311:, one of which would be required, and another permitted to count as an elective. In the second year, students received training in one of the following technical fields: communication, technology, engineering, food science, bio-medicine, and pre-school education. Students would graduate after teaching at the school in their last year. The school advertised that it offered agriculture, bio-medicine, communications technology, and three engineering options—construction, electrical, and mechanical. According to Fuller, these areas of expertise would prepare a student "to contribute to African people in the U.S. or on the Continent of Africa." In an article in
187:. However, he could not extend the school's budget beyond $ 82,000, the total amount of donations he received. The tuition for MXLU was $ 300 per year, and financial aid was available, but the school expected students who could pay more to pay more. Admissions staff interviewed applicants, and about fifty students enrolled. Most of them were political activists in their previous schools who were expelled for their involvement in protests. The school held its opening ceremony on October 25, 1969, and classes began two days after the inauguration. The administration formally named itself the "Council of Elders" soon after the school opened.
131:
issued an ultimatum to the black student protesters: the school would call the police if they did not leave. They countered by threatening to burn the university's records if police were to arrive. Later that day, a large group of white students who sympathized with the occupants congregated outside the building, so Duke called the police. The police tried to evacuate the building with tear gas, and a riot ensued. The occupants acquiesced to the administration's demands for fear of expulsion, and eventually, a trial placed forty-eight of them on probation.
392:, claimed to be against the separatist motives of the school. He said: "We must not mislead our young people. We are playing for keeps. Swahili is an interesting language but we are not using it on IBM cards right now. Let's quit kidding white people that we're going to get on a boat and go back to Africa." These opponents believed integration would be necessary in order to gain social, political, and economic equality. However, during an interview on television, Fuller said: "This isn't a 'back-to-African' thing", so he did realize that
367:. The school's administration anticipated criticism for reverse discrimination because MXLU mostly admitted black students and hired black staff members. In defense, the Council of Elders responded in writing, "MXLU would be open to all who desire an education which would prepare then to work with groups of black persons. Because black students are more committed to the cause of solving the problems of being black in America, the student body would be mostly black."
315:, MXLU staffer Jim Grant described the school's curriculum in detail. According to Grant, MXLU's students did not get weekends off unless there was an emergency. They spent two hours on "physical development" every morning, which includes a three-mile run. Each student must devote eighteen hours every week to focus on his or her skill area and "eight hours in selective technology." The remaining time, students studied and performed physical labor.
146:, the spokesman of the Black Economic Development Conference (or BEDC), wrote a document called the "Black Manifesto" demanding reparations from whites for certain projects benefiting the black community, including black universities. The BEDC published it, asking for $ 500 million from white churches and synagogues. In accord with the "Black Manifesto", the diocese of the North Carolina
135:
regarding the integration of "Afro-American studies" into its curriculum. One of these activists, Howard Fuller, conceived of building an alternative school for primarily
African studies whose administration and student body would be predominantly black. He was able to do this by working with The Foundation for Community Development, and its executive director,
376:
a rumor that Fuller used MXLU as an arsenal sprung up from an article published in a local newspaper. The reporter claimed that firefighters found guns in a school's dorm and that ammunition exploded in the fire. The name "Malcolm X" in the school's name aroused further suspicions that Fuller was planning a violent uprising against Durham's white population.
352:. MXLU, on the other hand, challenged this notion by affirming that "any black person who accepted the goals and objectives of MXLU" would be eligible to apply. The school's administrators could not come to a consensus over the definition of these goals, and internal ideological disputes divided the school into factions, ultimately leading to its demise.
379:
Another reason MXLU ran out of funds was that the school failed to garner support from large organizations in the South. Acceptance by larger black universities or civil rights groups was crucial because they would help not only to fund the small school, but also to defend it from criticisms of major
375:
Fuller could not garner sufficient funds after the end of 1969 because of the controversies surrounding him and MXLU's sources of funding. First, many people in the
Episcopal Church criticized it for abiding by the "Black Manifesto", and they deemed Fuller guilty by association. In another instance,
273:
The school's goals centered on the concept of Black Power and Pan-Africanism. Initially, Fuller designed MXLU's curriculum with two different types of courses. For the first ten months, students took courses in nation-building: independent african civilization, slavery, neo-colonialism, colonialism,
251:
MXLU grew much of its own food and made efforts in community outreach. At first, the school required female students to prepare their own meals. After a few months, both men and women received meals from two local restaurants. Teachers operated the Early
Educational Center for preschool children in
130:
program, one of the "Black
Demands", but the AAS grew impatient and decided to stage a protest. On the morning of February 13, 1969, the AAS organized an occupation of the Allen Building, the location of all the records of previous students. Knight refused to comply with some of the demands, and he
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for two months, followed by areas of concentration. Student would have up to ten months to complete the technical courses in order to pursue careers as the following: "food scientists, tailors, architects, engineers, medics, cadre leaders, communications technicians, physical developers, teachers,
231:
MXLU moved to a different location a year after it opened. For the 1969-70 academic year, MXLU was located on 426-428 East
Pettigrew Street in Durham, NC. Then, in October 1970, it moved to 708 Asheboro Street (now known as Martin Luther King Drive) in Greensboro, NC. The school needed to relocate
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in several ways. Most universities assess students based on their scores on classwork and tests, but MXLU encouraged educators to reexamine the effectiveness of an academic grading system. For example, the school allowed students to apply their knowledge to a greater degree, including in Africa.
344:
community; it does not provide an ideological or practical methodology for meeting the physical, social, psychological, economic and cultural needs of Black people. Malcolm X Liberation
University is a direct response to this vacuum." Furthermore, most universities in America based admissions on
134:
The protest revealed to the black community that the administration was not sympathetic enough to its demands. After the Allen
Building Takeover, some civil rights activists in Durham believed that Duke's administration did not satisfactorily address the demands of its black students, especially
105:
The Black Power
Movement shaped the political climate for the Allen Building Takeover, which led to the creation of MXLU. The movement inspired the formation of Duke University's Afro-American Society (or AAS). Many Black Power activists in the American South adopted the separatist ideologies of
407:, these disparate ideologies caused the school to fall apart. The school's administrators shut out MXLU from the rest of the world so that they could shield it from the white media, but the isolation also discouraged potential donors from contributing to an institution that lacked transparency.
150:
gave Fuller $ 45,000, and several anonymous sources donated smaller amounts of money. However, the donation was an outrage to some white members of the church, and the resulting controversy made further donations unlikely. The school had only $ 12,000 left by
November 15, so Fuller sought other
214:
scholar specializing in post-colonial studies and wrote many non-fiction academic books on
African history, politics and economics among other subjects. He stated that he sought admission to Malcolm X Liberation University from Owusu Sadaukai, the school's founder and president, whom he met in
298:
After moving to Greensboro, the MXLU program was changed to three years. The first year would consist of mandatory courses in the following areas: history, development of black political thought in the U.S., language, culture expression, speech, physical development, and a series of year-long
343:
Malcolm X Liberation University was a novel experiment in higher education. A document in the Cleveland Sellers Jr. Papers in the Avery Institute College of Charleston highlighted the primary goal of the new school: "The existing system of education does not respond to the needs of the Black
247:
Initially, fifty-one students enrolled at MXLU. After moving to Greensboro, sixty-five students from seventeen states attended the school, but by the end of the third year, only two dozen students remained. Numerous expulsions contributed to the drastic decline in the student population.
97:'s campus. It operated from October 25, 1969 to June 28, 1973. One of the main reasons the school closed was that political conflicts damaged the school's reputation, making it more difficult to acquire funding. Due to financial setbacks, the school operated for only three years.
264:
in 1902", which was failing due to financial problems. However, he was unsuccessful because a trustee of the Palmer Memorial Institute resigned in protest. Then, a petition by a biracial interest group against the sale ensued, and it eventually put an end to the transaction.
360:
Since teachers would travel to Africa with the students, teachers evaluated students on whether their projects were successful. Consequently, students did not receive grades. Instead, they could only graduate after demonstrating proficiency in community involvement.
114:
through any means necessary, including violence and self-defense. In early 1969, the AAS issued a set of over ten demands for the university's administration, most of which reflected the black students' dissatisfaction with the inadequacy of
252:
the community and the Children of Africa program for older youth. The school was associated with the Young African Warriors program and Willie Grimes Community School. At one point, Fuller tried to expand the school by buying the
1324:
240:. Nonetheless, the school cited the reason for the move as accommodating more students. MXLU chose Greensboro because of the city's higher political activity and historical significance as a hotspot for
1339:
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black expressionists, administrators, and linguists." Finally, MXLU would grant students internships so that they could practice their respective fields before graduating after the fourth year.
1319:
1334:
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93:(also known as Owusu Sadaukai), Bertie Howard, and several other African American activists in North Carolina founded the school in response to the 1969 Allen Building Takeover on
1057:
From Malcolm X to Malcolm X Liberation University: A Liberatory Philosophy of Education, Black Student Radicalism and Black Independent Educational Institution Building, 1960–1973
331:
An economic system must be set up which reflects traditional communalism transformed to fit modern technological advances and fair distribution of wealth and responsibility.
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410:
On June 28, 1973, Owusu Saudakai (Howard Fuller changed his name earlier) officially closed MXLU. He noted that the school would only remain open if it could meet the
380:
opponents. Instead, Fuller made a series of statements that turned away many of his potential supporters. Kelly Alexander, head of the North Carolina chapter of the
139:. He listed a fifteen-member board of trustees, which included Bertie Howard, Sandra Philpot and Timothy Harris, in the charter. They were all residents of Durham.
403:
Political differences within the Council of Elders did not allow the administration to reach a consensus over the structure of MXLU's curriculum. According to Dr.
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1304:
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Land is necessary for the control of the destinies of all African people. This can only be brought about by the development of a strong and unified Africa.
318:
MXLU's leaders claimed that an MXLU education aligned with the idea of Pan-Africanism. Grant summarized the tenets of Pan-Africanism as the following:
190:
One of the students who was admitted into Malcolm X Liberation University in November 1972 but stayed there only briefly before going to school in
334:
True freedom can only come about through the destruction of capitalism, colonialism, imperialism, neo-colonialism, and white European nationalism.
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110:. Before the Nation of Islam allegedly assassinated him in 1965, Malcolm X lent credence to militant tactics, leading to a movement for
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By mostly accepting black students to promote Black Power, MXLU drew people's attention towards the ethicality of
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219:, Tanzania, when Sadaukai visited Tanzania in 1972, a few months before Mwakikagile left for the
325:
All black people everywhere are linked historically by a common heritage and common oppression.
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123:, who reluctantly agreed to consider the implementation of an Afro-American Studies program.
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1242:
We Are an African People: Independent Education, Black Power, and the Radical Imagination
414:'needs of the people' and that he would not keep it going 'just because it was our thing.
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seminars. The school also offered only foreign African languages during the first year:
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233:
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74:
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220:
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204:
Relations Between Africans and African Americans: Misconceptions, Myths and Realities
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127:
119:
on campus. The organization negotiated at first with the university's president, Dr.
1166:
143:
116:
1240:
1218:
Our Separate Ways: Women and the Black Freedom Movement in Durham, North Carolina
1216:
1101:
984:
152:
70:
1149:
Grant, Jim (January 1, 1972). "Malcolm X Liberation University in Third Year".
176:
151:
sources of revenue. He set up fundraising campaigns in major American cities:
82:
1035:
Malcolm X Liberation University: An Experiment in Independent Black Education
384:, did not support MXLU because he believed it was too radical. Others, like
107:
199:
191:
1103:
Liberalism, Black Power, and the Making of American Politics, 1965–1980
184:
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164:
160:
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291:
381:
1081:
The Church Awakens: African Americans and the Search for Justice
349:
69:) was an experimental educational institution inspired by the
1325:
Defunct private universities and colleges in North Carolina
1063:
dissertation). University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
126:
President Knight was away on a trip to procure funds for a
1239:(2016). "The Black University and the 'Total Community'".
1272:. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press.
1221:. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press.
1186:
Education for Liberation: Malcolm X Liberation University
1013:
Special Research Projects: Remembering Black Main Streets
986:
Durham County: A History of Durham County, North Carolina
989:(Second ed.). Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.
142:
Donations allowed Howard Fuller to begin building MXLU.
355:
MXLU's curriculum challenged the traditional American
322:
All black people are considered as misplaced Africans.
1015:(Interview). Interviewed by Angela Hornsby-Gutting.
573:"Black Manifesto", Archives of the Episcopal Church
42:
32:
24:
1320:African and Black nationalism in the United States
1193:thesis). University of North Carolina at Asheville
1340:Post–civil rights era in African-American history
208:Reflections on Race Relations: A Personal Odyssey
16:Former educational institution in North Carolina
1335:Educational institutions disestablished in 1973
1330:Universities and colleges established in 1969
286:for foreign languages; and other courses for
8:
1106:. Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press.
19:
290:. Then, students and faculty would stay in
18:
1350:1973 disestablishments in North Carolina
1042:thesis). North Carolina State University
1130:Foundation History: North Carolina Fund
431:
1345:1969 establishments in North Carolina
1126:"Speech at "No Easy Walk" Conference"
7:
1032:Belvin, Brent H. (October 6, 2004).
1305:Pan-Africanism in the United States
1245:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1055:Benson, Richard D. (May 14, 2010).
260:, "a black prep school founded by
14:
1262:"Malcolm X Liberation University"
1162:"Malcolm X Liberation University"
1009:"Interview with Claude W. Barnes"
983:Anderson, Jean Bradley (2011).
274:and independent african world;
232:due to the construction of the
63:Malcolm X Liberation University
20:Malcolm X Liberation University
1270:Encyclopedia of North Carolina
1136:, University of North Carolina
1019:, University of North Carolina
202:as he explained in his books,
28:October 25, 1969–June 28, 1973
1:
1183:Wilson, Rebecca (Fall 2008).
1160:Hopkins, Chuck (March 1970).
1134:Southern Oral History Program
1017:Southern Oral History Program
1366:
1215:Greene, Christina (2005).
258:Palmer Memorial Institute
77:movements and located in
1315:African-American culture
1152:The Philadelphia Tribune
313:The Philadelphia Tribune
236:through the district of
262:Charlotte Hawkins Brown
210:. He became a renowned
1310:Memorials to Malcolm X
1100:Fergus, Devin (2009).
1007:(September 27, 2002).
915:Belvin, 2004, p. 80-81
879:Belvin, 2004, p. 82-83
870:Belvin, 2004, p. 82-83
753:Belvin, 2004, p. 76-77
744:Belvin, 2004, p. 76-77
735:Belvin, 2004, p. 76-77
708:Belvin, 2004, p. 68-69
645:Anderson, 2011, p. 374
582:Anderson, 2011, p. 374
501:Belvin, 2004, p. 27-28
365:reverse discrimination
1260:Toosi, Nahal (2006).
1124:(December 14, 1996).
591:Anderson, 2011, p. 75
398:moving back to Africa
390:National Urban League
339:Experimental pedagogy
47:Durham and Greensboro
1085:Episcopal Church USA
672:Benson, 2010, p. 132
564:Benson, 2010, p. 183
537:Benson, 2010, p. 100
492:Benson, 2010, p. 110
348:scores, such as the
969:Belvin, 2004, p. 77
960:Belvin, 2004, p. 77
951:Belvin, 2004, p. 82
924:Belvin, 2004, p. 81
906:Belvin, 2004, p. 67
897:Belvin, 2004, p. 80
888:Belvin, 2004, p. 56
852:Belvin, 2004, p. 49
843:Wilson, 2008, p. 15
834:Belvin, 2004, p. 65
825:Belvin, 2004, p. 47
789:Belvin, 2004, p. 70
780:Belvin, 2004, p. 70
771:Belvin, 2004, p. 70
762:Belvin, 2004, p. 19
681:Fergus, 2009, p. 30
654:Belvin, 2004, p. 75
636:Belvin, 2004, p. 48
627:Belvin, 2004, p. 64
609:Belvin, 2004, p. 47
600:Belvin, 2004, p. 75
555:Belvin, 2004, p. 33
546:Belvin, 2004, p. 48
528:Belvin, 2004, p. 29
519:Belvin, 2004, p. 28
510:Belvin, 2004, p. 28
483:Benson, 2010, p. 71
196:Godfrey Mwakikagile
21:
1266:Powell, William S.
1083:. Archives of the
933:Wilson, 2008, p. 3
816:Wilson, 2008, p. 2
474:Benson, 2010, p. 1
465:Benson, 2010, p. 1
288:physical education
244:during the 1960s.
1279:978-0-8078-3071-0
1252:978-0-19-986147-7
1237:Rickford, Russell
1228:978-0-8078-2938-7
1113:978-0-8203-3323-6
1077:"Black Manifesto"
1005:Barnes, Claude W.
996:978-0-8223-4983-9
807:Grant, 1972, p. 7
798:Grant, 1972, p. 7
726:Grant, 1972, p. 7
717:Grant, 1972, p. 7
690:Grant, 1972, p. 7
346:standardized test
137:Nathan T. Garrett
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621:
618:Hopkins, 1970
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35:
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1167:Negro Digest
1165:
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1129:
1102:
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1080:
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153:Los Angeles
71:Black Power
1299:Categories
1132:(Speech).
1069:2142/15535
422:References
269:Curriculum
177:Pittsburgh
83:Greensboro
427:Footnotes
108:Malcolm X
1285:July 12,
1197:July 12,
1174:July 12,
1140:July 12,
1091:July 12,
1046:July 12,
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200:Tanzania
192:Michigan
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238:Hayti
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