1939:
only survival, but also progression toward a "higher form", to which humans and vertebrates were closer than invertebrates were. Although goal-directed evolution has been abandoned, the distinction of invertebrates and vertebrates persists to this day, even though the grouping has been noted to be "hardly natural or even very sharp." Another reason cited for this continued distinction is that
Lamarck created a precedent through his classifications which is now difficult to escape from. It is also possible that some humans believe that, they themselves being vertebrates, the group deserves more attention than invertebrates. In any event, in the 1968 edition of
806:
90:
1063:
1075:
784:
674:
199:
1943:, it is noted that "division of the Animal Kingdom into vertebrates and invertebrates is artificial and reflects human bias in favor of man's own relatives." The book also points out that the group lumps a vast number of species together, so that no one characteristic describes all invertebrates. In addition, some species included are only remotely related to one another, with some more related to vertebrates than other invertebrates (see
630:
718:
608:
488:, and within the zoological community and in its literature it remains in use as a term of convenience for animals that are not members of the Vertebrata. The following text reflects earlier scientific understanding of the term and of those animals which have constituted it. According to this understanding, invertebrates do not possess a skeleton of bone, either internal or external. They include hugely varied
696:
740:
2027:
652:
1382:). They were long thought to have diverged from other animals early. They lack the complex organization found in most other phyla. Their cells are differentiated, but in most cases not organized into distinct tissues. Sponges typically feed by drawing in water through pores. Some speculate that sponges are not so primitive, but may instead be secondarily simplified. The
762:
1358:
1222:
Depending on where the song of the cricket is coming from, the fly's hearing organs will reverberate at slightly different frequencies. This difference may be as little as 50 billionths of a second, but it is enough to allow the fly to home in directly on a singing male cricket and parasitise it.
1938:
vertebrates are a group that deviates from the normal, vertebrates. This has been said to be because researchers in the past, such as
Lamarck, viewed vertebrates as a "standard": in Lamarck's theory of evolution, he believed that characteristics acquired through the evolutionary process involved not
3271:
Dunn, Casey W.; Hejnol, Andreas; Matus, David Q.; Pang, Kevin; Browne, William E.; Smith, Stephen A.; Seaver, Elaine; Rouse, Greg W.; Obst, Matthias; Edgecombe, Gregory D.; Sørensen, Martin V.; Haddock, Steven H. D.; Schmidt-Rhaesa, Andreas; Okusu, Akiko; Kristensen, Reinhardt Møbjerg (April 2008).
1838:
The earliest animal fossils appear to be those of invertebrates. 665-million-year-old fossils in the
Trezona Formation at Trezona Bore, West Central Flinders, South Australia have been interpreted as being early sponges. Some paleontologists suggest that animals appeared much earlier, possibly as
1221:
has tympanal organs on each side of her abdomen. They are connected by a thin bridge of exoskeleton and they function like a tiny pair of eardrums, but, because they are linked, they provide acute directional information. The fly uses her "ears" to detect the call of her host, a male cricket.
1967:
in the 18th century. During the 20th century, invertebrate zoology became one of the major fields of natural sciences, with prominent discoveries in the fields of medicine, genetics, palaeontology, and ecology. The study of invertebrates has also benefited law enforcement, as arthropods, and
3857:
Maloof, Adam C.; Rose, Catherine V.; Beach, Robert; Samuels, Bradley M.; Calmet, Claire C.; Erwin, Douglas H.; Poirier, Gerald R.; Yao, Nan; Simons, Frederik J. (17 August 2010). "Possible animal-body fossils in pre-Marinoan limestones from South
Australia".
1468:
or roundworms, are perhaps the second largest animal phylum, and are also invertebrates. Roundworms are typically microscopic, and occur in nearly every environment where there is water. A number are important parasites. Smaller phyla related to them are the
1027:
differ in invertebrates from mammalian cells. Invertebrates cells fire in response to similar stimuli as mammals, such as tissue trauma, high temperature, or changes in pH. The first invertebrate in which a neuron cell was identified was the medicinal
1456:, and their kin. All these organisms have a body divided into repeating segments, typically with paired appendages. In addition, they possess a hardened exoskeleton that is periodically shed during growth. Two smaller phyla, the
1110:
of insects, but in general each segment of the body can have only one pair of spiracles, each of which connects to an atrium and has a relatively large tracheal tube behind it. The tracheae are invaginations of the cuticular
464:
in terms of "Vertebrata" and "Invertebrata" has limited practicality. In the more formal taxonomy of
Animalia other attributes that logically should precede the presence or absence of the vertebral column in constructing a
4180:
Lawrence, J.E.; Lunde, K.B.; Mazor, R.D.; Bêche, L.A.; McElravy, E.P.; Resh, V.H. (2010). "Long-Term
Macroinvertebrate Responses to Climate Change: Implications for Biological Assessment in Mediterranean-Climate Streams".
3762:
Eernisse, Douglas J.; Kim, Chang Bae; Moon, Seung Yeo; Gelder, Stuart R.; Kim, Won (September 1996). "Phylogenetic
Relationships of Annelids, Molluscs, and Arthropods Evidenced from Molecules and Morphology".
1232:
sounds. Spiders and cockroaches, for example, have hairs on their legs, which are used for detecting sound. Caterpillars may also have hairs on their body that perceive vibrations and allow them to respond to
1178:, which actively pump the air sacs in their abdomen, are able to control the flow of air through their body. In some aquatic insects, the tracheae exchange gas through the body wall directly, in the form of a
2707:
Eisemann, C.H., Jorgensen, W.K., Merritt, D.J., Rice, M.J., Cribb, B.W., Webb, P.D. and
Zalucki, M.P., (1984). "Do insects feel pain? — A biological view". Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, 40: 1420–1423
3542:
Ruiz-Trillo, Iñaki; Riutort, Marta; Littlewood, D. Timothy J.; Herniou, Elisabeth A.; Baguñà, Jaume (March 1999). "Acoel
Flatworms: Earliest Extant Bilaterian Metazoans, Not Members of Platyhelminthes".
1893:
in 1793, both coined the term "invertebrate" to describe such animals and divided the original two groups into ten, by splitting
Arachnida and Crustacea from the Linnean Insecta, and Mollusca, Annelida,
1527:
Also included are two of the most successful animal phyla, the Mollusca and Annelida. The former, which is the second-largest animal phylum by number of described species, includes animals such as
1862:
Around 453 MYA, animals began diversifying, and many of the important groups of invertebrates diverged from one another. Fossils of invertebrates are found in various types of sediment from the
2783:
Westneat, Mark W.; Betz, Oliver; Blob, Richard W.; Fezzaa, Kamel; Cooper, James W.; Lee, Wah-Keat (January 2003). "Tracheal Respiration in Insects Visualized with Synchrotron X-ray Imaging".
4081:
2623:
Fischer TM, Jacobson DA, Counsell AN, Pelot MA, Demorest K (March 2011). "Regulation of low-threshold afferent activity may contribute to short-term habituation in Aplysia californica".
2392:
1285:
and reproduction. However, beyond the few model systems, the modes of reproduction found in invertebrates show incredible diversity. In one extreme example it is estimated that 10% of
3719:
Eernisse, Douglas J.; Albert, James S.; Anderson, Frank E. (1 September 1992). "Annelida and Arthropoda are not sister taxa: A phylogenetic analysis of spiralean metazoan morphology".
2765:
Wasserthal, Lutz T. (1998). Chapter 25: The Open Hemolymph System of Holometabola and Its Relation to the Tracheal Space. In "Microscopic Anatomy of Invertebrates". Wiley-Liss, Inc.
1402:, are radially symmetric and have digestive chambers with a single opening, which serves as both the mouth and the anus. Both have distinct tissues, but they are not organized into
473:. That would at least circumscribe the Chordata. However, even the notochord would be a less fundamental criterion than aspects of embryological development and symmetry or perhaps
365:, are actually sister chordate subphyla to Vertebrata, being more closely related to vertebrates than to other invertebrates. This makes the term "invertebrates" rather
887:(backbone): this creates a distinction between invertebrates and vertebrates. The distinction is one of convenience only; it is not based on any clear biologically
2580:
Castellucci V, Pinsker H, Kupfermann I, Kandel ER (March 1970). "Neuronal mechanisms of habituation and dishabituation of the gill-withdrawal reflex in Aplysia".
907:, invertebrates generally have bodies composed of differentiated tissues. There is also typically a digestive chamber with one or two openings to the exterior.
2545:
Byrne JH, Castellucci VF, Kandel ER (March 1978). "Contribution of individual mechanoreceptor sensory neurons to defensive gill-withdrawal reflex in Aplysia".
903:. Being animals, invertebrates are heterotrophs, and require sustenance in the form of the consumption of other organisms. With a few exceptions, such as the
3835:
1119:) throughout the body with diameters from only a few micrometres up to 0.8 mm. The smallest tubes, tracheoles, penetrate cells and serve as sites of
2698:
Mechanosensory neurons innervating Aplysia siphon encode noxious stimuli and display nociceptive sensitization. The Journal of Neuroscience, 17: 459-469
1890:
2011:, also being sequenced, in explaining the arrival of 1500 ancestral genes unique to animals. Invertebrates are also used by scientists in the field of
4073:
1215:. The tympanal organs of some insects are extremely sensitive, offering acute hearing beyond that of most other animals. The female cricket fly
2389:
966:. They often have one claw much larger than the other. If a male fiddler loses its large claw, it will grow another on the opposite side after
4359:
4332:
4278:
4251:
4028:
4003:
3978:
3902:
3815:
3526:
3501:
3476:
3445:
3417:
3392:
3367:
3342:
3255:
3215:
3190:
3171:
Frisch, Karl von. (1967) The Dance Language and Orientation of Bees. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
3000:
2967:
2362:
2335:
2308:
2279:
2192:
2159:
4473:
1305:
Invertebrates have an extremely diverse array of reproductive systems, the only commonality may be that they all lay eggs. Also, aside from
2461:
1496:, the flatworms. These were originally considered primitive, but it now appears they developed from more complex ancestors. Flatworms are
927:, whether radial, bilateral, or spherical. A minority, however, exhibit no symmetry. One example of asymmetric invertebrates includes all
2384:
569:
342:
have a greater number and diversity of species than the entire subphylum of Vertebrata. Invertebrates vary widely in size, from 10
4458:
4158:
3078:
3021:"Diversity of Modes of Reproduction and Sex Determination Systems in Invertebrates, and the Putative Contribution of Genetic Conflict"
1551:
larvae, but the annelids were considered closer to the arthropods because they are both segmented. Now, this is generally considered
4305:
3094:
Riley, J.; Greggers, U.; Smith, A.; Reynolds, D.; Menzel, R. (2005). "The flight paths of honeybees recruited by the waggle dance".
2770:
891:
trait, any more than the common trait of having wings functionally unites insects, bats, and birds, or than not having wings unites
385:, which means a joint in general, and sometimes specifically a joint from the spinal column of a vertebrate. The jointed aspect of
3918:
Seilacher, A.; Bose, P.K.; Pflüger, F. (October 1998). "Animals More Than 1 Billion Years Ago: Trace Fossil Evidence from India".
1598:
obsolescent or debatable, but still used as terms of convenience. Each however appears in its own article at the following links.
805:
2218:
Cephalopods of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of species known to date. Volume 2. Myopsid and Oegopsid Squids
2220:
1987:, and were among the first life-forms to be genetically sequenced. This was facilitated by the severely reduced state of their
2452:
1266:, which develop into new individuals. Others are capable of asexual reproduction, or sometimes, both methods of reproduction.
3611:
2076:
2475:
Nicholls JG, Baylor DA (September 1968). "Specific modalities and receptive fields of sensory neurons in CNS of the leech".
1070:. The largest tracheae run across the width of the body of the cockroach and are horizontal in this image. Scale bar, 2 mm.
3674:
564:
By far the largest number of described invertebrate species are insects. The following table lists the number of described
4512:
2152:
Imms' General Textbook of Entomology: Volume 1: Structure, Physiology and Development Volume 2: Classification and Biology
1207:
Only vertebrate animals have ears, though many invertebrates detect sound using other kinds of sense organs. In insects,
4507:
4478:
2510:
Pastor J, Soria B, Belmonte C (June 1996). "Properties of the nociceptive neurons of the leech segmental ganglion".
442:
1289:
species have persisted without sexual reproduction and have reproduced asexually for more than 400 million years.
2045:
1595:
1464:, are close relatives of the arthropods and share some traits with them, excluding the hardened exoskeleton. The
198:
150:
2660:"Mechanosensory neurons innervating Aplysia siphon encode noxious stimuli and display nociceptive sensitization"
3831:
1136:
875:
have been described, which means that over 95% of the described animal species in the world are invertebrates.
2940:
1973:
1955:
For many centuries, invertebrates were neglected by biologists, in favor of big vertebrates and "useful" or
1271:
1062:
130:
1211:
are used to hear distant sounds. They are located either on the head or elsewhere, depending on the insect
4497:
1979:
1318:
1277:
920:
338:
The majority of animal species are invertebrates; one estimate puts the figure at 97%. Many invertebrate
2055:
2012:
1886:
1091:
783:
180:
1074:
4118:
3927:
3867:
3772:
3552:
3285:
3103:
2959:
2953:
2792:
2589:
2088:
2050:
2040:
1552:
1183:
121:
102:
2175:
Canning, Elizabeth U.; Okamura, Beth (1 January 2003). "Biodiversity and Evolution of the Myxozoa".
1448:
The largest animal phylum is also included within invertebrates: the Arthropoda, including insects,
1050:
Neurons have been identified in a wide range of invertebrate species, including annelids, molluscs,
947:(breathing hole) is located on the right side. Other gastropods develop external asymmetry, such as
2004:
1956:
1299:
1243:
971:
924:
673:
4198:
4150:
3744:
3584:
3127:
2816:
2120:
2104:
1099:
1087:
1034:
998:
948:
888:
370:
193:
160:
4428:
3334:
3328:
2215:
Roper, C.F.E. & P. Jereb (2010). Family Cranchiidae. In: P. Jereb & C.F.E. Roper (eds.)
1547:. These two groups have long been considered close relatives because of the common presence of
1047:
has been described. Mollusk neurons are able to detect increasing pressures and tissue trauma.
4431:
4424:
4400:
4382:
4365:
4355:
4338:
4328:
4311:
4301:
4284:
4274:
4257:
4247:
4229:
4142:
4134:
4109:
4049:
4024:
3999:
3974:
3951:
3943:
3898:
3811:
3788:
3736:
3656:
3576:
3568:
3522:
3497:
3472:
3441:
3413:
3388:
3363:
3338:
3309:
3301:
3251:
3211:
3186:
3145:
Seeley T.D.; Visscher P.K.; Passino K.M. (2006). "Group decision making in honey bee swarms".
3119:
3074:
3052:
2996:
2992:
2963:
2875:
2857:
2808:
2766:
2748:
2689:
2640:
2605:
2562:
2527:
2492:
2432:
2411:"Modern insights on gastropod development: Reevaluation of the evolution of a novel body plan"
2358:
2352:
2331:
2304:
2275:
2198:
2188:
2155:
2112:
1968:
especially insects, were discovered to be a source of information for forensic investigators.
458:
89:
1481:. These groups have a reduced coelom, called a pseudocoelom. Other invertebrates include the
4502:
4190:
4126:
3935:
3875:
3780:
3728:
3646:
3560:
3293:
3154:
3111:
3042:
3032:
2984:
2902:
2865:
2847:
2800:
2738:
2730:
2679:
2671:
2632:
2597:
2554:
2519:
2484:
2422:
2180:
2096:
2008:
1212:
982:
884:
438:
270:
170:
4104:
1971:
Two of the most commonly studied model organisms nowadays are invertebrates: the fruit fly
629:
4417:
International Congress for Invertebrate Reproduction and Development (ICIRD) — proceedings
4105:"Sea anemone genome reveals ancestral eumetazoan gene repertoire and genomic organization"
3468:
3462:
2927:
2456:
2396:
2224:
2000:
1632:
1513:
1493:
1403:
1107:
1106:
gases to and from tissues. The distribution of spiracles can vary greatly among the many
986:
794:
717:
607:
521:
362:
155:
4452:
1330:
Social behavior is widespread in invertebrates, including cockroaches, termites, aphids,
1139:
or passive diffusion. Unlike vertebrates, insects do not generally carry oxygen in their
4122:
3931:
3871:
3776:
3556:
3289:
3107:
2796:
2593:
2254:
2228:. FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes No. 4, Vol. 2. FAO, Rome. pp. 148–178.
2092:
3047:
3020:
2870:
2835:
2743:
2718:
2684:
2675:
2659:
2032:
1984:
1848:
1806:
1583:
1517:
1509:
1314:
1217:
1208:
1132:
1079:
1013:
450:
351:
2184:
4491:
2985:
2325:
1960:
1874:
1852:
1438:
1422:
955:
as they mature. The origin of gastropod asymmetry is a subject of scientific debate.
533:
262:
117:
112:
4202:
2820:
2297:
2217:
2124:
695:
4221:
4154:
3588:
3327:
Langstroth, Lovell; Libby Langstroth; Todd Newberry; Monterey Bay Aquarium (2000).
3131:
2449:
1903:
1844:
1839:
early as 1 billion years ago though they probably became multicellular in the
1796:
1732:
1722:
1712:
1612:
1563:
1559:
1501:
1434:
1415:
1255:
1247:
959:
750:
517:
413:
is not always precise among non-biologists since it does not accurately describe a
366:
286:
3603:
3564:
2601:
2128:
2100:
1078:
The tracheal system branches into progressively smaller tubes, here supplying the
739:
2852:
17:
3939:
3678:
1863:
1752:
1742:
1702:
1594:
Invertebrates can be classified into several main categories, some of which are
1567:
1548:
1521:
1508:
or rotifers, are common in aqueous environments. Invertebrates also include the
1470:
1457:
1391:
1229:
1171:
1116:
1112:
963:
944:
755:
662:
651:
565:
497:
60:
53:
2390:
Table 1: Numbers of threatened species by major groups of organisms (1996–2014)
2026:
1186:. Despite being internal, the tracheae of arthropods are shed during moulting (
4420:
3273:
2919:
2734:
2636:
2523:
2022:
1915:
1889:, who was appointed to the position of "Curator of Insecta and Vermes" at the
1786:
1780:
1575:
1497:
1478:
1474:
1461:
1430:
1383:
1335:
1306:
1103:
872:
823:
799:
667:
640:
623:
601:
549:
541:
505:
422:
343:
320:
300:
296:
248:
185:
135:
39:
4404:
4386:
4369:
4233:
4138:
3947:
3740:
3572:
3305:
2861:
2558:
2488:
1877:
divided these animals into only two groups, the Insecta and the now-obsolete
1555:, owing to many morphological and genetic differences between the two phyla.
1414:, with only scattered cells between them. As such, they are sometimes called
4342:
4315:
4288:
4261:
4130:
3274:"Broad phylogenomic sampling improves resolution of the animal tree of life"
2906:
2804:
1944:
1907:
1856:
1816:
1682:
1662:
1579:
1562:, or acorn worms, and the Chaetognatha, or arrow worms. Other phyla include
1540:
1486:
1399:
1363:
1310:
1286:
1225:
1140:
1120:
1095:
1067:
1002:
990:
936:
928:
916:
819:
728:
618:
493:
489:
474:
470:
466:
434:
418:
328:
308:
293:
282:
223:
210:
4146:
3660:
3651:
3634:
3580:
3313:
3123:
3056:
2879:
2812:
2752:
2644:
2436:
2202:
2116:
1378:
The term invertebrates covers several phyla. One of these are the sponges (
441:. "Invertebrata" is a term of convenience, not a taxon; it has very little
4435:
4053:
3955:
3792:
3037:
2693:
2609:
2531:
2496:
1135:. Gas may be conducted through the respiratory system by means of active
2566:
2427:
2410:
1919:
1895:
1773:
1762:
1692:
1672:
1642:
1622:
1505:
1500:, lacking a body cavity, as are their closest relatives, the microscopic
1482:
1465:
1426:
1411:
1407:
1387:
1379:
1368:
1343:
1151:
1147:
1051:
967:
904:
892:
777:
772:
733:
711:
706:
689:
684:
645:
553:
537:
529:
525:
513:
509:
446:
358:
324:
290:
175:
165:
145:
140:
125:
107:
43:
3297:
3115:
1959:. Invertebrate biology was not a major field of study until the work of
761:
3784:
3748:
3158:
2108:
1964:
1899:
1826:
1652:
1602:
1571:
1442:
1282:
1251:
1242:
Like vertebrates, most invertebrates reproduce at least partly through
1187:
1167:
1043:
1024:
994:
596:
426:
347:
316:
312:
67:
1357:
4194:
2924:
Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals
1996:
1988:
1911:
1878:
1840:
1449:
1372:
1331:
1263:
1163:
1128:
975:
952:
900:
828:
545:
501:
461:
454:
430:
332:
304:
266:
233:
74:
3879:
3732:
1787:
Starfishes, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, sea lilies and brittle stars
1170:, tracheae may also be connected to air sacs. Many insects, such as
2939:
Scoble, M.J. 1992. The Lepidoptera: Form, function, and diversity.
1342:, spiders, and more. Social interaction is particularly salient in
4413:
International Society of Invertebrate Reproduction and Development
4074:"Why study invertebrates? A philosophical argument from Aristotle"
2327:
The New shorter Oxford English dictionary on historical principles
1544:
1536:
1528:
1395:
1356:
1339:
1155:
1124:
1073:
1061:
1029:
979:
932:
896:
883:
The trait that is common to all invertebrates is the absence of a
485:
414:
339:
2007:
genome has emphasised the importance of sponges, placozoans, and
484:
as a taxon of animals has persisted for over a century among the
3635:"An Introduction to Loricifera, Cycliophora, and Micrognathozoa"
1992:
1882:
1532:
1453:
1259:
1179:
1159:
1146:
A tracheal tube may contain ridge-like circumferential rings of
1010:
1006:
940:
868:
832:
2015:
to evaluate the effects of water pollution and climate change.
3705:
3461:
Prewitt, Nancy L.; Larry S. Underwood; William Surver (2003).
2388:, 2014.3. Summary Statistics for Globally Threatened Species.
1910:
from the Linnean Vermes. They are now classified into over 30
1866:. Fossils of invertebrates are commonly used in stratigraphy.
1855:
worms, roughly as large (about 5 mm wide) and complex as
1200:
1175:
389:
is derived from the concept of turning, expressed in the root
3677:. The Scottish Association for Marine Science. Archived from
3700:
Russell, Bruce J. (Writer), Denning, David (Writer) (2000).
1349:
Insects recognize information transmitted by other insects.
1269:
Extensive research with model invertebrate species such as
1673:
Chitons, snails, slugs, bivalves, tusk shells, cephalopods
1663:
Insects, springtails, crustaceans, myriapods, chelicerates
568:
species for major invertebrate groups as estimated in the
4412:
3071:
The Evolution of Social Behavior in Insects and Arachnids
1425:
are radially symmetric and exclusively marine, including
4352:
Invertebrate zoology: a functional evolutionary approach
3019:
Picard MA, Vicoso B, Bertrand S, Escriva H (July 2021).
2893:
Yack, JE; Fullard, JH (1993). "What is an insect ear?".
1934:
a vertebral column. This has led to the conclusion that
1539:, and the latter comprises the segmented worms, such as
1086:
One type of invertebrate respiratory system is the open
4327:(5th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill, Higher Education.
3897:(7 ed.). Pearson, Benjamin Cummings. p. 526.
1817:
Salps, pyrosomes, doliolids, larvaceans and sea squirts
1041:
Learning and memory using nociceptors in the sea hare,
1005:
which parasitize by attachment or residency within the
492:. Many have fluid-filled, hydrostatic skeletons, like
2723:
J Comp Physiol a Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol
1922:
to complex animals such as arthropods and molluscs.
1346:
species but applies to other invertebrates as well.
4183:
Journal of the North American Benthological Society
1983:. They have long been the most intensively studied
239:
192:
34:
3330:A living bay: the underwater world of Monterey Bay
3208:Laboratory and Field Investigations in Marine Life
2296:
2256:An etymological dictionary of the English language
429:do. Each of these terms describes a valid taxon,
381:The word "invertebrate" comes from the Latin word
2179:. Vol. 56. Academic Press. pp. 43–131.
4350:Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S.; Barnes, R.D. (2004).
508:. The most familiar invertebrates include the
3210:. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 67.
3014:
3012:
1847:such as tracks and burrows found in the late
1281:has contributed much to our understanding of
289:grouping including all animals excluding the
8:
4067:
4065:
4063:
3832:"What Are the Main Groups of Invertebrates?"
3610:. University of Modena & Reggio Emilia.
2295:Brusca, Richard C.; Brusca, Gary J. (1990).
1558:Among lesser phyla of invertebrates are the
4421:Invertebrate Reproduction & Development
3633:Kristensen, Reinhardt Møbjerg (July 2002).
3431:
3429:
3185:. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. p. 58.
2378:
2376:
2374:
1797:Acorn worms, cephalodiscids and graptolites
1406:. There are only two main germ layers, the
1182:, or function essentially as normal, via a
4103:N.H. Putnam, NH; et al. (July 2007).
4078:No Bones (Smithsonian Institution website)
3496:. Princeton University Press. p. 75.
3385:Modern Text Book of Zoology: Invertebrates
3360:The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 16
3333:. University of California Press. p.
2240:A Concise Etymological Dictionary of Latin
576:
357:Some so-called invertebrates, such as the
88:
31:
4454:Online Dictionary of Invertebrate Zoology
4246:(2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
3996:Status of invertebrate paleontology, 1953
3893:Campbell. Neil A.; Jane B. Reece (2005).
3650:
3464:BioInquiry: making connections in biology
3046:
3036:
2869:
2851:
2742:
2683:
2426:
958:Other examples of asymmetry are found in
943:appear externally symmetrical, but their
453:comprises such a small proportion of the
3971:Invertebrate palaeontology and evolution
3806:Tobin, Allan J.; Jennie Dusheck (2005).
3362:. Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 523.
2067:
3702:Branches on the Tree of Life: Annelids
3181:Bhamrah, H. S.; Kavita Juneja (2003).
2658:Illich PA, Walters ET (January 1997).
2357:. Courier Corporation. pp. 115–.
2150:Richards, O. W.; Davies, R.G. (1977).
2077:"How Many Species Are There on Earth?"
985:(with the exception of the individual
4461:from the original on 26 December 2018
4379:Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates
4019:Barnes, Richard Stephen Kent (2001).
3412:. The Princeton Review. p. 220.
3387:. Rastogi Publications. p. 184.
2836:"How the Ecdysozoan Changed Its Coat"
2242:. Halle (Saale): Max Niemeyer Verlag.
1313:, nearly all other invertebrates are
1082:of the cockroach. Scale bar, 2.0 mm.
7:
4397:Reproduction of Marine Invertebrates
4273:(2nd ed.). Sinauer Associates.
3969:Clarkson, Euan Neilson Kerr (1998).
3838:from the original on 17 January 2019
3519:El espíritu de la filosofía medieval
3440:. John Wiley and Sons. p. 214.
3250:. Mittal Publications. p. 106.
3073:. Cambridge University Press. 1997.
2717:Smith ES, Lewin GR (December 2009).
2462:The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia
2382:The World Conservation Union. 2014.
2274:. Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown Publishers.
2075:May, Robert M. (16 September 1988).
1891:Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle
1653:Bristleworms, earthworms and leeches
369:, so the term has little meaning in
4451:A. R. Maggenti; S. Gardner (2005).
4296:Miller, S.A.; Harley, J.P. (1996).
4269:Brusca, R.C.; Brusca, G.J. (2003).
3639:Integrative and Comparative Biology
3614:from the original on 2 October 2006
3248:Continuity And Evolution Of Animals
2415:Integrative and Comparative Biology
2385:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
1300:Reproductive system § Invertebrates
570:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
247:All animal groups not in subphylum
4395:Giese, A.G.; Pearse, J.S. (eds.).
4354:. Belmont CA: Thomas-Brooks/Cole.
4161:from the original on 1 August 2020
2719:"Nociceptors: a phylogenetic view"
2676:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.17-01-00459.1997
2303:. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates.
993:claws that lack pincers; and some
269:that neither develop nor retain a
27:Animals without a vertebral column
25:
4300:(4th ed.). WCB/McGraw-Hill.
4084:from the original on 15 July 2015
3810:. Cengage Learning. p. 497.
469:, for example, the presence of a
3521:. Ediciones Rialp. p. 384.
2459:, cited at FactMonster.com from
2025:
2003:have been lost. Analysis of the
1914:, from simple organisms such as
1829:(currently a monogeneric phylum)
1753:Gordian worms or horsehair worms
1298:This section is an excerpt from
1199:This section is an excerpt from
931:species. This is easily seen in
804:
782:
760:
738:
716:
694:
672:
650:
628:
606:
197:
4048:(2nd ed.). W.B. Saunders.
3998:. Ayer Publishing. p. 93.
2351:Louis Agassiz (21 March 2013).
2259:. Clarendon Press. p. 301.
1590:Classification of invertebrates
1224:Simpler structures allow other
989:that exhibit radial symmetry);
445:significance except within the
4023:. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 3.
4021:The Invertebrates: A Synthesis
3765:Journal of Molecular Evolution
2834:Ewer, John (11 October 2005).
2253:Skeat, Walter William (1882).
350:to the 9–10 m (30–33 ft)
1:
4377:Adiyodi, K.G.; Adyiodi, R.G.
3565:10.1126/science.283.5409.1919
3235:. Prentice-Hall. p. 428.
2983:Hamilton, Matthew B. (2009).
2602:10.1126/science.167.3926.1745
2185:10.1016/S0065-308X(03)56002-X
2101:10.1126/science.241.4872.1441
1851:era indicate the presence of
1102:arthropods have to transport
1066:Tracheal system of dissected
939:, which have helical shells.
500:, outer shells like those of
480:Despite this, the concept of
4325:Biology of the invertebrates
4242:Anderson, D.T., ed. (2001).
3492:Schmid-Hempel, Paul (1998).
3231:Jessop, Nancy Meyer (1970).
2853:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030349
2272:Biology of the Invertebrates
4238:(6 volumes) A classic work.
3940:10.1126/science.282.5386.80
3494:Parasites in social insects
3183:An Introduction to Porifera
2991:. Wiley-Blackwell. p.
1930:Invertebrates are animals
1512:or spiny-headed worms, the
1254:to produce smaller, motile
1246:. They produce specialized
978:are asymmetrical alongside
951:that develops asymmetrical
858:
853:
844:
810:
788:
766:
744:
722:
700:
678:
656:
634:
612:
496:or worms. Others have hard
4529:
4072:Ducarme, Frédéric (2015).
4044:Barnes, Robert D. (1968).
3608:Gastrotricha: World Portal
3438:Essential forensic biology
3233:Biosphere; a study of life
2955:Master the GED 2011 (w/CD)
1297:
1198:
401:means "not" or "without".
281:), which evolved from the
4323:Pechenik, Jan A. (2005).
3994:Kummel, Bernhard (1954).
3410:Biology Coloring Workbook
3206:Sumich, James L. (2008).
2735:10.1007/s00359-009-0482-z
2637:10.1016/j.nlm.2010.11.016
2524:10.1152/jn.1996.75.6.2268
2046:Invertebrate paleontology
1926:Significance of the group
1683:Roundworms or threadworms
1485:or ribbon worms, and the
873:extant vertebrate species
307:of invertebrates include
244:
194:Scientific classification
151:Pseudobiceros hancockanus
96:
87:
3675:"Biodiversity: Mollusca"
3604:"Gastrotricha: Overview"
3517:Gilson, Étienne (2004).
3358:Safra, Jacob E. (2003).
2559:10.1152/jn.1978.41.2.418
2489:10.1152/jn.1968.31.5.740
2455:13 November 2012 at the
2395:24 February 2015 at the
2177:Advances in Parasitology
560:Number of extant species
4131:10.1126/science.1139158
3708:). BioMEDIA ASSOCIATES.
3408:Alcamo, Edward (1998).
2952:Schwartz, Jill (2010).
2941:Oxford University Press
2805:10.1126/science.1078008
2409:Louise R. Page (2006).
2354:Essay on Classification
2223:29 January 2019 at the
1974:Drosophila melanogaster
1272:Drosophila melanogaster
921:multicellular organisms
911:Morphology and symmetry
131:Drosophila melanogaster
3467:. John Wiley. p.
3383:Kotpal, R. L. (2012).
3246:Sharma, N. S. (2005).
2958:. Peterson's. p.
2330:. Oxford : Clarendon.
2324:Brown, Lesley (1993).
2270:Pechenik, Jan (1996).
2238:Tucker, T. G. (1931).
1980:Caenorhabditis elegans
1623:Medusozoans and corals
1375:
1319:external fertilization
1278:Caenorhabditis elegans
1258:or larger, non-motile
1083:
1071:
871:estimates that 66,178
449:. The Vertebrata as a
405:Taxonomic significance
397:, to turn. The prefix
4480:African Invertebrates
3038:10.3390/genes12081136
2907:10.1093/aesa/86.6.677
2895:Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am
2056:Pain in invertebrates
2013:aquatic biomonitoring
1887:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
1360:
1262:. These fuse to form
1077:
1065:
923:exhibit some form of
544:. Arthropoda include
457:that to speak of the
417:in the same way that
273:(commonly known as a
181:Milnesium tardigradum
4513:Obsolete animal taxa
4244:Invertebrate zoology
4046:Invertebrate Zoology
3652:10.1093/icb/42.3.641
2450:Symmetry, biological
2154:. Berlin: Springer.
2051:Marine invertebrates
2041:Invertebrate zoology
1941:Invertebrate Zoology
1553:convergent evolution
1441:(Holothuroidea) and
1293:Reproductive systems
999:polyopisthocotyleans
122:Caribbean reef squid
103:Chrysaora fuscescens
4508:Paraphyletic groups
4123:2007Sci...317...86P
3973:. Wiley-Blackwell.
3932:1998Sci...282...80S
3872:2010NatGe...3..653M
3777:1996JMolE..43..207K
3557:1999Sci...283.1919R
3436:Gunn, Alan (2009).
3298:10.1038/nature06614
3290:2008Natur.452..745D
3116:10.1038/nature03526
3108:2005Natur.435..205R
2987:Population genetics
2797:2003Sci...299..558W
2625:Neurobiol Learn Mem
2594:1970Sci...167.1745C
2131:on 15 November 2016
2093:1988Sci...241.1441M
2005:starlet sea anemone
1957:charismatic species
1244:sexual reproduction
1201:Ear § Invertebrates
589:Estimated number of
580:Invertebrate group
4399:. Academic Press.
3785:10.1007/PL00006079
3721:Systematic Biology
3159:10.1511/2006.3.220
3147:American Scientist
2428:10.1093/icb/icj018
1492:Another phylum is
1376:
1326:Social interaction
1248:reproductive cells
1088:respiratory system
1084:
1072:
1058:Respiratory system
1035:Hirudo medicinalis
949:Glaucus atlanticus
591:described species
161:Hirudo medicinalis
4361:978-0-03-025982-1
4334:978-0-07-234899-6
4280:978-0-87893-097-5
4253:978-0-19-551368-4
4226:The Invertebrates
4030:978-0-632-04761-1
4005:978-0-405-12715-1
3980:978-0-632-05238-7
3904:978-0-8053-7171-0
3860:Nature Geoscience
3834:. 4 August 2015.
3817:978-0-534-40653-0
3808:Asking about life
3602:Todaro, Antonio.
3551:(5409): 1919–23.
3528:978-84-321-3492-0
3503:978-0-691-05924-2
3478:978-0-471-20228-8
3447:978-0-470-75804-5
3419:978-0-679-77884-4
3394:978-81-7133-903-7
3369:978-0-85229-961-6
3344:978-0-520-22149-9
3257:978-81-8293-018-6
3217:978-0-7637-5730-4
3192:978-81-261-0675-2
3002:978-1-4051-3277-0
2969:978-0-7689-2885-3
2791:(5606): 558–560.
2729:(12): 1089–1106.
2364:978-0-486-15135-9
2337:978-0-19-861271-1
2310:978-0-87893-098-2
2281:978-0-697-13712-8
2194:978-0-12-031756-1
2161:978-0-412-61390-6
2009:choanoflagellates
1977:and the nematode
1390:, which includes
1361:The fossil coral
1154:such as loops or
1009:chamber of their
865:
864:
836:
443:circumscriptional
346:(0.0004 in)
256:
255:
141:Aplysina lacunosa
82:
18:Macroinvertebrate
16:(Redirected from
4520:
4470:
4468:
4466:
4408:
4390:
4373:
4346:
4319:
4292:
4265:
4237:
4207:
4206:
4195:10.1899/09-178.1
4177:
4171:
4170:
4168:
4166:
4100:
4094:
4093:
4091:
4089:
4069:
4058:
4057:
4041:
4035:
4034:
4016:
4010:
4009:
3991:
3985:
3984:
3966:
3960:
3959:
3915:
3909:
3908:
3890:
3884:
3883:
3854:
3848:
3847:
3845:
3843:
3828:
3822:
3821:
3803:
3797:
3796:
3759:
3753:
3752:
3716:
3710:
3709:
3697:
3691:
3690:
3688:
3686:
3671:
3665:
3664:
3654:
3630:
3624:
3623:
3621:
3619:
3599:
3593:
3592:
3539:
3533:
3532:
3514:
3508:
3507:
3489:
3483:
3482:
3458:
3452:
3451:
3433:
3424:
3423:
3405:
3399:
3398:
3380:
3374:
3373:
3355:
3349:
3348:
3324:
3318:
3317:
3268:
3262:
3261:
3243:
3237:
3236:
3228:
3222:
3221:
3203:
3197:
3196:
3178:
3172:
3169:
3163:
3162:
3142:
3136:
3135:
3091:
3085:
3084:
3067:
3061:
3060:
3050:
3040:
3016:
3007:
3006:
2990:
2980:
2974:
2973:
2949:
2943:
2937:
2931:
2917:
2911:
2910:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2873:
2855:
2831:
2825:
2824:
2780:
2774:
2763:
2757:
2756:
2746:
2714:
2708:
2705:
2699:
2697:
2687:
2655:
2649:
2648:
2620:
2614:
2613:
2588:(3926): 1745–8.
2577:
2571:
2570:
2542:
2536:
2535:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2472:
2466:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2430:
2406:
2400:
2380:
2369:
2368:
2348:
2342:
2341:
2321:
2315:
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2267:
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2250:
2244:
2243:
2235:
2229:
2213:
2207:
2206:
2172:
2166:
2165:
2147:
2141:
2140:
2138:
2136:
2127:. Archived from
2087:(4872): 1441–9.
2072:
2035:
2030:
2029:
1433:, (Echinoidea),
1094:, tracheae, and
1054:and arthropods.
974:animals such as
885:vertebral column
818:
808:
786:
764:
742:
720:
698:
676:
654:
632:
610:
577:
271:vertebral column
240:Groups included
202:
201:
171:Polycarpa aurata
92:
81:
77:
70:
63:
56:
50:
38:Temporal range:
37:
32:
21:
4528:
4527:
4523:
4522:
4521:
4519:
4518:
4517:
4488:
4487:
4464:
4462:
4450:
4447:
4442:
4409:(Many volumes.)
4394:
4391:(Many volumes.)
4376:
4362:
4349:
4335:
4322:
4308:
4295:
4281:
4268:
4254:
4241:
4228:. McGraw-Hill.
4220:
4216:
4214:Further reading
4211:
4210:
4179:
4178:
4174:
4164:
4162:
4117:(5834): 86–94.
4102:
4101:
4097:
4087:
4085:
4071:
4070:
4061:
4043:
4042:
4038:
4031:
4018:
4017:
4013:
4006:
3993:
3992:
3988:
3981:
3968:
3967:
3963:
3926:(5386): 80–83.
3917:
3916:
3912:
3905:
3892:
3891:
3887:
3880:10.1038/ngeo934
3856:
3855:
3851:
3841:
3839:
3830:
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3818:
3805:
3804:
3800:
3761:
3760:
3756:
3733:10.2307/2992569
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3395:
3382:
3381:
3377:
3370:
3357:
3356:
3352:
3345:
3326:
3325:
3321:
3284:(7188): 745–9.
3270:
3269:
3265:
3258:
3245:
3244:
3240:
3230:
3229:
3225:
3218:
3205:
3204:
3200:
3193:
3180:
3179:
3175:
3170:
3166:
3144:
3143:
3139:
3102:(7039): 205–7.
3093:
3092:
3088:
3081:
3069:
3068:
3064:
3018:
3017:
3010:
3003:
2982:
2981:
2977:
2970:
2951:
2950:
2946:
2938:
2934:
2928:Greenwood Press
2918:
2914:
2892:
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2887:
2833:
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2782:
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2457:Wayback Machine
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2397:Wayback Machine
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2225:Wayback Machine
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2069:
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2031:
2024:
2021:
1985:model organisms
1953:
1928:
1872:
1836:
1647:Platyhelminthes
1637:Xenacoelomorpha
1592:
1514:Gnathostomulida
1494:Platyhelminthes
1437:(Ophiuroidea),
1355:
1328:
1323:
1322:
1303:
1295:
1240:
1235:
1234:
1209:tympanal organs
1204:
1196:
1060:
1022:
913:
881:
879:Characteristics
827:
817:
795:Horseshoe crabs
729:Octopuses/Squid
590:
562:
522:Platyhelminthes
407:
379:
363:Cephalochordata
196:
156:Platyhelminthes
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4445:External links
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4410:
4392:
4374:
4360:
4347:
4333:
4320:
4306:
4293:
4279:
4266:
4252:
4239:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4209:
4208:
4189:(4): 1424–40.
4172:
4095:
4059:
4036:
4029:
4011:
4004:
3986:
3979:
3961:
3910:
3903:
3885:
3849:
3823:
3816:
3798:
3771:(3): 207–215.
3754:
3727:(3): 305–330.
3711:
3692:
3681:on 8 July 2006
3666:
3645:(3): 641–651.
3625:
3594:
3534:
3527:
3509:
3502:
3484:
3477:
3453:
3446:
3425:
3418:
3400:
3393:
3375:
3368:
3350:
3343:
3319:
3263:
3256:
3238:
3223:
3216:
3198:
3191:
3173:
3164:
3137:
3086:
3080:978-0521589772
3079:
3062:
3008:
3001:
2975:
2968:
2944:
2932:
2912:
2901:(6): 677–682.
2885:
2826:
2775:
2758:
2709:
2700:
2670:(1): 459–469.
2650:
2615:
2572:
2553:(2): 418–431.
2547:J Neurophysiol
2537:
2518:(6): 2268–79.
2512:J Neurophysiol
2502:
2483:(5): 740–756.
2477:J Neurophysiol
2467:
2442:
2421:(2): 134–143.
2401:
2370:
2363:
2343:
2336:
2316:
2309:
2287:
2280:
2262:
2245:
2230:
2208:
2193:
2167:
2160:
2142:
2066:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2059:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2037:
2036:
2033:Biology portal
2020:
2017:
1952:
1949:
1927:
1924:
1871:
1870:Classification
1868:
1849:Neoproterozoic
1835:
1832:
1831:
1830:
1824:
1814:
1811:Amphioxiformes
1804:
1794:
1784:
1777:
1770:
1760:
1750:
1740:
1730:
1720:
1710:
1700:
1690:
1680:
1670:
1660:
1650:
1640:
1630:
1620:
1610:
1591:
1588:
1584:Xenoturbellida
1518:Micrognathozoa
1510:Acanthocephala
1429:(Asteroidea),
1354:
1351:
1334:, ants, bees,
1327:
1324:
1315:hermaphroditic
1304:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1239:
1236:
1218:Ormia ochracea
1205:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1133:carbon dioxide
1059:
1056:
1021:
1020:Nervous system
1018:
912:
909:
880:
877:
863:
862:
857:
852:
850:
847:
846:
843:
840:
837:
813:
812:
809:
802:
797:
791:
790:
787:
780:
775:
769:
768:
765:
758:
753:
747:
746:
743:
736:
731:
725:
724:
721:
714:
709:
703:
702:
699:
692:
687:
681:
680:
677:
670:
665:
659:
658:
655:
648:
643:
637:
636:
633:
626:
621:
615:
614:
611:
604:
599:
593:
592:
587:
584:
581:
561:
558:
406:
403:
378:
375:
352:colossal squid
254:
253:
252:
251:
242:
241:
237:
236:
231:
227:
226:
221:
214:
213:
208:
204:
203:
190:
189:
94:
93:
85:
84:
73:
66:
59:
52:
51:
36:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4525:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4499:
4498:Invertebrates
4496:
4495:
4493:
4486:
4482:
4481:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4460:
4456:
4455:
4449:
4448:
4444:
4437:
4433:
4430:
4426:
4422:
4419:
4416:
4415:
4414:
4411:
4406:
4402:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4375:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4357:
4353:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4330:
4326:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4307:0-697-24374-5
4303:
4299:
4294:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4276:
4272:
4271:Invertebrates
4267:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4249:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4219:
4218:
4213:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4184:
4176:
4173:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4116:
4112:
4111:
4106:
4099:
4096:
4083:
4079:
4075:
4068:
4066:
4064:
4060:
4055:
4051:
4047:
4040:
4037:
4032:
4026:
4022:
4015:
4012:
4007:
4001:
3997:
3990:
3987:
3982:
3976:
3972:
3965:
3962:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3914:
3911:
3906:
3900:
3896:
3889:
3886:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3853:
3850:
3837:
3833:
3827:
3824:
3819:
3813:
3809:
3802:
3799:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3758:
3755:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3715:
3712:
3707:
3703:
3696:
3693:
3680:
3676:
3670:
3667:
3662:
3658:
3653:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3629:
3626:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3598:
3595:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3538:
3535:
3530:
3524:
3520:
3513:
3510:
3505:
3499:
3495:
3488:
3485:
3480:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3465:
3457:
3454:
3449:
3443:
3439:
3432:
3430:
3426:
3421:
3415:
3411:
3404:
3401:
3396:
3390:
3386:
3379:
3376:
3371:
3365:
3361:
3354:
3351:
3346:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3331:
3323:
3320:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3267:
3264:
3259:
3253:
3249:
3242:
3239:
3234:
3227:
3224:
3219:
3213:
3209:
3202:
3199:
3194:
3188:
3184:
3177:
3174:
3168:
3165:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3141:
3138:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3090:
3087:
3082:
3076:
3072:
3066:
3063:
3058:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3025:Genes (Basel)
3022:
3015:
3013:
3009:
3004:
2998:
2994:
2989:
2988:
2979:
2976:
2971:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2956:
2948:
2945:
2942:
2936:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2916:
2913:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2889:
2886:
2881:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2830:
2827:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2779:
2776:
2772:
2771:0-471-15955-7
2768:
2762:
2759:
2754:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2713:
2710:
2704:
2701:
2695:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2654:
2651:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2631:(3): 248–59.
2630:
2626:
2619:
2616:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2576:
2573:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2541:
2538:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2506:
2503:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2471:
2468:
2464:
2463:
2458:
2454:
2451:
2446:
2443:
2438:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2405:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2391:
2387:
2386:
2379:
2377:
2375:
2371:
2366:
2360:
2356:
2355:
2347:
2344:
2339:
2333:
2329:
2328:
2320:
2317:
2312:
2306:
2301:
2300:
2299:Invertebrates
2291:
2288:
2283:
2277:
2273:
2266:
2263:
2258:
2257:
2249:
2246:
2241:
2234:
2231:
2227:
2226:
2222:
2219:
2212:
2209:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2171:
2168:
2163:
2157:
2153:
2146:
2143:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2071:
2068:
2061:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2038:
2034:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2016:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1981:
1976:
1975:
1969:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1875:Carl Linnaeus
1869:
1867:
1865:
1860:
1858:
1854:
1853:triploblastic
1850:
1846:
1845:Trace fossils
1842:
1833:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1818:
1815:
1812:
1808:
1805:
1802:
1798:
1795:
1792:
1791:Echinodermata
1788:
1785:
1783:
1782:
1778:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1768:
1764:
1761:
1758:
1754:
1751:
1748:
1744:
1741:
1738:
1734:
1731:
1728:
1724:
1723:Lophophorates
1721:
1718:
1714:
1713:Scalidophores
1711:
1708:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1694:
1691:
1688:
1684:
1681:
1678:
1674:
1671:
1668:
1664:
1661:
1658:
1654:
1651:
1648:
1644:
1641:
1638:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1624:
1621:
1618:
1614:
1611:
1608:
1604:
1601:
1600:
1599:
1597:
1596:taxonomically
1589:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1556:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1525:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1446:
1445:(Crinoidea).
1444:
1443:feather stars
1440:
1439:sea cucumbers
1436:
1435:brittle stars
1432:
1428:
1424:
1423:Echinodermata
1419:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1365:
1359:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1325:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1301:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1279:
1274:
1273:
1267:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1250:that undergo
1249:
1245:
1237:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1220:
1219:
1214:
1210:
1202:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1144:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1115:that branch (
1114:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1081:
1076:
1069:
1064:
1057:
1055:
1053:
1048:
1046:
1045:
1039:
1038:
1036:
1031:
1026:
1019:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
960:fiddler crabs
956:
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
910:
908:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
878:
876:
874:
870:
861:
856:
851:
849:
848:
841:
838:
834:
830:
825:
821:
815:
814:
807:
803:
801:
798:
796:
793:
792:
785:
781:
779:
776:
774:
771:
770:
763:
759:
757:
754:
752:
749:
748:
741:
737:
735:
732:
730:
727:
726:
719:
715:
713:
710:
708:
705:
704:
697:
693:
691:
688:
686:
683:
682:
675:
671:
669:
666:
664:
661:
660:
653:
649:
647:
644:
642:
639:
638:
631:
627:
625:
622:
620:
617:
616:
609:
605:
603:
600:
598:
595:
594:
588:
585:
582:
579:
578:
575:
574:
571:
567:
559:
557:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
534:Echinodermata
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
482:invertebrates
478:
476:
472:
468:
463:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
411:invertebrates
404:
402:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
376:
374:
372:
368:
364:
360:
355:
353:
349:
345:
341:
336:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
303:. Well-known
302:
298:
295:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
263:umbrella term
260:
259:Invertebrates
250:
246:
245:
243:
238:
235:
232:
229:
228:
225:
222:
219:
216:
215:
212:
209:
206:
205:
200:
195:
191:
187:
183:
182:
177:
173:
172:
167:
163:
162:
157:
153:
152:
147:
143:
142:
137:
133:
132:
127:
123:
119:
118:Echinodermata
115:
114:
113:Fromia indica
109:
105:
104:
99:
98:Left to right
95:
91:
86:
78:
71:
64:
57:
49:665–0 Ma
45:
41:
35:Invertebrates
33:
30:
19:
4485:
4479:
4474:Buglife (UK)
4463:. Retrieved
4453:
4396:
4378:
4351:
4324:
4297:
4270:
4243:
4225:
4186:
4182:
4175:
4163:. Retrieved
4114:
4108:
4098:
4086:. Retrieved
4077:
4045:
4039:
4020:
4014:
3995:
3989:
3970:
3964:
3923:
3919:
3913:
3894:
3888:
3863:
3859:
3852:
3840:. Retrieved
3826:
3807:
3801:
3768:
3764:
3757:
3724:
3720:
3714:
3701:
3695:
3683:. Retrieved
3679:the original
3669:
3642:
3638:
3628:
3616:. Retrieved
3607:
3597:
3548:
3544:
3537:
3518:
3512:
3493:
3487:
3463:
3456:
3437:
3409:
3403:
3384:
3378:
3359:
3353:
3329:
3322:
3281:
3277:
3266:
3247:
3241:
3232:
3226:
3207:
3201:
3182:
3176:
3167:
3153:(3): 220–9.
3150:
3146:
3140:
3099:
3095:
3089:
3070:
3065:
3028:
3024:
2986:
2978:
2954:
2947:
2935:
2923:
2915:
2898:
2894:
2888:
2846:(10): e349.
2843:
2840:PLOS Biology
2839:
2829:
2788:
2784:
2778:
2761:
2726:
2722:
2712:
2703:
2667:
2663:
2653:
2628:
2624:
2618:
2585:
2581:
2575:
2550:
2546:
2540:
2515:
2511:
2505:
2480:
2476:
2470:
2460:
2445:
2418:
2414:
2404:
2383:
2353:
2346:
2326:
2319:
2298:
2290:
2271:
2265:
2255:
2248:
2239:
2233:
2216:
2211:
2176:
2170:
2151:
2145:
2133:. Retrieved
2129:the original
2084:
2080:
2070:
1978:
1972:
1970:
1954:
1940:
1935:
1931:
1929:
1904:Coelenterata
1873:
1861:
1837:
1820:
1810:
1801:Hemichordata
1800:
1790:
1779:
1772:
1766:
1763:Ribbon worms
1757:Nematomorpha
1756:
1747:Chaetognatha
1746:
1736:
1733:Velvet worms
1727:Lophophorata
1726:
1717:Scalidophora
1716:
1706:
1696:
1686:
1676:
1666:
1656:
1646:
1636:
1626:
1616:
1613:Comb jellies
1606:
1593:
1564:Acoelomorpha
1560:Hemichordata
1557:
1526:
1502:Gastrotricha
1491:
1447:
1420:
1416:diploblastic
1392:sea anemones
1377:
1362:
1348:
1329:
1317:and exhibit
1287:orbatid mite
1276:
1270:
1268:
1241:
1238:Reproduction
1216:
1206:
1172:grasshoppers
1145:
1090:composed of
1085:
1049:
1042:
1040:
1033:
1023:
964:hermit crabs
957:
914:
882:
866:
859:
854:
751:Velvet worms
572:
563:
518:Coelenterata
498:exoskeletons
481:
479:
410:
408:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
380:
367:polyphyletic
356:
337:
287:paraphyletic
278:
274:
258:
257:
217:
179:
169:
159:
149:
139:
129:
111:
101:
97:
29:
4465:7 September
4222:Hyman, L.H.
3685:19 November
3031:(8): 1136.
2920:Piper, Ross
1991:, but many
1951:In research
1916:sea sponges
1864:Phanerozoic
1827:Cycliophora
1743:Arrow worms
1737:Onychophora
1703:Tardigrades
1568:Brachiopoda
1549:trochophore
1522:Cycliophora
1498:acoelomates
1471:Kinorhyncha
1458:Onychophora
1431:sea urchins
1307:cephalopods
1256:spermatozoa
1150:in various
1137:ventilation
1113:exoskeleton
1100:terrestrial
1003:monogeneans
945:pneumostome
824:echinoderms
756:Onychophora
663:Crustaceans
550:crustaceans
506:crustaceans
321:echinoderms
301:vertebrates
265:describing
62:Proterozoic
4492:Categories
4423:(journal)
4165:21 January
3866:(9): 653.
3842:17 January
3618:26 January
2664:J Neurosci
2062:References
1896:Cirripedia
1857:earthworms
1781:Loricifera
1707:Tardigrada
1667:Arthropoda
1617:Ctenophora
1576:Entoprocta
1541:earthworms
1520:, and the
1479:Loricifera
1475:Priapulida
1462:Tardigrada
1384:Ctenophora
1336:Passalidae
1311:arthropods
1230:near-field
1228:to detect
1226:arthropods
1152:geometries
1141:haemolymph
1117:anastomose
1096:tracheoles
937:sea snails
917:body plans
889:homologous
860:~1,300,000
800:Arthropoda
668:Arthropoda
624:Arthropoda
613:1,000,000
602:Arthropoda
542:Arthropoda
490:body plans
423:Vertebrata
419:Arthropoda
329:cnidarians
309:arthropods
297:Vertebrata
285:. It is a
249:Vertebrata
186:Tardigrada
136:Arthropoda
40:Cryogenian
4436:633196745
4429:2157-0272
4405:679395548
4387:679323766
4381:. Wiley.
4370:475257771
4234:896702848
4139:0036-8075
3948:0036-8075
3741:1063-5157
3573:0036-8075
3306:1476-4687
2862:1545-7885
1945:Paraphyly
1920:flatworms
1908:Infusoria
1807:Lancelets
1643:Flatworms
1580:Phoronida
1487:Sipuncula
1400:jellyfish
1367:from the
1364:Cladocora
1158:. In the
1121:diffusion
1104:metabolic
1092:spiracles
1068:cockroach
1052:nematodes
991:alpheidae
929:gastropod
893:tortoises
820:jellyfish
619:Arachnids
573:, 2014.3.
554:arachnids
494:jellyfish
471:notochord
467:cladogram
451:subphylum
435:subphylum
409:The term
377:Etymology
348:Myxozoans
325:flatworms
294:subphylum
283:notochord
230:Kingdom:
224:Choanozoa
211:Eukaryota
4459:Archived
4343:54805957
4316:33263056
4289:51053596
4262:48627623
4224:(1940).
4203:84679634
4159:Archived
4147:17615350
4082:Archived
3836:Archived
3661:21708760
3612:Archived
3581:10082465
3314:18322464
3124:15889092
3057:34440310
2922:(2007),
2880:16207077
2821:43634044
2813:12543973
2753:19830434
2645:21144906
2453:Archived
2437:21672730
2393:Archived
2221:Archived
2203:14710996
2125:34992724
2117:17790039
2019:See also
2001:linkages
1961:Linnaeus
1821:Tunicata
1774:Placozoa
1767:Nemertea
1697:Rotifera
1693:Rotifers
1687:Nematoda
1677:Mollusca
1657:Annelida
1627:Cnidaria
1607:Porifera
1506:Rotifera
1483:Nemertea
1466:Nematoda
1427:starfish
1412:endoderm
1408:ectoderm
1388:Cnidaria
1386:and the
1380:Porifera
1369:Pliocene
1344:eusocial
1184:plastron
1148:taenidia
995:copepods
983:colonies
968:moulting
925:symmetry
919:of most
905:Porifera
831:, other
778:Mollusca
773:Nautilus
734:Mollusca
712:Cnidaria
690:Mollusca
646:Mollusca
635:102,248
538:Mollusca
530:Annelida
526:Nematoda
514:Porifera
510:Protozoa
462:Animalia
447:Chordata
387:vertebra
383:vertebra
371:taxonomy
359:Tunicata
317:annelids
313:mollusks
291:chordate
279:backbone
234:Animalia
207:Domain:
176:Tunicata
166:Annelida
146:Porifera
126:Mollusca
108:Cnidaria
4503:Zoology
4298:Zoology
4155:9868191
4119:Bibcode
4110:Science
4088:15 July
3956:9756480
3928:Bibcode
3920:Science
3895:Biology
3868:Bibcode
3793:8703086
3773:Bibcode
3749:2992569
3589:6079655
3553:Bibcode
3545:Science
3286:Bibcode
3132:4413962
3104:Bibcode
3048:8391622
2871:1250302
2793:Bibcode
2785:Science
2744:2780683
2694:8987770
2685:6793714
2610:5416543
2590:Bibcode
2582:Science
2532:8793740
2497:5711143
2465:(2007).
2135:17 June
2109:1702670
2089:Bibcode
2081:Science
1997:introns
1989:genomes
1965:Lamarck
1932:without
1900:Radiata
1834:History
1603:Sponges
1572:Bryozoa
1545:leeches
1450:spiders
1283:meiosis
1264:zygotes
1252:meiosis
1194:Hearing
1188:ecdysis
1168:abdomen
1156:helices
1044:Aplysia
1025:Neurons
976:sponges
972:Sessile
901:sponges
845:68,658
829:sponges
701:20,000
679:47,000
657:85,000
597:Insects
583:Phylum
546:insects
502:insects
475:bauplan
459:kingdom
455:Metazoa
427:Manidae
333:sponges
299:, i.e.
267:animals
69:Archean
44:Present
4434:
4427:
4403:
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1537:squids
1535:, and
1529:snails
1504:. The
1477:, and
1404:organs
1398:, and
1396:corals
1373:Cyprus
1332:thrips
1233:sound.
1213:family
1164:thorax
1131:, and
1129:oxygen
1108:orders
1001:, and
987:polyps
953:cerata
933:snails
897:snails
855:Total:
816:Others
723:2,175
707:Corals
641:Snails
586:Image
566:extant
439:family
431:phylum
331:, and
261:is an
4199:S2CID
4151:S2CID
3745:JSTOR
3585:S2CID
3128:S2CID
2817:S2CID
2121:S2CID
2105:JSTOR
1993:genes
1912:phyla
1883:worms
1533:clams
1454:crabs
1353:Phyla
1340:Acari
1166:, or
1125:water
1098:that
1030:leech
1014:hosts
980:coral
941:Slugs
833:worms
685:Clams
486:laity
415:taxon
395:vorto
391:verto
305:phyla
275:spine
218:Clade
4467:2005
4432:OCLC
4425:ISSN
4401:OCLC
4383:OCLC
4366:OCLC
4356:ISBN
4339:OCLC
4329:ISBN
4312:OCLC
4302:ISBN
4285:OCLC
4275:ISBN
4258:OCLC
4248:ISBN
4230:OCLC
4167:2019
4143:PMID
4135:ISSN
4090:2015
4050:OCLC
4025:ISBN
4000:ISBN
3975:ISBN
3952:PMID
3944:ISSN
3899:ISBN
3844:2019
3812:ISBN
3789:PMID
3737:ISSN
3687:2007
3657:PMID
3620:2008
3577:PMID
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2113:PMID
1963:and
1918:and
1906:and
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1460:and
1421:The
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1180:gill
1176:bees
1174:and
1160:head
1123:for
1080:crop
1011:fish
1007:gill
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915:The
899:and
869:IUCN
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767:165
745:900
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