transcriptional activators. The dynamics of activation and quiesence and the induction of the myogenic program through the
304:, a cytokine, is transferred from the extracellular matrix into muscles through the nitric-oxide dependent pathway. It is thought that HGF activates satellite cells, while insulin-like growth factor-I (
932:
Crameri R, Aagaard P, Qvortrup K, Kjaer M (2004). "N-CAM and Pax7 immunoreactive cells are expressed differently in the human vastus lateralis after a single bout of exhaustive eccentric exercise".
583:
Kadi F, Charifi N, Denis C, Lexell J, Andersen JL, Schjerling P, et al. (November 2005). "The behaviour of satellite cells in response to exercise: what have we learned from human studies?".
1192:
Bamman MM, Shipp JR, Jiang J, Gower BA, Hunter GR, Goodman A, et al. (March 2001). "Mechanical load increases muscle IGF-I and androgen receptor mRNA concentrations in humans".
497:
502:
480:
from whatever the selected cell source was. After being separated into the cellular components, the myosatellite cells need to be proliferated through the use of a
296:
on an individual basis on factors such as genetics, age, diet, acclimatization to exercise, and exercise volume, human studies have demonstrated general trends.
1352:
Appell HJ, Forsberg S, Hollmann W (August 1988). "Satellite cell activation in human skeletal muscle after training: evidence for muscle fiber neoformation".
338:
2026:
1266:
Yang SY, Goldspink G (July 2002). "Different roles of the IGF-I Ec peptide (MGF) and mature IGF-I in myoblast proliferation and differentiation".
1985:
253:
The field of satellite cell biology suffers from the same technical difficulties as other stem cell fields. Studies rely almost exclusively on
1309:
Charifi N, Kadi F, FĂ©asson L, Denis C (July 2003). "Effects of endurance training on satellite cell frequency in skeletal muscle of old men".
2095:
2412:
2443:
163:, cytoplasmic organelles, and decreased levels of heterochromatin. Satellite cells are able to differentiate and fuse to augment existing
324:
mRNA levels. This is consistent with the fact that cyclin D1 and p21 upregulation correlates to division and differentiation of cells.
1999:
1995:
770:
Relaix F, Rocancourt D, Mansouri A, Buckingham M (June 2005). "A Pax3/Pax7-dependent population of skeletal muscle progenitor cells".
135:
cells, able to give rise to satellite cells or differentiated skeletal muscle cells. They have the potential to provide additional
1044:
Parker MH, Seale P, Rudnicki MA (July 2003). "Looking back to the embryo: defining transcriptional networks in adult myogenesis".
1990:
87:
1906:
1532:
143:
state. More specifically, upon activation, satellite cells can re-enter the cell cycle to proliferate and differentiate into
2113:
1389:"Skeletal muscle satellite cell characteristics in young and older men and women after heavy resistance strength training"
1087:
Mourkioti F, Rosenthal N (October 2005). "IGF-1, inflammation and stem cells: interactions during muscle regeneration".
1157:
Anderson JE, Wozniak AC (May 2004). "Satellite cell activation on fibers: modeling events in vivo--an invited review".
2019:
394:
1738:"Culturing characteristics of Hanwoo myosatellite cells and C2C12 cells incubated at 37°C and 39°C for cultured meat"
1591:"Pax7 expressing cells contribute to dermal wound repair, regulating scar size through a β-catenin mediated process"
2448:
457:
Myosatellite cells contribute the most to muscle regeneration and repair. This makes them a prime target for the
182:; they neither differentiate nor undergo cell division. In response to mechanical strain, satellite cells become
2079:
381:
309:
301:
220:
191:
75:
63:
2641:
2515:
2510:
442:
2599:
2428:
2068:
2058:
2012:
20:
332:
27:
1933:"Cell Sources for Cultivated Meat: Applications and Considerations throughout the Production Workflow"
631:"The effects of heavy resistance training and detraining on satellite cells in human skeletal muscles"
80:
2043:
1547:
1531:
Sampaolesi M, Blot S, D'Antona G, Granger N, Tonlorenzi R, Innocenzi A, et al. (November 2006).
882:"Expression of CD34 and Myf5 defines the majority of quiescent adult skeletal muscle satellite cells"
779:
327:
Satellite cell activation has also been demonstrated on an ultrastructural level following exercise.
280:
680:"Muscle satellite cell proliferation and association: new insights from myofiber time-lapse imaging"
629:
Kadi F, Schjerling P, Andersen LL, Charifi N, Madsen JL, Christensen LR, Andersen JL (August 2004).
437:
There is some research indicating that satellite cells are negatively regulated by a protein called
171:
niche, and are involved in the normal growth of muscle, as well as regeneration following injury or
2228:
831:
Harel I, Nathan E, Tirosh-Finkel L, Zigdon H, GuimarĂŁes-Camboa N, Evans SM, Tzahor E (June 2009).
2666:
1620:
1571:
1334:
1291:
1069:
982:
813:
608:
552:
1882:
1122:
Hawke TJ, Garry DJ (August 2001). "Myogenic satellite cells: physiology to molecular biology".
951:
Marchildon F, Lala N, Li G, St-Louis C, Lamothe D, Keller C, Wiper-Bergeron N (December 2012).
2477:
2384:
2137:
1964:
1806:
1767:
1718:
1669:
1612:
1563:
1513:
1459:
1410:
1369:
1326:
1283:
1245:
1209:
1174:
1139:
1104:
1061:
1023:
974:
911:
862:
805:
752:
711:
660:
600:
544:
527:
Birbrair A, Delbono O (August 2015). "Pericytes are
Essential for Skeletal Muscle Formation".
272:
151:
953:"CCAAT/enhancer binding protein beta is expressed in satellite cells and controls myogenesis"
880:
Beauchamp JR, Heslop L, Yu DS, Tajbakhsh S, Kelly RG, Wernig A, et al. (December 2000).
2177:
1954:
1944:
1814:
1798:
1757:
1749:
1708:
1700:
1659:
1651:
1602:
1555:
1503:
1495:
1449:
1441:
1400:
1361:
1318:
1275:
1237:
1201:
1166:
1131:
1096:
1053:
1013:
964:
901:
893:
852:
844:
795:
787:
742:
701:
691:
650:
642:
592:
536:
390:
328:
2505:
2397:
800:
465:
271:
When muscle cells undergo injury, quiescent satellite cells are released from beneath the
208:
132:
1241:
1762:
1737:
1551:
783:
2462:
2438:
1959:
1932:
1819:
1786:
1713:
1688:
1664:
1639:
1508:
1483:
1454:
1429:
906:
881:
857:
832:
706:
679:
655:
630:
485:
386:
254:
1387:
Roth SM, Martel GF, Ivey FM, Lemmer JT, Tracy BL, Metter EJ, et al. (June 2001).
1279:
2660:
2527:
2035:
1624:
458:
164:
1575:
1338:
1295:
1205:
612:
556:
2206:
2159:
1589:
Amini-Nik S, Glancy D, Boimer C, Whetstone H, Keller C, Alman BA (September 2011).
1073:
986:
817:
473:
848:
646:
68:
2556:
2531:
2350:
2321:
2122:
1135:
140:
120:
1499:
1405:
1393:
The
Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences
1388:
2626:
2587:
2582:
2472:
2433:
2407:
2402:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2290:
2223:
2201:
2053:
1802:
731:"The skeletal muscle satellite cell: the stem cell that came in from the cold"
596:
540:
481:
155:
1810:
1445:
1100:
2631:
2536:
2522:
2482:
2392:
2308:
2260:
2255:
2172:
2090:
747:
730:
469:
438:
377:
317:
168:
136:
124:
1968:
1771:
1722:
1689:"Myostatin negatively regulates satellite cell activation and self-renewal"
1673:
1640:"Myostatin negatively regulates satellite cell activation and self-renewal"
1616:
1567:
1517:
1463:
1414:
1365:
1330:
1287:
1213:
1178:
1143:
1108:
1065:
1027:
978:
915:
897:
866:
809:
756:
715:
664:
604:
548:
316:
activation and proliferation of satellite cells are evidenced by increased
1753:
1704:
1687:
McCroskery S, Thomas M, Maxwell L, Sharma M, Kambadur R (September 2003).
1655:
1638:
McCroskery S, Thomas M, Maxwell L, Sharma M, Kambadur R (September 2003).
1373:
1249:
696:
464:
With the understanding that myosatellite cells are the progenitor of most
2621:
2592:
2552:
2357:
1949:
1533:"Mesoangioblast stem cells ameliorate muscle function in dystrophic dogs"
427:
239:
187:
160:
144:
1559:
791:
93:
2636:
2341:
2265:
1430:"The skeletal muscle satellite cell: still young and fascinating at 50"
1018:
1002:"Adult stem cell specification by Wnt signaling in muscle regeneration"
1001:
172:
1322:
969:
952:
833:"Distinct origins and genetic programs of head muscle satellite cells"
405:
Little is known of the regulation of satellite cells. Whilst together
2577:
2331:
1736:
Oh S, Park S, Park Y, Kim YA, Park G, Cui X, et al. (May 2023).
1607:
1590:
247:
167:
and to form new fibers. These cells represent the oldest known adult
128:
1170:
1057:
1883:"Bioreactors — Introduction to Chemical and Biological Engineering"
2336:
2326:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
337:
305:
51:
2285:
2216:
2211:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2132:
2127:
2004:
431:
423:
419:
410:
406:
243:
235:
230:
226:
216:
212:
2008:
446:
321:
186:. Activated satellite cells initially proliferate as skeletal
729:
Zammit PS, Partridge TA, Yablonka-Reuveni Z (November 2006).
1194:
American
Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism
449:
and thereby inhibit the differentiation of satellite cells.
1858:
1787:"Prospectus of cultured meat—advancing meat alternatives"
178:
In undamaged muscle, the majority of satellite cells are
1834:
342:
Schematic of myosatellite cell transition into myofiber.
211:. Current thinking is that most satellite cells express
678:
Siegel AL, Kuhlmann PK, Cornelison DD (February 2011).
522:
520:
518:
498:
List of human cell types derived from the germ layers
2612:
2570:
2545:
2498:
2491:
2461:
2421:
2383:
2307:
2274:
2190:
2112:
2103:
2089:
2078:
2067:
2042:
503:
List of distinct cell types in the adult human body
74:
62:
50:
45:
40:
35:
331:has been shown to significantly increase granular
372:will undergo a myogenic differentiation program.
347:Satellite cell activation and muscle regeneration
1484:"Satellite cells and the muscle stem cell niche"
207:Satellite cells express a number of distinctive
1907:"Cultivated meat scaffolding | Deep dive | GFI"
1434:The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry
1159:Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology
735:The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry
441:. Increased levels of myostatin up-regulate a
26:"MuSC" redirects here. Not to be confused with
2020:
139:to their parent muscle fiber, or return to a
8:
1931:Reiss J, Robertson S, Suzuki M (July 2021).
1482:Yin H, Price F, Rudnicki MA (January 2013).
1937:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
1477:
1475:
1473:
1039:
1037:
1000:Seale P, Polesskaya A, Rudnicki MA (2003).
150:Myosatellite cells are located between the
2495:
2194:
2109:
2100:
2086:
2075:
2027:
2013:
2005:
364:Upon minimal stimulation, satellite cells
1958:
1948:
1818:
1761:
1712:
1663:
1606:
1507:
1453:
1404:
1017:
968:
927:
925:
905:
856:
799:
746:
705:
695:
654:
1742:Journal of Animal Science and Technology
1354:International Journal of Sports Medicine
1261:
1259:
624:
622:
514:
16:Precursor cell of skeletal muscle cells
1791:Journal of Food Science and Technology
578:
576:
574:
572:
570:
568:
566:
91:
32:
7:
2413:Connective tissue in skeletal muscle
1428:Yablonka-Reuveni Z (December 2011).
1242:10.1046/j.1365-201X.1996.492235000.x
453:Myosatellite cells and cultured meat
131:. Satellite cells are precursors to
19:For the glial progenitor cells, see
223:)) are less commonly used markers.
2000:Neuroscience Information Framework
385:recently has been the delivery of
14:
88:Anatomical terms of microanatomy
2444:Excitation–contraction coupling
1785:Bhat ZF, Fayaz H (2011-04-01).
1206:10.1152/ajpendo.2001.280.3.E383
1230:Acta Physiologica Scandinavica
801:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-E8E0-9
1:
1280:10.1016/s0014-5793(02)02918-6
1124:Journal of Applied Physiology
529:Stem Cell Reviews and Reports
849:10.1016/j.devcel.2009.05.007
647:10.1113/jphysiol.2004.065904
1996:NIF Search - Satellite Cell
1693:The Journal of Cell Biology
1644:The Journal of Cell Biology
1136:10.1152/jappl.2001.91.2.534
886:The Journal of Cell Biology
416:myogenic regulatory factors
395:Duchenne muscular dystrophy
190:before undergoing myogenic
2683:
2449:Sliding filament mechanism
1500:10.1152/physrev.00043.2011
434:remains to be determined.
25:
18:
2197:
2168:
1803:10.1007/s13197-010-0198-7
635:The Journal of Physiology
597:10.1007/s00424-005-1406-6
541:10.1007/s12015-015-9588-6
86:
1986:Image at neuro.wustl.edu
1446:10.1369/0022155411426780
1406:10.1093/gerona/56.6.B240
1101:10.1016/j.it.2005.08.002
1046:Nature Reviews. Genetics
472:in the Netherlands, and
382:hematopoietic stem cells
310:fibroblast growth factor
2642:Fukutin-related protein
748:10.1369/jhc.6r6995.2006
443:cyclin-dependent kinase
250:as they differentiate.
123:cells with very little
2600:Sarcoplasmic reticulum
2429:Neuromuscular junction
2337:elastic filament/titin
2059:Vascular smooth muscle
1887:www.engr.colostate.edu
1366:10.1055/s-2007-1025026
898:10.1083/jcb.151.6.1221
343:
21:Satellite cell (glial)
2332:thick filament/myosin
1991:Overview at brown.edu
1754:10.5187/jast.2023.e10
1705:10.1083/jcb.200207056
1656:10.1083/jcb.200207056
1488:Physiological Reviews
697:10.1186/2044-5040-1-7
466:skeletal muscle cells
341:
333:endoplasmic reticulum
1950:10.3390/ijms22147513
1089:Trends in Immunology
459:meat culturing field
281:muscular dystrophies
2327:thin filament/actin
2313:(a, i, and h bands;
1560:10.1038/nature05282
1552:2006Natur.444..574S
792:10.1038/nature03594
784:2005Natur.435..948R
641:(Pt 3): 1005–1012.
291:Effects of exercise
1311:Muscle & Nerve
1019:10.4161/cc.2.5.498
837:Developmental Cell
344:
105:Myosatellite cells
81:H2.00.05.2.01020
2654:
2653:
2650:
2649:
2608:
2607:
2562:Myosatellite cell
2478:Intercalated disc
2457:
2456:
2385:Connective tissue
2303:
2302:
2299:
2298:
2266:Synemin/desmuslin
2186:
2185:
1546:(7119): 574–579.
1440:(12): 1041–1059.
1323:10.1002/mus.10394
970:10.1002/stem.1248
963:(12): 2619–2630.
778:(7044): 948–953.
741:(11): 1177–1191.
445:inhibitor called
273:basement membrane
152:basement membrane
113:muscle stem cells
102:
101:
97:
57:myosatellitocytus
36:Myosatellite cell
2674:
2496:
2279:
2195:
2178:Laminin, alpha 2
2110:
2101:
2087:
2076:
2029:
2022:
2015:
2006:
1973:
1972:
1962:
1952:
1928:
1922:
1921:
1919:
1918:
1903:
1897:
1896:
1894:
1893:
1879:
1873:
1872:
1870:
1869:
1855:
1849:
1848:
1846:
1845:
1831:
1825:
1824:
1822:
1782:
1776:
1775:
1765:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1716:
1699:(6): 1135–1147.
1684:
1678:
1677:
1667:
1650:(6): 1135–1147.
1635:
1629:
1628:
1610:
1608:10.1002/stem.688
1601:(9): 1371–1379.
1586:
1580:
1579:
1537:
1528:
1522:
1521:
1511:
1479:
1468:
1467:
1457:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1408:
1399:(6): B240–B247.
1384:
1378:
1377:
1349:
1343:
1342:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1274:(1–3): 156–160.
1263:
1254:
1253:
1224:
1218:
1217:
1200:(3): E383–E390.
1189:
1183:
1182:
1154:
1148:
1147:
1119:
1113:
1112:
1084:
1078:
1077:
1041:
1032:
1031:
1021:
997:
991:
990:
972:
948:
942:
941:
929:
920:
919:
909:
892:(6): 1221–1234.
877:
871:
870:
860:
828:
822:
821:
803:
767:
761:
760:
750:
726:
720:
719:
709:
699:
675:
669:
668:
658:
626:
617:
616:
580:
561:
560:
524:
391:Golden Retriever
329:Aerobic exercise
127:found in mature
107:, also known as
94:edit on Wikidata
33:
2682:
2681:
2677:
2676:
2675:
2673:
2672:
2671:
2657:
2656:
2655:
2646:
2614:
2604:
2566:
2541:
2487:
2464:
2453:
2417:
2379:
2314:
2312:
2295:
2275:
2270:
2182:
2164:
2105:
2094:
2081:
2070:
2063:
2045:
2038:
2033:
1982:
1977:
1976:
1930:
1929:
1925:
1916:
1914:
1905:
1904:
1900:
1891:
1889:
1881:
1880:
1876:
1867:
1865:
1857:
1856:
1852:
1843:
1841:
1833:
1832:
1828:
1784:
1783:
1779:
1735:
1734:
1730:
1686:
1685:
1681:
1637:
1636:
1632:
1588:
1587:
1583:
1535:
1530:
1529:
1525:
1481:
1480:
1471:
1427:
1426:
1422:
1386:
1385:
1381:
1351:
1350:
1346:
1308:
1307:
1303:
1265:
1264:
1257:
1226:
1225:
1221:
1191:
1190:
1186:
1171:10.1139/y04-020
1156:
1155:
1151:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1095:(10): 535–542.
1086:
1085:
1081:
1058:10.1038/nrg1109
1043:
1042:
1035:
999:
998:
994:
950:
949:
945:
931:
930:
923:
879:
878:
874:
830:
829:
825:
769:
768:
764:
728:
727:
723:
684:Skeletal Muscle
677:
676:
672:
628:
627:
620:
585:PflĂĽgers Archiv
582:
581:
564:
526:
525:
516:
511:
494:
455:
403:
389:cells into the
362:
349:
293:
269:
264:
209:genetic markers
205:
203:Genetic markers
200:
192:differentiation
133:skeletal muscle
109:satellite cells
98:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2680:
2678:
2670:
2669:
2659:
2658:
2652:
2651:
2648:
2647:
2645:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2618:
2616:
2610:
2609:
2606:
2605:
2603:
2602:
2597:
2596:
2595:
2585:
2580:
2574:
2572:
2568:
2567:
2565:
2564:
2559:
2549:
2547:
2543:
2542:
2540:
2539:
2534:
2525:
2520:
2519:
2518:
2513:
2502:
2500:
2493:
2489:
2488:
2486:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2469:
2467:
2459:
2458:
2455:
2454:
2452:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2439:Muscle spindle
2436:
2431:
2425:
2423:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2389:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2378:
2377:
2376:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2354:
2353:
2347:
2346:
2345:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2318:
2316:
2315:z and m lines)
2305:
2304:
2301:
2300:
2297:
2296:
2294:
2293:
2288:
2282:
2280:
2272:
2271:
2269:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2252:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2221:
2220:
2219:
2214:
2204:
2198:
2192:
2188:
2187:
2184:
2183:
2181:
2180:
2175:
2169:
2166:
2165:
2163:
2162:
2157:
2156:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2119:
2117:
2107:
2098:
2084:
2073:
2065:
2064:
2062:
2061:
2056:
2050:
2048:
2040:
2039:
2034:
2032:
2031:
2024:
2017:
2009:
2003:
2002:
1993:
1988:
1981:
1980:External links
1978:
1975:
1974:
1923:
1898:
1874:
1859:"UPSIDE Foods"
1850:
1826:
1797:(2): 125–140.
1777:
1748:(3): 664–678.
1728:
1679:
1630:
1581:
1523:
1469:
1420:
1379:
1360:(4): 297–299.
1344:
1301:
1255:
1236:(2): 191–197.
1219:
1184:
1165:(5): 300–310.
1149:
1130:(2): 534–551.
1114:
1079:
1052:(7): 497–507.
1033:
1012:(5): 418–419.
992:
943:
921:
872:
843:(6): 822–832.
823:
762:
721:
670:
618:
591:(2): 319–327.
562:
535:(4): 547–548.
513:
512:
510:
507:
506:
505:
500:
493:
490:
486:polyacrylamide
454:
451:
402:
399:
387:mesoangioblast
361:
358:
348:
345:
292:
289:
268:
265:
263:
260:
255:Flow cytometry
204:
201:
199:
196:
100:
99:
90:
84:
83:
78:
72:
71:
66:
60:
59:
54:
48:
47:
43:
42:
38:
37:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2679:
2668:
2665:
2664:
2662:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2619:
2617:
2611:
2601:
2598:
2594:
2591:
2590:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2575:
2573:
2569:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2554:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2544:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2529:
2528:Microfilament
2526:
2524:
2521:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2507:
2504:
2503:
2501:
2497:
2494:
2490:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2466:
2460:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2426:
2424:
2420:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2390:
2388:
2386:
2382:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2360:
2359:
2356:
2355:
2352:
2349:
2348:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2324:
2323:
2320:
2319:
2317:
2310:
2306:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2273:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2225:
2222:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2209:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2199:
2196:
2193:
2191:Intracellular
2189:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2170:
2167:
2161:
2158:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2125:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2111:
2108:
2106:extracellular
2102:
2099:
2097:
2092:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2066:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2051:
2049:
2047:
2041:
2037:
2036:Muscle tissue
2030:
2025:
2023:
2018:
2016:
2011:
2010:
2007:
2001:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1983:
1979:
1970:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1927:
1924:
1912:
1908:
1902:
1899:
1888:
1884:
1878:
1875:
1864:
1860:
1854:
1851:
1840:
1836:
1830:
1827:
1821:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1781:
1778:
1773:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1732:
1729:
1724:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1683:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1634:
1631:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1585:
1582:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1534:
1527:
1524:
1519:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1478:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1465:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1424:
1421:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1383:
1380:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1348:
1345:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1305:
1302:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1262:
1260:
1256:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1223:
1220:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1188:
1185:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1153:
1150:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1118:
1115:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1083:
1080:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1040:
1038:
1034:
1029:
1025:
1020:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
996:
993:
988:
984:
980:
976:
971:
966:
962:
958:
954:
947:
944:
939:
935:
928:
926:
922:
917:
913:
908:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
876:
873:
868:
864:
859:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
827:
824:
819:
815:
811:
807:
802:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
766:
763:
758:
754:
749:
744:
740:
736:
732:
725:
722:
717:
713:
708:
703:
698:
693:
689:
685:
681:
674:
671:
666:
662:
657:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
625:
623:
619:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
579:
577:
575:
573:
571:
569:
567:
563:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
523:
521:
519:
515:
508:
504:
501:
499:
496:
495:
491:
489:
487:
483:
477:
475:
471:
467:
462:
460:
452:
450:
448:
444:
440:
435:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
412:
408:
400:
398:
396:
393:dog model of
392:
388:
383:
379:
376:body such as
373:
371:
367:
359:
357:
353:
346:
340:
336:
334:
330:
325:
323:
319:
313:
311:
307:
303:
297:
290:
288:
284:
282:
276:
274:
267:Muscle repair
266:
261:
259:
256:
251:
249:
245:
241:
237:
232:
228:
224:
222:
218:
214:
210:
202:
197:
195:
193:
189:
185:
181:
176:
174:
170:
166:
165:muscle fibers
162:
157:
153:
148:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
95:
89:
85:
82:
79:
77:
73:
70:
67:
65:
61:
58:
55:
53:
49:
44:
39:
34:
29:
22:
2561:
2506:Muscle fiber
2276:
2207:Dystrobrevin
2160:Dystroglycan
1943:(14): 7513.
1940:
1936:
1926:
1915:. Retrieved
1913:. 2021-01-29
1910:
1901:
1890:. Retrieved
1886:
1877:
1866:. Retrieved
1863:UPSIDE Foods
1862:
1853:
1842:. Retrieved
1838:
1829:
1794:
1790:
1780:
1745:
1741:
1731:
1696:
1692:
1682:
1647:
1643:
1633:
1598:
1594:
1584:
1543:
1539:
1526:
1494:(1): 23–67.
1491:
1487:
1437:
1433:
1423:
1396:
1392:
1382:
1357:
1353:
1347:
1317:(1): 87–92.
1314:
1310:
1304:
1271:
1268:FEBS Letters
1267:
1233:
1229:
1222:
1197:
1193:
1187:
1162:
1158:
1152:
1127:
1123:
1117:
1092:
1088:
1082:
1049:
1045:
1009:
1005:
995:
960:
956:
946:
937:
933:
889:
885:
875:
840:
836:
826:
775:
771:
765:
738:
734:
724:
687:
683:
673:
638:
634:
588:
584:
532:
528:
478:
476:in the USA.
474:Upside Foods
463:
456:
436:
415:
404:
374:
369:
365:
363:
354:
350:
326:
314:
298:
294:
285:
277:
270:
252:
225:
206:
183:
179:
177:
149:
119:, are small
116:
112:
108:
104:
103:
56:
2557:Muscle cell
2532:Myofilament
2351:Tropomyosin
2322:Myofilament
2123:Sarcoglycan
1835:"Mosa Meat"
121:multipotent
46:Identifiers
2627:Telethonin
2588:Sarcolemma
2583:Sarcoplasm
2516:extrafusal
2511:intrafusal
2473:Myocardium
2434:Motor unit
2408:Endomysium
2403:Perimysium
2291:Caveolin 3
2224:Syntrophin
2202:Dystrophin
2054:Calmodulin
1917:2023-11-17
1892:2023-11-17
1868:2023-11-17
1844:2023-11-17
1595:Stem Cells
1006:Cell Cycle
957:Stem Cells
509:References
482:bioreactor
401:Regulation
320:mRNA, and
156:sarcolemma
2667:Myoblasts
2632:Dysferlin
2615:ungrouped
2537:Sarcomere
2523:Myofibril
2483:Nebulette
2393:Epimysium
2309:Sarcomere
2261:Dysbindin
2256:Syncoilin
2173:Sarcospan
2104:Membrane/
2091:Costamere
1839:Mosa Meat
1811:0975-8402
1625:206518139
934:J Physiol
470:Mosa Meat
439:myostatin
378:pericytes
318:cyclin D1
198:Structure
188:myoblasts
184:activated
180:quiescent
169:stem cell
145:myoblasts
141:quiescent
137:myonuclei
125:cytoplasm
2661:Category
2622:Myotilin
2593:T-tubule
2553:Myoblast
2398:Fascicle
2358:Troponin
2277:related:
2080:Skeletal
2069:Striated
1998:via the
1969:34299132
1772:37332290
1763:10271921
1723:12963705
1674:12963705
1617:21739529
1576:62808421
1568:17108972
1518:23303905
1464:22147605
1415:11382785
1339:20002383
1331:12811778
1296:46646257
1288:12095637
1214:11171591
1179:15213729
1144:11457764
1109:16109502
1066:12838342
1028:12963830
979:23034923
916:11121437
867:19531353
810:15843801
757:16899758
716:21798086
690:(1): 7.
665:15218062
613:21822010
605:16091958
557:12812499
549:25896402
492:See also
428:myogenin
366:in vitro
360:Research
262:Function
240:myogenin
161:caveolae
154:and the
2637:Fukutin
2463:Cardiac
2422:General
2342:nebulin
1960:8307620
1911:gfi.org
1820:3551074
1714:2172861
1665:2172861
1548:Bibcode
1509:4073943
1455:3283088
1374:3182162
1250:8800359
1074:1800309
987:1219256
907:2190588
858:3684422
818:4415583
780:Bibcode
707:3157006
656:1665027
370:in vivo
173:disease
69:D032496
41:Details
2613:Other/
2578:Desmin
2465:muscle
2082:muscle
2071:muscle
2046:muscle
2044:Smooth
1967:
1957:
1817:
1809:
1770:
1760:
1721:
1711:
1672:
1662:
1623:
1615:
1574:
1566:
1540:Nature
1516:
1506:
1462:
1452:
1413:
1372:
1337:
1329:
1294:
1286:
1248:
1212:
1177:
1142:
1107:
1072:
1064:
1026:
985:
977:
940:: 165.
914:
904:
865:
855:
816:
808:
772:Nature
755:
714:
704:
663:
653:
611:
603:
555:
547:
430:, and
308:) and
248:desmin
242:, and
129:muscle
2571:Other
2546:Cells
2499:Fiber
1621:S2CID
1572:S2CID
1536:(PDF)
1335:S2CID
1292:S2CID
1070:S2CID
983:S2CID
814:S2CID
609:S2CID
553:S2CID
306:IGF-1
117:MuSCs
92:[
52:Latin
2492:Both
2286:NOS1
2153:SGCZ
2148:SGCG
2143:SGCE
2138:SGCD
2133:SGCB
2128:SGCA
2096:DAPC
1965:PMID
1807:ISSN
1768:PMID
1719:PMID
1670:PMID
1613:PMID
1564:PMID
1514:PMID
1460:PMID
1411:PMID
1370:PMID
1327:PMID
1284:PMID
1246:PMID
1210:PMID
1175:PMID
1140:PMID
1105:PMID
1062:PMID
1024:PMID
975:PMID
912:PMID
863:PMID
806:PMID
753:PMID
712:PMID
661:PMID
601:PMID
545:PMID
432:MRF4
424:MyoD
420:Myf5
411:PAX7
409:and
407:PAX3
380:and
244:MRF4
236:MyoD
231:Myf5
229:and
227:CD34
217:PAX3
215:and
213:PAX7
64:MeSH
28:MUSC
2114:DAP
1955:PMC
1945:doi
1815:PMC
1799:doi
1758:PMC
1750:doi
1709:PMC
1701:doi
1697:162
1660:PMC
1652:doi
1648:162
1603:doi
1556:doi
1544:444
1504:PMC
1496:doi
1450:PMC
1442:doi
1401:doi
1362:doi
1319:doi
1276:doi
1272:522
1238:doi
1234:157
1202:doi
1198:280
1167:doi
1132:doi
1097:doi
1054:doi
1014:doi
965:doi
938:565
902:PMC
894:doi
890:151
853:PMC
845:doi
796:hdl
788:doi
776:435
743:doi
702:PMC
692:doi
651:PMC
643:doi
639:558
593:doi
589:451
537:doi
447:p21
368:or
322:p21
302:HGF
221:HGF
115:or
2663::
2249:G2
2244:G1
2239:B2
2234:B1
1963:.
1953:.
1941:22
1939:.
1935:.
1909:.
1885:.
1861:.
1837:.
1813:.
1805:.
1795:48
1793:.
1789:.
1766:.
1756:.
1746:65
1744:.
1740:.
1717:.
1707:.
1695:.
1691:.
1668:.
1658:.
1646:.
1642:.
1619:.
1611:.
1599:29
1597:.
1593:.
1570:.
1562:.
1554:.
1542:.
1538:.
1512:.
1502:.
1492:93
1490:.
1486:.
1472:^
1458:.
1448:.
1438:59
1436:.
1432:.
1409:.
1397:56
1395:.
1391:.
1368:.
1356:.
1333:.
1325:.
1315:28
1313:.
1290:.
1282:.
1270:.
1258:^
1244:.
1232:.
1208:.
1196:.
1173:.
1163:82
1161:.
1138:.
1128:91
1126:.
1103:.
1093:26
1091:.
1068:.
1060:.
1048:.
1036:^
1022:.
1008:.
1004:.
981:.
973:.
961:30
959:.
955:.
936:.
924:^
910:.
900:.
888:.
884:.
861:.
851:.
841:16
839:.
835:.
812:.
804:.
794:.
786:.
774:.
751:.
739:54
737:.
733:.
710:.
700:.
686:.
682:.
659:.
649:.
637:.
633:.
621:^
607:.
599:.
587:.
565:^
551:.
543:.
533:11
531:.
517:^
426:,
422:,
418:,
283:.
238:,
194:.
175:.
147:.
111:,
76:TH
2555:/
2530:/
2373:I
2368:C
2363:T
2311:/
2229:A
2217:B
2212:A
2116::
2093:/
2028:e
2021:t
2014:v
1971:.
1947::
1920:.
1895:.
1871:.
1847:.
1823:.
1801::
1774:.
1752::
1725:.
1703::
1676:.
1654::
1627:.
1605::
1578:.
1558::
1550::
1520:.
1498::
1466:.
1444::
1417:.
1403::
1376:.
1364::
1358:9
1341:.
1321::
1298:.
1278::
1252:.
1240::
1216:.
1204::
1181:.
1169::
1146:.
1134::
1111:.
1099::
1076:.
1056::
1050:4
1030:.
1016::
1010:2
989:.
967::
918:.
896::
869:.
847::
820:.
798::
790::
782::
759:.
745::
718:.
694::
688:1
667:.
645::
615:.
595::
559:.
539::
96:]
30:.
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.