36:
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471:. Ants are sometimes capable of discriminating between cheaters and mutualists as shown by studies demonstrating preference for the diaspores of noncheating myrmecochores. Cheating is also inhibited by ecological interactions external to the myrmecochorous interaction; simple models suggest that predation exerts a stabilizing influence on a mutualism such as myrmecochory.
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299:. In addition, phylogenetic comparison of myrmecochorous plant groups reveals that more than half of the lineages in which myrmecochory evolved are more species-rich than their nonmyrmecochorous sister groups. Not only is myrmecochory a convergent trait, but it also promotes diversification in multiple flowering plant lineages.
487:
is an aggressive invader capable of displacing native ant populations. Since
Argentine ants do not disperse seeds, invasions may lead to a breakdown in the myrmecochory mutualism, inhibiting the dispersal ability of myrmecochores and causing long-term alterations in plant community dynamics. Invasive
409:
and influence seed fate, effectively directing the dispersal of seeds to desirable sites. For example, myrmecochores can influence seed fate by producing rounder, smoother diaspores that inhibit ants from redispersing seeds after elaiosome removal. This increases the likelihood that seeds will remain
454:
myrmecochores, demonstrating the disproportionate importance of specific ant species in dispersing seeds. Ant-plant interactions with a single species of myrmecochore were recorded for 37 species of ants, but only two of these were found to disperse diaspores to any significant degree; the rest were
433:
Myrmecochorous plants escape or avoid seed predation by granivores when ants remove and sequester diaspores. This benefit is particularly pronounced in areas where myrmecochorous plants are subject to heavy seed predation, which may be common. In mesic forest habitats, seed predators remove around
466:
As with many other facultative mutualisms, cheating is present on both sides of the interaction. Ants cheat by consuming elaiosomes without transporting seeds or through outright seed predation. Myrmecochorous plants can also cheat, either by producing diaspores with nonremovable elaiosomes or by
355:
explains the evolution and persistence of myrmecochory. Instead, a combination of beneficial effects working at different spatiotemporal scales likely contribute to the viability of this predominantly mutualistic interaction. Three commonly cited advantages to myrmecochorous plants are increased
376:
as the initial mechanism, that can increase dispersal distance by as much as 50%. In some cases, ballistic dispersal distance regularly exceeds that of transport by ants. The dispersal distance achieved through myrmecochory is likely to provide an advantage proportionate to the spatial scale of
462:
Ants, however, do not appear to form obligate relationships with myrmecochorous plants. Since no known ant species relies entirely on elaiosomes for their nutritional needs, ants remain generalist foragers even when entering into relationships with a more specialized myrmecochore.
516:
Myrmecochorous plants are also capable of invading ecosystems. These invaders may gain an advantage in areas where native ants disperse invasive seeds. Similarly, the spread of myrmecochorous invaders may be inhibited by limitations in the ranges of native ant populations.
758:
Westoby, Mark., Barbara Rice, Julia M. Shelley, David Haig, and J.L. Kohen (1982). “Plants' use of ants for dispersal at West Head, New South Wales” In Ant-plant interactions in
Australia, Buckley R.C. (ed.), pp. 75-87, Dr W. Junk Publishers, The
668:
Westoby, Mark, L. Hughes, and B.L. Rice (1991). “Seed dispersal by ants; comparing infertile with fertile soils.” In Ant-plant interactions, Camilla R. Huxley and David F. Cutler (eds.), pp. 434-447, Oxford
University Press, New
425:, depth of burial is an important factor for successful post-burn germination. This, in turn, is influenced by the nesting habits of the myrmecochorous ants. As such, the value of directed dispersal is largely context-dependent.
368:. Ants can transport seeds as far as 180 m but the average is less than 2 m, and values between 0.5 and 1.5 m are most common. Perhaps due to the relatively limited distance that ants disperse seeds, many myrmecochores exhibit
434:
60% of all dispersed seeds within a few days, and eventually remove all seeds not removed by ants. In addition to attracting ants, elaiosomes also appeal to granivores, and their presence can increase seed predation rates.
405:. Ants disperse seeds in fairly predictable ways, either by disposing of them in underground middens or by ejecting them from the nest. These patterns of ant dispersal are predictable enough to permit plants to manipulate
290:
identified more than 100 separate origins of myrmecochory in 55 families of flowering plants. With many independent evolutionary origins, elaiosomes have evolved from a wide variety of parent tissues. Strong
604:
Beattie, A.J. and Hughes, L. (2002). “Ant–plant interactions” In Plant–Animal
Interactions and Evolutionary Approach, (eds C. M. Herrera & O. Pellmyr), pp. 211–35. Blackwell Science, Oxford.
459:
without dispersing seeds. Larger diaspores are hypothesized to increase the degree of specialization, since ant mutualists need to be larger to successfully carry the diaspore back to the nest.
348:
Few studies have examined the costs and benefits to ants participating in myrmecochory. Much remains to be understood about the selective advantages conferred upon myrmecochorous ants.
295:
or the relative ease with which elaiosomes can develop from parent tissues may explain the multiple origins of myrmecochory. These findings identify myrmecochory as a prime example of
622:
315:. Several different factors likely combine to create mutualistic conditions. Myrmecochorous plants may derive benefit from increased dispersal distance, directed dispersal to
341:
uptake in producing diaspores. Diaspores must also be protected from outright predation by ants. This is typically accomplished by the production of a hard, smooth testa, or
377:
density-dependent effects acting on individual plants. As such, the relatively modest distances ants transport seeds are likely to be more advantageous for myrmecochorous
685:
Buckley, R.C. (1982). “Ant-plant interactions: a world review” In Ant-plant interactions in
Australia, Buckley R.C. (ed.), pp. 111-141, Dr W. Junk Publishers, The Hague.
259:
509:. The Argentine ants don't take the seeds underground and are left on the surface, resulting in ungerminated plants and the dwindling of Fynbos seed reserves after
965:
Hanzawa, F.M., Beattie, A.J., and Culver, D.C. (1988). “Directed dispersal: demographic analysis of an ant-plant mutualism”. The
American Naturalist, 131(1): 1-13.
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or ejected from the nest. Although diaspores are seldom distributed far from the parent plant, myrmecochores also benefit from this predominantly
413:
Nest chemistry is ideally suited for seed germination given that ant colonies are typically enriched with plant nutrients such as phosphorus and
239:
645:
1081:
Heithaus, E.R., Culver, D.C., and
Beattie, A.J.. (1980). “Models of some ant-plant mutualisms”. The American Naturalist 116(3): 347-361.
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diaspores, particularly when a disproportionate investment is made of growth-limiting mineral nutrients. For instance, some
Australian
1441:
Alba-Lynn, C.; Henk, S. (2010). "Potential for ants and vertebrate predators to shape seed-dispersal dynamics of the invasive thistles
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447:
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availability), two factors that are often cited to explain the distribution of myrmecochory. Myrmecochory is also present in
365:
1294:
Stuble, K. L.; Kirkman, L. K.; Carroll, C. R. (2010). "Are red imported fire ants facilitators of native seed dispersal?".
109:
1548:
1184:
Christian CE (2001). "Consequences of a biological invasion reveal the importance of mutualism for plant communities".
623:"Convergent evolution of seed dispersal by ants, and phylogeny and biogeography in flowering plants: a global survey"
778:
Giladi, Itamar (2006). "Choosing benefits or partners: a review of the evidence for the evolution of myrmecochory".
975:
Gómez C, Espadaler X, Bas JM (December 2005). "Ant behaviour and seed morphology: a missing link of myrmecochory".
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in the
Southeastern United States. Some invasive ants are also seed-disperses in their native range, such as the
1500:
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1388:"Collapse of an Ant-Plant Mutalism: The Argentine Ant (Iridomyrmex Humilis) and Myrmecochorous Proteaceae"
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1096:"Assessing ecological specialization of an ant-seed dispersal mutualism through a wide geographic range"
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224:
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Prior
Kirsten M.; Robinson Jennifer M.; Meadley Dunphy Shannon A.; Frederickson Megan E. (2015-02-07).
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In South Africa, the Argentine ant has in some cases displaced native ants that disperse the seeds of
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Increasing dispersal distance from the parent plant is likely to reduce seed mortality resulting from
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of myrmecochorous plants range from 11,000 to as high as 23,000 species worldwide, or about 5% of all
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1339:"Mutualism between co-introduced species facilitates invasion and alters plant community structure"
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between myrmecochores and individual ant species. This assertion has been challenged in a study of
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ant species can also maintain seed dispersal in their introduced range, as is the case with the
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that are attractive to ants. The seed with its attached elaiosome is collectively known as a
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Janzen, Daniel H. (1970). "Herbivores and the number of tree species in tropical forests".
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and less important in areas with more favourable soil chemistry, as in fertile forests. In
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on all continents except Antarctica. Seed dispersal by ants is particularly common in the
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Myrmecochorous plants may benefit when ants disperse seeds to nutrient-rich or protected
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Lengyel S; Aaron D. Gove; Andrew M. Latimer; Jonathan D. Majer; Robert R. Dunn (2010).
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Lubertazzi D, Aliberti Lubertazzi MA, McCoy N, Gove AD, Majer JD, Dunn RR (2010).
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avoidance. Costs incurred by myrmecochorous plants include the energy required to
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19:
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Carney, S. E.; Byerley, M. B.; Holway, D. A. (2003). "Invasive argentine ants (
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Myrmecochory has evolved independently many times in a large number of plant
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147:, a term encompassing various external appendages or "food bodies" rich in
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with worldwide distribution. Most myrmecochorous plants produce seeds with
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1145:"Myrmecochorous plants use chemical mimicry to cheat seed-dispersing ants"
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1028:"The ecology of a keystone seed disperser, the ant Rhytidoponera violacea"
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seed predators or “cheaters” opportunistically feeding on elaiosomes
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Myrmecochory is traditionally thought to be a diffuse or facultative
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dispersal distance, directed dispersal, and seed predator avoidance.
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Pfeiffer, Martin; Huttenlocher, Heiko; Ayasse, Manfred (June 2010).
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923:: Dynamics of seed-ant interactions in some West Virginia species".
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702:"Ants sow the seeds of global diversification in flowering plants"
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diaspores consisting of hard-coated seeds and attached elaiosomes
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Culver, David C.; Beattie, Andrew J. (1978). "Myrmecochory in
171:, after which the elaiosome is removed or fed directly to ant
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Lengyel S, Gove AD, Latimer AM, Majer JD, Dunn RR (2009).
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554:. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 730.
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Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics
163:. Seed dispersal by ants is typically accomplished when
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Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
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simulating the presence of a nonexistent reward with
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species invest a significant portion of their yearly
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underground instead of being ejected from the nest.
266:, though to a lesser degree. Estimates for the true
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1239:) do not replace native ants as seed dispersers of
199:Myrmecochory is exhibited by more than 3,000 plant
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63:
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417:. This is likely to be advantageous in areas with
550:Daniel Simberloff; Marcel Rejmánek, eds. (2010).
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592:The Evolutionary Ecology of Ant-Plant Mutualisms
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1449:in their introduced range (North America)".
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1511:. Illinois Department of Natural Resources
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307:Myrmecochory is usually classified as a
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1094:Manzaneda AJ, Rey PJ (November 2009).
483:in some ecosystems. For instance, the
1386:Bond, W.; Slingsby, P. (1984-08-01).
385:, and other plants of small stature.
223:(1,000 species). Both regions have a
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1243:(Papaveraceae) in California, USA".
552:Encyclopedia of biological invasions
246:regions of the Northern Hemisphere (
167:workers carry diaspores back to the
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475:Myrmecochory and invasive species
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1170:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2009.01661.x
903:10.1046/j.1442-9993.2002.01216.x
810:10.1111/j.0030-1299.2006.14258.x
479:Myrmecochores are threatened by
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136:, an ecologically significant
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642:10.1016/j.ppees.2009.08.001
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195:Distribution and diversity
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997:10.1007/s00442-005-0200-7
868:"Dispersal for distance?
438:Nature of the interaction
366:density-dependent effects
187:, as well as escape from
874:Iridomyrmex viridiaeneus
219:(1,500 species) and the
866:Whitney, K. D. (2002).
429:Seed predator avoidance
319:-enriched or protected
181:mutualistic interaction
1355:10.1098/rspb.2014.2846
590:Beattie, A.J. (1985).
231:(characterized by low
128:("circular dance") is
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401:and establishment of
225:Mediterranean climate
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1503:at Wikimedia Commons
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872:seeds and meat ants
374:ballistic projection
297:convergent evolution
278:Evolutionary history
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1549:Mutualism (biology)
1463:2010PlEco.210..291A
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1257:2003Oecol.135..576C
1198:2001Natur.413..635C
1161:2010FuEco..24..545P
1112:2009Ecol...90.3009M
989:2005Oecol.146..244G
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895:2002AusEc..27..589W
825:American Naturalist
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718:2009PLoSO...4.5480L
1509:"Flowers and Ants"
1349:(1800): 20142846.
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1237:Linepithema humile
1149:Functional Ecology
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153:amino acids
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538:References
511:veld fires
395:microsites
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353:hypothesis
351:No single
339:phosphorus
321:microsites
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169:ant colony
145:elaiosomes
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444:mutualism
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343:seed coat
329:provision
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