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then, posit that a difference in educational levels of men and women is responsible for persistent occupational segregation. Because of their alleged fewer educational merits, their lower salary is justified. Contrary to this theory, however, over past 40 years, women's educational attainment has outpaced that of men. One area of education that might play a substantial role in occupational segregation, however, is the dearth of women in science and mathematics. STEM fields tend to be pipelines to higher paying jobs. Therefore, the lack of women in higher paying jobs might be partially because they do not pursue science and mathematics in school. This can be seen in areas such as finance, which is very mathematics heavy and is also a very popular field for those who eventually rise to high status positions in the private sector. This choice, like others, is often a personal preference or made because of the cultural idea that women are not as good as men at mathematics.
2127:
women are given but their salary as well. Data from
Equitable Growth states the wage gap between black women and white men is "often interpreted by economists as the closest approximation of real discrimination". Of the observed variables, however, racial and gender differences in industry and occupationâcollectively referred to as workplace segregationâexplain by far the largest portion of the gap (28 percent, or 10 cents for every dollar earned by a white man)". One of the main reasons occupational segregation is an issue for black women in the first place is the racial and ethnic discrepancy in access to high-quality educational and financial resources, which hurts childrenâs educational outcomes, and college access results in long-term labor market opportunities instead of higher-paying jobs.
2523:
programs like diversity training and diversity evaluations, which are intended to stop managerial stereotypes through education. When workplaces incorporated programs designed to help women and minorities increase their reach, like networking or mentoring, their diversity increased moderately. Programs that worked considerably were those that changed the structure of the workplace and held them responsible for change, such as affirmative action plans, diversity committees, and diversity staff positions. These programs acknowledge that segregation is systemic and more than just individual bias. White women benefit the most from affirmative action, and black women benefit more than black men. Implementation of these programs allow for the other programs to work better too.
2322:
of the wage gap. In addition, women's wages are negatively affected by the percentage of females in a job, but men's wages are essentially unaffected. Wages decreases occur for all workers, regardless of race. The crowding hypothesis postulates that occupational segregation lowers all women's earnings as a result of women's exclusion from primarily male occupations and segregation into a number of predominantly female-dominated occupations. Given that feminine skills are traditionally rewarded less both in salary and prestige, the crowding of women into certain occupations makes these occupations valued less in both pay and prestige.
2302:
Networks can lead to unequal access to job opportunities and for minorities, result in reduced competition for higher paid job markets and increased competition in lower ones. This results in a decrease in wage price for the labor markets. Black and Latino men who use networks mainly consisting of their own race have a lower rate of employment, while white men will have higher rates of employment. Additionally, for those who immigrate illegally, it is easier to get certain low paying jobs. Because they often network within their community, these jobs are further concentrated with certain racial/ethnic groups.
2298:
responsibilities. The last factor, in particular, leads women to prioritize the geographical proximity of paid employment when searching for a job. In addition, most people have been found to find their jobs through informal contacts. The gendered nature of social life leads women to have networks with smaller geographical reach than men. Thus, the location of women in female-dominated occupations which are lower-status and lower pay is the result of "severe day-to-day time constraints" rather than a conscious and long-term choice made that would be able to maximize pay and prestige.
2259:
characteristics depended mostly on age, education, race, and other characteristics rather than on gender. In addition, other research has shown that men and women likely hold endogenous job preferences, meaning that their preferences are due to the jobs they hold and those they have held in the past rather than related inherently to gender. After taking into consideration men and women's jobs, there is no difference in their job preferences. Men and women engaged in similar types of work have similar levels of commitment to work and display other similar preferences.
2119:(1929 - 1933) caused many African Americans to be fired first compared to others in their companies, which caused them to turn towards self employment, with jobs such as housework or opening up their own businesses as dressmakers or shop owners. In the 1940s, the types of jobs available began to shift from industrial to service, while the agricultural portion switched to machines that did not require many workers. This shift both created new jobs and pushed other jobs out. Racial segregation began to decline after the creation of Title VII of the
2285:
their recruiting and advertising to people who are not women or racial minorities. At the same time, employers systematically undervalue the work of women and racial/ethnic minorities in a concept known as valuative discrimination. For many jobs, in between the point of contact and the completion of the application, one of the roles of human resources is to direct applicants to certain jobs. Human resource steering can occur when this role is used to turn women and racial minorities to jobs with lower salaries.
2268:
who cannot speak
English. Immigrants may experience over or under education. Those who do not have high proficiency in English are limited to low paying jobs that also have low expectations for skills not pertaining to language. Since minority workers tend to be younger (the median ages of Hispanic, Native American, black, and Asian workers being 35, 38, 39 and 39 respectively, compared to the median age of white people, which is 42), they have less experience, which makes them less competitive candidates.
2077:. However, in the past, occupational segregation with regards to race has not been well researched, with many studies choosing to compare two groups instead of multiple. Due to the fact that different genders of different racial/ethnic backgrounds experience different obstacles, measuring occupational segregation is more nuanced. Ultimately, occupational segregation results in wage gaps and the loss of opportunities for capable candidates who are overlooked because of their gender and race.
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Claims of discrimination are sent to the EEOC to be resolved. The EEOC also seeks out places where systemic discrimination occurs. It can have both direct and indirect effects in resolving discrimination: it can help the victim win cases against discrimination of their company, while simultaneously influencing companies around them to change their policies to avoid possible future transgressions. It also sets precedents in court under Title VII.
2163:
housework" movement in the late 1970s showcased the importance of gender inequality in the workplace. Socialist feminists critiqued the exploitation of women's household and reproductive labor, since it was not viewed as a commodity that deserved payment in the market economy. Women often experience working a "double day" or "second shift" when they go to a wage-earning job and then come home to take care of children and the home.
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the personâs degree of education, the value they place on different occupations, their emotions in response to the world around them, and the environmental restrictions they have. Adults choose jobs that have a work environment that is familiar to them and that they believe has value. Although individuals have different preferences for the jobs they want, society and job inequality can influence these choices.
2272:
races/ethnicities with the same educational level, there are still differences, suggesting that this is not the only reason why a wage gap exists. Black men who graduate from high school or drop out have an unemployment rate double the unemployment rate of their white peers. People who belong to a racial/ethnic minority will have a disadvantage in getting a job, regardless of their educational background.
2206:"School Teachers," "University and Vocational Education Teachers," and "Miscellaneous Education Professionals." These categories are then further broken down into subcategories. While these categories aptly describe the divisions within education, they are not comparable to the hierarchical categories within other occupations, and thus make comparisons of levels of vertical segregation quite difficult.
2237:
Women are treated to more segregation than men; however, the comparison of different sexes shows that a higher racial/ethnic disparity exists within men in comparison to their female counterparts. Within the workplace, the distribution of
Hispanic, Asian, African American, and Native American women is very similar. Nonetheless, within low paid jobs, Hispanic women represent the largest demographic.
51:
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2065:
segregated within themselves because of the differing jobs, but this is difficult to detect in terms of occupational data. Occupational segregation compares different groups and their occupations within the context of the entire labor force. The value or prestige of the jobs are typically not factored into the measurements.
2215:
be concentrated in both low pay jobs, such as sewing machine operators or tailors, and high pay jobs like medical or computer engineering jobs. This range may be due to the fact that within the âAsianâ category, data for different ethnicities differ, such as between
Southeast Asians and East Asians. When the factors of
2539:
Some scholars, such as
Haveman and Beresford, therefore argue that any policies aimed at reducing occupational inequality must focus on culture changes. According to Haveman and Beresford, people in the United States have historically tended to reject policies that only support one group (unless that
2476:
It is important to note that Duncan's D uses percentages. In a given occupation, the number of a certain demographic in that occupation should be divided by the total number of the same demographic in all of the occupations. For example: You may have 10 men who are nurses out of 600 total people.
2321:
Women in female-dominated jobs pay two penalties: the average wage of their jobs is lower than that in comparable male-dominated jobs, and they earn less relative to men in the same jobs. Since 1980, occupational segregation is the single largest factor of the gender pay gap, accounting for over half
2223:
Almost 90% of jobs in the United States either overrepresent or underrepresent black males, which demonstrates segregation. Overrepresentation occurs in lower paid jobs, while underrepresentation occurred in higher paid jobs. Jobs with overrepresentation of black and Latino males tend to decrease pay
2201:
describes men's domination of the highest status jobs in both traditionally male and traditionally female occupations. Colloquially, the existence of vertical segregation is referred to as allowing men to ride in a "glass escalator" through which women must watch as men surpass them on the way to the
2068:
Occupational segregation levels differ on a basis of perfect segregation and integration. Perfect segregation occurs where any given occupation employs only one group. Perfect integration, on the other hand, occurs where each group holds the same proportion of positions in an occupation as it holds
2535:
Gender egalitarian cultural principles, or changes in traditional gender norms, are one possible solution to occupational segregation in that they reduce discrimination, affect women's self-evaluations, and support structural changes. Horizontal segregation, however, is more resistant to change from
2513:
Wages increase as the EEOC charges against an industry increase. In the past few decades, wage increases as a response to filed court cases are larger for black women in comparison to white women. However, this could be due to more black women filing for discrimination. Wilhelm shows that filing for
2275:
Human capital explanations are those that argue that an individual's and a group's occupational and economic success can be at least partially attributed to accumulated abilities developed through formal and informal education and experiences. Human capital explanations for occupational segregation,
2126:
Data has shown that black women at all education levels are placed into jobs with lower wages when their white female peers of similar skill and education levels are given higher paid jobs due solely to their racial advantage. Occupational segregation has not only affected what jobs
African American
2543:
In addition, the more occupational integration that occurs, the more women are in the positions to make powerful decisions affecting occupational segregation. If the overall market becomes less segregated, those who make personnel decisions in traditionally female-dominated occupations will have to
2483:
Because it compares ratios of both groups, a score of 0 means that there is equal representation between the two groups, while a score of 1 demonstrates a high concentration of one group and unequal distribution between both groups. The number derived from this equation is equal to the proportional
2254:
Some women self-select out of higher status positions, choosing instead to have more time to spend at home and with their families. According to Sarah
Damaske, this choice is often made because high status positions do not allow time for the heavy domestic workload that many women expect to take on
2250:
According to Eli
Ginzberg, self-selection starts at a young age, and has many different stages. As children begin thinking about jobs, they are open to all possibilities and are not limited by their gender, race, or social class. At the end of young adulthood, the final occupation choice depends on
2214:
Different minorities have different factors influencing their segregation. In the United States, Alonso-Villar et al. concluded that Asians are the most segregated group based on data of the overall distribution of employment, while
Hispanics are the most segregated in local markets. Asians tend to
2205:
Vertical segregation can be somewhat difficult to measure across occupations because it refers to hierarchies within individual occupations. For example, the category of
Education Professionals (a category in the Australian Standard Classification of Occupations, Second Edition) is broken down into
2090:
Over the last century in the United States, there has been a surprising stability of segregation-index scores, which measure the level of occupational segregation of the labor market. There were declines in occupational segregation in the 1970s and 1980s, as technologies that made the care work of
2064:
and ethnicity segregation, and sexual orientation segregation. These demographic characteristics often intersect. While a job refers to an actual position in a firm or industry, an occupation represents a group of similar jobs that require similar skill requirements and duties. Many occupations are
2267:
Minorities are subjected to a language barrier. For some immigrants, despite having high levels of experience in the country they come from, they are unable to obtain an equally ranked job due to unfamiliarity with the language. Many immigrants who come to the United States are Asians or Hispanics
2236:
of race/ethnicity and gender in occupational segregation means that the two factors build on one another in a complex way to create their own unique sets of issues. Between genders, there are preconceived notions; when gender is further split up by race and ethnicity, stereotypes differ even more.
2325:
Crowding is found to be alleviated through macro-changes in occupational segregation. Teaching, for example, at least in recent generations, is traditionally a female-dominated profession. However, when positions open up for women in business and other high-earning occupations, school boards must
2284:
Employers can influence the pay disparity for women and minorities in three ways. They may do this through sorting women and racial minorities into lower paying jobs while their counterparts receive higher paying jobs, selectively not choosing women and racial minorities for promotions, and cater
2103:
after the 1990s is extensive but data for racial segregation is less comprehensive. Additionally, although it is easy to see national trends, it does not always reflect the trends within different sectors. Certain regions of the United States are more prone to occupational segregation. Due to the
2345:
The abilities women and minorities can offer are wasted because they are allocated to inappropriate roles. Those who are highly skilled cannot contribute to the "constantly changing labor economy", resulting in a decrease in efficiency and diverse thinking. To actively keep black people out of
2497:
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was designed to ensure fair treatment and legal protection to women and minority groups. Title VII states that it is illegal to âdiscriminate in employment based on a personâs race, color, religion, sex, or national origin,â and is enforced by the EEOC.
2288:
Human capital explanations posit that men tend to rise to higher positions than women because of a disparity in work experience between the genders. The gap between men and women's tenure rises with age, and female college graduates are more likely than males to interrupt their careers to raise
2329:
Wage gaps begin at the point of hire. In Pennerâs study on the role of occupational sorting for starting salary in a firm, he found that the average market salary rate for the women hired was 67 percent of that of men. Compared to that of white people, the average market salary rate for black,
2522:
Common diversity practices include affirmative action plans, diversity committees and task forces, diversity managers, diversity training, diversity evaluations for managers, networking programs, and mentoring programs. Kalev found that diversity in the workplace does not occur as a result of
2301:
Residential communities consisting of a single racial minority in metropolitan areas tend to form job networks due to isolation from other races. Job networks are often used as a better way to find good employment opportunities, but it can be detrimental if it does not result in higher wages.
2162:
emphasized the gendered division of labor as patriarchal control over women's labor. Wally Saccombe suggested the mode of production should become a unity of production and reproduction, in which women's reproductive abilities are viewed as a valuable source of labor or income. The "wages for
2297:
According to sociologists Hanson and Pratt, men and women employ different strategies in their job searches that play a role in occupational segregation. These differing strategies are influenced by power relations in the household, the gendered nature of social life, and women's domestic
2258:
Human capital explanations posit additionally that men are more likely than women to preference their work life over their family life. However, the General Social Survey found that men were only slightly less likely than women to value short hours, and that preferences for particular job
2219:
characteristics and geographic variables are removed, African and Native Americans are the most segregated. While Asians and Hispanics tend to be segregated due to their individual skills and characteristics, black people and Native Americans tend to be unconditionally segregated against.
2544:
make jobs, even higher status jobs, more attractive to women to retain them. School boards, for example, will have to appoint more women to department head positions and other positions of authority in order to retain women workers, whereas those jobs might previously have gone to men.
2271:
Low education accounts for a large percentage of why Native Americans and black people are more segregated in the workplace. However, although racial and ethnicity differences in education levels is said to be the primary explanation for the wage gap, when comparing the wages between
2202:
top positions. Generally, the less occupational segregation present in a country, the less vertical segregation there is because women have a better chance of obtaining the highest positions in a given occupation as their share of employment in that particular occupation increases.
2505:
receives a report covering the race, ethnicity, and gender of employees in nine different categories from each private employer that have âmore than 100 employees and government contractors with more than 50 employees and contracts worth $ 50,000.â This was required by the
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group is them). Therefore, effective policies for limiting occupational segregation must aim to provide benefits across groups. Therefore, policies that aim at capping work hours for salaried workers or mandate on-site employer sponsored childcare might be most effective.
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2526:
One drawback to initiatives such as affirmative action is that people may view women and minorities as undeserving of their positions. Other pushbacks to diversity training include white guilt and perceptions that minorities are trying to gain power over them.
2536:
simply modern egalitarian pressures. Changes in norms may reinforce the impact of occupational integration in that once people see women in traditionally male-dominated occupations, their expectations about women in the labor market might be changed.
2180:
who entered the economy during post-industrial restructuring primarily entered into service-sector jobs where they could work part-time and have flexible hours. While these options are often appealing to mothers, who are often responsible for the
2330:
Hispanics, and Asians were 72, 84, and 90 percent, respectively. Since market salary rates are predetermined before the applicants are hired, the differences in market salaries between each group is the result of occupational sorting.
2255:
due to the gendered division of labor in the home. Working-class women in particular also sometimes self-select out of more time-intensive or higher-status positions to maintain the traditional gender hierarchy and household accord.
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Calculate the percentage of men (or other ascribed category) who work in each of the occupations and the percentage of women who work in each occupation. Give each group a variable name (e.g. when comparing men and women,
2072:
Many scholars, such as Biblarz et al., argue that occupational segregation often occurs in patterns, either horizontally (across occupations) or vertically (within the hierarchy of occupations) and is most likely caused by
2326:
raise the salaries of potential teachers to attract candidates. This is an example of how even women in traditionally female-dominated professions still benefit salary-wise from the gendered integration of the market.
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Horizontal segregation refers to differences in the number of people of each gender presents across occupations. Horizontal segregation is likely to be increased by post-industrial restructuring of the economy
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higher positions in the workforce, management often allocates black executives to positions that are more racialized, such as diversity positions or liaison jobs that connect them to the black community.
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Cotter, D.A.; DeFiore, J.; Hermsen, J.M.; Kowalewski, B.M.; Vanneman, R. (1997). "All women benefit: The macro-level effect of occupational integration on gender earnings equality".
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Barone, C. (2011). Some things never change: gender segregation in higher education across eight nations and three decades. Sociol. Educ. 84, 157â176. doi: 10.1177/0038040711402099
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Snyder, Karrie Ann and Adam Isaiah Green. 2008. "'Revisiting the Glass Escalator: The Case of Gender Segregation in a Female Dominated Occupation." Social Problems 55(2): 271-299.
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Von Lockette found that in metropolitan areas with a high concentration of occupational segregation, less-educated black, Latino, and white males received less pay. In areas of
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and teachers are often pictured as women whereas doctors and lawyers are often assumed to be men are examples of how highly ingrained horizontal segregation is in our society.
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MAUME, DAVID J. (November 1999). "Glass Ceilings and Glass Escalators". Work and Occupations. 26 (4): 483â509. doi:10.1177/0730888499026004005. ISSN 0730-8884. S2CID 145308055
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MAUME, DAVID J. (November 1999). "Glass Ceilings and Glass Escalators". Work and Occupations. 26 (4): 483â509. doi:10.1177/0730888499026004005. ISSN 0730-8884. S2CID 145308055
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2337:, white men were able to receive better pay, while black and Latino men received less, which indicates the possibility that social/job networks have an effect on pay.
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2108:, and the slow transition into an industrial economy, the Southâs workforce has been more racially segregated than the rest of the United States.
2115:(1910 - 1970) represented a shift in the African American population from the South to the North, and from agricultural to industrial jobs. The
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The gendered division of labor helps to explain the hierarchy of power across gender identity, class, race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation.
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children. Such choices may also be attributed to the gendered division of labor which holds women primarily responsible for domestic duties.
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of their children and their homes, they are also unfortunately most available in lower-paying and lower-status occupations. The idea that
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3754:"The Strength of a Weak Agency: Enforcement of Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the Expansion of State Capacity, 1965â1971"
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Tomaskovic-Devey, Donald; Zimmer, Catherine; Stainback, Kevin; Robinson, Corre; Taylor, Tiffany; McTague, Tricia (August 2006).
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Chafetz, J.S. (1988). "The Gender Division of Labor and the Reproduction of Female Disadvantage: Toward an Integrated Theory".
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gender discrimination transgressions is working, but filing for racial discrimination transgressions is less likely to work.
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Charles, M. (2003). "Deciphering Sex Segregation: Vertical and Horizontal Inequalities in Ten National Labor Markets".
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Cohen, P. (2004). "The Gender Division of Labor: 'Keeping House' and Occupational Segregation in the United States".
3804:"The Impact of Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Enforcement on the Wages of Black and White Women, 1988â1996"
3601:"Wage Dynamics and Racial and Ethnic Occupational Segregation among Less-Educated Men in Metropolitan Labor Markets"
2735:"Wage Dynamics and Racial and Ethnic Occupational Segregation among Less-Educated Men in Metropolitan Labor Markets"
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2176:), in which the expansion of service industries has called for many women to enter the workforce. The millions of
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3856:"Best Practices or Best Guesses? Assessing the Efficacy of Corporate Affirmative Action and Diversity Policies"
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Burris, Val. "The Dialectic of Women's Oppression: Notes of the Relation Between Capitalism and Patriarchy".
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4132:"If you're so smart, why aren't you the boss? Explaining the persistent vertical gender gap in management"
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3255:"The Extent of Occupational Segregation in the United States: Differences by Race, Ethnicity, and Gender"
2634:"The Extent of Occupational Segregation in the United States: Differences by Race, Ethnicity, and Gender"
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2995:"Documenting Desegregation: Segregation in American Workplaces by Race, Ethnicity, and Sex, 1966â2003"
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4217:"On the Conceptualisation and Measurement of Horizontal and Vertical Occupational Gender Segregation"
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4179:"Concealable Stigma and Occupational Segregation: Toward a Theory of Gay and Lesbian Occupations"
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3687:
3628:
3426:
3376:
3329:
3282:
3119:
3072:
3022:
2937:
2890:
2816:
2762:
2708:
2661:
2588:
2558:
2147:
2061:
1723:
1718:
1708:
1656:
1646:
1621:
1555:
1513:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1319:
608:
4100:
Damaske, S. (2004). "A 'Major Career Woman'? How Women Develop Early Expectations About Work".
3916:
Biblarz, T. J.; Bengtson, V. L.; Bucur, A. (1996). "Social mobility across three generations".
6400:
6311:
6239:
6224:
6023:
5966:
5771:
5679:
5570:
5490:
5337:
4634:
3966:
3875:
3823:
3773:
3726:
3679:
3620:
3502:
3418:
3368:
3321:
3274:
3111:
3064:
3014:
2929:
2882:
2808:
2754:
2700:
2653:
2233:
1990:
1901:
1829:
1814:
1597:
1540:
1339:
1249:
1140:
1060:
899:
172:
3399:"Race and Gender Differences in Wages: The Role of Occupational Sorting at the Point of Hire"
2863:"Race and Gender Differences in Wages: The Role of Occupational Sorting at the Point of Hire"
6363:
6348:
6276:
6197:
6167:
5998:
5834:
5540:
5108:
5103:
4954:
4852:
4228:
4195:
4148:
4118:
4080:
4036:
3997:
3988:
3958:
3925:
3867:
3815:
3765:
3718:
3671:
3612:
3410:
3360:
3313:
3266:
3159:
3155:
3103:
3056:
3006:
2921:
2874:
2800:
2746:
2692:
2645:
1953:
1938:
1866:
1787:
1757:
1572:
1408:
1110:
670:
665:
508:
398:
6466:
6378:
6286:
6182:
6131:
5991:
5976:
5956:
5921:
5634:
5545:
5480:
5287:
5232:
4877:
4267:
2563:
2100:
1968:
1876:
1772:
1713:
1565:
1550:
1530:
1495:
1204:
1115:
1050:
849:
794:
423:
5018:
3092:"The Occupational Segregation of African American Women: Its Evolution from 1940 to 2010"
572:
17:
6373:
6331:
6301:
6291:
6209:
6202:
6187:
6177:
6013:
5949:
5891:
5886:
5871:
5654:
5649:
5644:
5530:
5465:
4996:
4969:
4822:
4524:
4122:
3495:
2316:
2159:
1963:
1921:
1891:
1881:
1799:
1792:
1777:
1767:
1587:
1523:
1465:
1460:
1445:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1100:
1035:
550:
523:
368:
42:
4109:
Hanson, S.; Pratt, G. (1991). "Job Search and the Occupational Segregation of Women".
3398:
3254:
2862:
6450:
6385:
6008:
5944:
5929:
5791:
5756:
5736:
5607:
5550:
5485:
4899:
4802:
4207:
4160:
4009:
3835:
3785:
3738:
3632:
3414:
3380:
3286:
3270:
3123:
3076:
2941:
2878:
2766:
2712:
2665:
2649:
2568:
2216:
2105:
1975:
1582:
1518:
1503:
1359:
1324:
1304:
1177:
1120:
1055:
445:
348:
4048:
3978:
3887:
3430:
3333:
3026:
2894:
2820:
6219:
6106:
5934:
5901:
5881:
5811:
5801:
5781:
5761:
5397:
5297:
5282:
5028:
5003:
4867:
4807:
4772:
4737:
4732:
3091:
1809:
1688:
1508:
1475:
1455:
1379:
1369:
1349:
1329:
959:
859:
844:
582:
557:
413:
353:
318:
283:
278:
3107:
2680:
6121:
6081:
6049:
5916:
5876:
5716:
5629:
5580:
5555:
5455:
5150:
4889:
4872:
4827:
4742:
3855:
3301:
2994:
2696:
2573:
2053:
1703:
1663:
1631:
1490:
1450:
1284:
1199:
1150:
1125:
1025:
712:
435:
418:
373:
288:
3962:
3871:
3600:
3317:
3010:
2788:
2734:
6395:
6390:
6271:
6266:
6162:
6146:
6003:
5896:
5854:
5816:
5624:
5612:
5585:
5575:
5495:
4916:
4911:
4882:
4817:
4656:
3706:
3616:
3348:
3044:
2804:
2750:
1985:
1980:
1861:
1856:
1752:
1728:
1577:
1470:
1428:
1384:
1194:
1182:
1155:
1145:
1065:
462:
457:
428:
363:
194:
4199:
4152:
4040:
4001:
3879:
3827:
3777:
3730:
3722:
3683:
3624:
3422:
3372:
3364:
3325:
3278:
3115:
3068:
3060:
3018:
2933:
2886:
2812:
2758:
2704:
2657:
6296:
6244:
5961:
5560:
4682:
3146:
Mills, Mary Beth (2003). "Gender and Inequality in the Global Labor Force".
2182:
2177:
2091:
the home quicker and easier allowed more women time to enter the workforce.
1886:
1834:
1535:
1130:
228:
50:
3970:
3302:"The Intersection of Race/Ethnicity and Gender in Occupational Segregation"
2362:), which serves as a measure of dissimilarity between two distributions.
6261:
6091:
6018:
5669:
5595:
5500:
5460:
4847:
4842:
4837:
4762:
4757:
4752:
4692:
4286:
4233:
4216:
1851:
1673:
1592:
1239:
1165:
1070:
1030:
393:
388:
383:
308:
303:
298:
238:
4060:(1999). "Marriage, children, and women's employment: What do we know?".
3803:
2909:
4767:
4661:
4641:
4614:
4589:
4092:
3819:
3691:
2925:
2477:
The value for the occupation of male nurses should be 10/600, or .0166.
313:
199:
179:
152:
127:
3937:
5721:
4747:
4646:
4624:
4619:
4569:
3659:
2484:
of one group that must change their position for equality to happen.
2074:
2057:
2045:
1289:
293:
184:
162:
157:
107:
4084:
3753:
3675:
3929:
3769:
5731:
4574:
4140:
The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
3905:
Bergmann, B.R. (1981). "The Economic Risks of Being a Housewife".
3599:
Von Lockette, Niki Dickerson; Spriggs, William E. (January 2016).
3497:
Women, Gender, and Work: What is Equality and How Do We Get There?
3253:
ALONSO-VILLAR, OLGA; DEL RIO, CORAL; GRADIN, CARLOS (April 2012).
2733:
Von Lockette, Niki Dickerson; Spriggs, William E. (January 2016).
2186:
1299:
112:
4493:
6343:
6172:
1933:
1762:
4497:
4290:
3464:
3462:
3460:
3458:
3456:
3454:
3452:
2789:"Conditional occupational segregation of minorities in the US"
2049:
3705:
Perry, Nancy; Reybold, L. Earle; Waters, Nigel (2014-03-06).
3347:
Perry, Nancy; Reybold, L. Earle; Waters, Nigel (2014-03-06).
3043:
Perry, Nancy; Reybold, L. Earle; Waters, Nigel (2014-03-06).
3854:
Kalev, Alexandra; Dobbin, Frank; Kelly, Erin (August 2006).
3573:
3571:
3569:
3567:
2910:"Occupational Segregation and the (Mis)allocation of Talent"
2632:
Alonso-Villar, Olga; Rio, Coral Del; Gradin, Carlos (2012).
3542:"Fact Sheet: Occupational Segregation in the United States"
3192:
Bergeron, Suzanne. "Formal, Informal, and Care Economies".
4168:
Mincer, J. (1891). "Human Capital and Economic Growth".
2150:
contribute to this ideology through a Marxist frame of
3259:
Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society
2961:
2959:
2957:
2955:
2953:
2951:
2638:
Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society
2390:
27:
Distribution of workers across and within occupations
3752:
Pedriana, Nicholas; Stryker, Robin (November 2004).
3300:
Mintz, Beth; Krymkowski, Daniel H. (December 2010).
3229:
3227:
2845:
6155:
6032:
5825:
5436:
5078:
4925:
4675:
4562:
4531:
3707:""Everybody Was Looking for a Good Government Job""
3658:Duncan, Otis Dudley; Duncan, Beverly (April 1955).
3349:""Everybody Was Looking for a Good Government Job""
3045:""Everybody Was Looking for a Good Government Job""
2467:{\displaystyle D=(1/2)\sum _{i=1}^{N}(m_{1}-w_{1})}
3660:"A Methodological Analysis of Segregation Indexes"
3494:
3090:Alonso-Villar, Olga; del RĂo, Coral (2016-03-10).
2466:
2060:. Other types of occupational segregation include
6307:Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
4111:Annals of the American Association of Geographers
1897:Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
3468:
5967:Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)
1541:Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)
5449:SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups
1019:SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups
4509:
4302:
3577:
2384:Duncan's D is calculated using this formula:
2022:
8:
4177:Tilcsik, A.; Anteby, M.; Knight, C. (2015).
3558:
5665:List of people killed for being transgender
3528:
2354:Occupational segregation is measured using
1235:List of people killed for being transgender
4516:
4502:
4494:
4309:
4295:
4287:
2029:
2015:
29:
4242:Weeden, K. (2007). Ritzer, George (ed.).
4232:
4030:
2455:
2442:
2429:
2418:
2403:
2389:
4783:Social determinants of health in poverty
2616:
2594:Shared earning/shared parenting marriage
329:Social determinants of health in poverty
4130:Haveman, H.A.; Beresford, L.S. (2012).
3443:
3160:10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093107
2965:
2609:
2503:Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
2493:Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
41:
4263:
4253:
3480:
3392:
3390:
3248:
3246:
3244:
3242:
3038:
3036:
2833:
3849:
3847:
3845:
3808:The Review of Black Political Economy
3797:
3795:
3653:
3651:
3605:The Review of Black Political Economy
3501:. International Labour Organization.
3233:
2988:
2986:
2977:
2914:The Scandinavian Journal of Economics
2782:
2780:
2778:
2776:
2739:The Review of Black Political Economy
2728:
2726:
2724:
2722:
2681:"Glass Ceilings and Glass Escalators"
2627:
2625:
7:
6431:
5471:Capital punishment for homosexuality
4788:Social determinants of mental health
3802:Wilhelm, Sarah A. (September 2002).
2856:
2854:
2554:Achievement gap in the United States
1041:Capital punishment for homosexuality
334:Social determinants of mental health
5591:Genital modification and mutilation
2377:equals the percentage of men, and w
1161:Genital modification and mutilation
4123:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1991.tb01688.x
3918:Journal of Marriage and the Family
3306:International Journal of Sociology
3194:Oxford Handbook of Feminist Theory
2846:Biblarz, Bengtson & Bucur 1996
2793:The Journal of Economic Inequality
25:
3493:Loutfi, Martha Fetherolf (2001).
3397:Penner, Andrew M. (August 2008).
2861:Penner, Andrew M. (August 2008).
2679:MAUME, DAVID J. (November 1999).
2369:Identify N different occupations.
6430:
6421:
6420:
6070:Diversity, equity, and inclusion
5907:Law for Protection of the Nation
5807:White genocide conspiracy theory
4450:
4449:
4187:Administrative Science Quarterly
3415:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2008.00129.x
3271:10.1111/j.1468-232x.2012.00674.x
2879:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2008.00129.x
2650:10.1111/j.1468-232X.2012.00674.x
2381:equals the percentage of women).
1652:Diversity, equity, and inclusion
1481:Law for Protection of the Nation
1375:White genocide conspiracy theory
49:
5912:MSM blood donation restrictions
5660:LGBT grooming conspiracy theory
1486:MSM blood donation restrictions
1230:LGBT grooming conspiracy theory
5925:(as religious or racial quota)
4478:Occupational safety and health
3211:. University of Toronto Press.
2461:
2435:
2411:
2397:
1499:(as religious or racial quota)
1:
6339:Second-generation gender bias
6055:Constitutional colorblindness
4778:Social determinants of health
4437:Therapy in the United Kingdom
3758:American Journal of Sociology
3175:Berkeley Journal of Sociology
3148:Annual Review of Anthropology
3108:10.1080/13545701.2016.1143959
2908:Pothier, David (2017-12-28).
2787:GradĂn, Carlos (2012-09-06).
1929:Second-generation gender bias
1637:Constitutional colorblindness
324:Social determinants of health
4277:"Blackwell Reference Online"
4221:European Sociological Review
4072:American Sociological Review
3908:The American Economic Review
3860:American Sociological Review
3664:American Sociological Review
3469:Haveman & Beresford 2012
2999:American Sociological Review
2056:characteristics, most often
6477:Majorityâminority relations
6462:Income in the United States
6250:Medical model of disability
6102:Hate speech laws by country
2697:10.1177/0730888499026004005
2075:gender-based discrimination
1840:Medical model of disability
1684:Hate speech laws by country
6513:
6359:Social model of disability
4833:Discrimination against men
3963:10.1177/019251388009001006
3872:10.1177/000312240607100404
3403:The Sociological Quarterly
3318:10.2753/ijs0020-7659400402
3207:Bromley, Victoria (2012).
3011:10.1177/000312240607100403
2867:The Sociological Quarterly
2314:
2139:
1949:Social model of disability
379:Discrimination against men
6416:
5712:Opposition to immigration
4625:Race / Ethnicity
4445:
4322:
3617:10.1007/s12114-015-9222-5
2805:10.1007/s10888-012-9229-0
2751:10.1007/s12114-015-9222-5
2142:Sexual division of labour
1280:Opposition to immigration
163:Race / Ethnicity
18:Male-dominated occupation
6472:Sociological terminology
5707:Occupational segregation
5476:Compulsory sterilization
4468:Aspects of organizations
4407:Repetitive strain injury
4244:Occupational Segregation
4200:10.1177/0001839215576401
4153:10.1177/0002716211418443
4041:10.1177/0891243203262037
4002:10.1177/0001699303464001
3950:Journal of Family Issues
3723:10.1177/0096144214524341
3711:Journal of Urban History
3559:Cohen & Bianchi 1999
3365:10.1177/0096144214524341
3353:Journal of Urban History
3061:10.1177/0096144214524341
3049:Journal of Urban History
2508:Civil Rights Act of 1964
2121:Civil Rights Act of 1964
2042:Occupational segregation
1276:Occupational segregation
1046:Compulsory sterilization
6235:Internalized oppression
6097:Fighting Discrimination
6087:Fat acceptance movement
6045:Anti-discrimination law
5685:Native American mascots
4458:Aspects of corporations
3529:Hanson & Pratt 1991
2579:Occupational inequality
2335:residential segregation
2263:Educational disparities
2174:post-industrial society
2044:is the distribution of
1825:Internalized oppression
1679:Fighting Discrimination
1669:Fat acceptance movement
1627:Anti-discrimination law
1255:Native American mascots
6354:Social identity threat
6327:Reverse discrimination
6317:Racial color blindness
5797:Violence against women
5777:Sex-selective abortion
4317:Aspects of occupations
2468:
2434:
2360:index of dissimilarity
2246:Individual preferences
1944:Social identity threat
1917:Reverse discrimination
1907:Racial color blindness
1365:Violence against women
1345:Sex-selective abortion
6322:Religious intolerance
6282:Political correctness
6112:Intersex human rights
6060:Cultural assimilation
5742:Religious persecution
5506:Disability hate crime
4473:Aspects of workplaces
2599:Social stratification
2469:
2414:
2293:Job search strategies
1912:Religious intolerance
1872:Political correctness
1694:Intersex human rights
1642:Cultural assimilation
1310:Religious persecution
1076:Disability hate crime
6497:Feminist terminology
6492:Feminism and society
6457:Gendered occupations
5727:Political repression
4728:Anti-left handedness
4718:Anti-intellectualism
4248:Blackwell Publishing
4215:Watts, M.J. (2005).
4062:Monthly Labor Review
2685:Work and Occupations
2388:
2199:vertical segregation
2104:history of slavery,
2081:In the United States
2069:in the labor force.
1295:Political repression
274:Anti-left handedness
264:Anti-intellectualism
6230:Historical eugenics
5767:Segregation academy
5747:Religious terrorism
5536:Enemy of the people
5444:Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric
4965:Jehovah's Witnesses
4858:Perpetual foreigner
2584:Occupational sexism
2156:means of production
2148:Socialist feminists
1820:Historical eugenics
1335:Segregation academy
1315:Religious terrorism
1106:Enemy of the people
1014:Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric
519:Jehovah's Witnesses
404:Perpetual foreigner
6482:Feminist economics
6142:Social integration
6137:Self-determination
6127:Racial integration
6075:Diversity training
6065:Cultural pluralism
6040:Affirmative action
5940:Racial segregation
5850:Crime of apartheid
5752:Religious violence
5257:Indigenous people
4652:Sexual orientation
4454:See also templates
4234:10.1093/esr/jci034
4170:NBER Working Paper
4102:Gender and Society
4019:Gender and Society
3820:10.1007/bf02717311
3578:Cotter et al. 1997
3096:Feminist Economics
2926:10.1111/sjoe.12206
2589:Online segregation
2559:Division of labour
2531:Changes in culture
2518:Diversity programs
2464:
2341:Lost opportunities
2048:across and within
1724:Social integration
1719:Self-determination
1709:Racial integration
1657:Diversity training
1647:Cultural pluralism
1622:Affirmative action
1514:Racial segregation
1424:Crime of apartheid
1320:Religious violence
819:Indigenous people
190:Sexual orientation
6444:
6443:
6312:Racism by country
6240:Intersectionality
6225:Heteronormativity
6024:Voter suppression
5772:Sexual harassment
5571:Forced conversion
5491:Cultural genocide
5156:African Americans
4975:postâCold War era
4960:Eastern Orthodoxy
4713:Anti-drug addicts
4708:Anti-homelessness
4635:Scientific racism
4491:
4490:
4412:Safety and health
3548:. 3 October 2017.
2234:intersectionality
2228:Intersectionality
2039:
2038:
1902:Racism by country
1830:Intersectionality
1815:Heteronormativity
1598:Voter suppression
1340:Sexual harassment
1141:Forced conversion
1061:Cultural genocide
718:African Americans
529:postâCold War era
514:Eastern Orthodoxy
259:Anti-drug addicts
254:Anti-homelessness
173:Scientific racism
16:(Redirected from
6504:
6434:
6433:
6424:
6423:
6364:Social privilege
6349:Social exclusion
6277:Police brutality
6198:Multiculturalism
6168:Amatonormativity
5999:Social exclusion
5835:Age of candidacy
5635:Homeless dumping
5541:Ethnic cleansing
4518:
4511:
4504:
4495:
4453:
4452:
4311:
4304:
4297:
4288:
4280:
4279:. 31 March 2008.
4271:
4265:
4261:
4259:
4251:
4238:
4236:
4211:
4183:
4173:
4164:
4136:
4126:
4105:
4096:
4065:
4052:
4034:
4013:
3989:Acta Sociologica
3982:
3941:
3912:
3892:
3891:
3851:
3840:
3839:
3799:
3790:
3789:
3749:
3743:
3742:
3702:
3696:
3695:
3655:
3646:
3643:
3637:
3636:
3596:
3590:
3587:
3581:
3575:
3562:
3556:
3550:
3549:
3546:Equitable Growth
3538:
3532:
3526:
3520:
3519:
3517:
3515:
3500:
3490:
3484:
3478:
3472:
3466:
3447:
3441:
3435:
3434:
3394:
3385:
3384:
3344:
3338:
3337:
3297:
3291:
3290:
3250:
3237:
3231:
3222:
3219:
3213:
3212:
3209:Feminisms Matter
3204:
3198:
3197:
3189:
3183:
3182:
3170:
3164:
3163:
3143:
3137:
3134:
3128:
3127:
3087:
3081:
3080:
3040:
3031:
3030:
2990:
2981:
2975:
2969:
2963:
2946:
2945:
2905:
2899:
2898:
2858:
2849:
2843:
2837:
2831:
2825:
2824:
2784:
2771:
2770:
2730:
2717:
2716:
2676:
2670:
2669:
2629:
2620:
2614:
2473:
2471:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2459:
2447:
2446:
2433:
2428:
2407:
2365:To calculate D:
2280:Work disparities
2117:Great Depression
2031:
2024:
2017:
1954:Social privilege
1939:Social exclusion
1867:Police brutality
1788:Multiculturalism
1758:Amatonormativity
1573:Social exclusion
1409:Age of candidacy
1205:Homeless dumping
1111:Ethnic cleansing
53:
30:
21:
6512:
6511:
6507:
6506:
6505:
6503:
6502:
6501:
6447:
6446:
6445:
6440:
6412:
6287:Polyculturalism
6183:Civil liberties
6151:
6132:Reappropriation
6033:Countermeasures
6028:
5957:Racial steering
5923:Numerus clausus
5827:
5821:
5546:Ethnic conflict
5481:Corrective rape
5432:
5074:
4921:
4813:HIV/AIDS stigma
4671:
4620:Mental disorder
4558:
4527:
4522:
4492:
4487:
4463:Aspects of jobs
4441:
4318:
4315:
4285:
4275:
4262:
4252:
4241:
4214:
4181:
4176:
4167:
4134:
4129:
4108:
4099:
4085:10.2307/2657356
4068:
4055:
4032:10.1.1.536.7134
4016:
3985:
3946:
3915:
3904:
3900:
3895:
3853:
3852:
3843:
3801:
3800:
3793:
3751:
3750:
3746:
3704:
3703:
3699:
3676:10.2307/2088328
3657:
3656:
3649:
3644:
3640:
3598:
3597:
3593:
3588:
3584:
3576:
3565:
3557:
3553:
3540:
3539:
3535:
3527:
3523:
3513:
3511:
3509:
3492:
3491:
3487:
3479:
3475:
3467:
3450:
3442:
3438:
3396:
3395:
3388:
3346:
3345:
3341:
3299:
3298:
3294:
3252:
3251:
3240:
3232:
3225:
3220:
3216:
3206:
3205:
3201:
3191:
3190:
3186:
3172:
3171:
3167:
3145:
3144:
3140:
3135:
3131:
3089:
3088:
3084:
3042:
3041:
3034:
2992:
2991:
2984:
2976:
2972:
2964:
2949:
2907:
2906:
2902:
2860:
2859:
2852:
2844:
2840:
2832:
2828:
2786:
2785:
2774:
2732:
2731:
2720:
2678:
2677:
2673:
2631:
2630:
2623:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2564:Gender equality
2550:
2533:
2520:
2495:
2490:
2451:
2438:
2386:
2385:
2380:
2376:
2352:
2343:
2319:
2313:
2308:
2295:
2282:
2265:
2248:
2243:
2230:
2212:
2195:
2169:
2152:alienated labor
2144:
2138:
2133:
2113:Great Migration
2101:sex segregation
2097:
2088:
2083:
2035:
2006:
2005:
2004:
2003:
2002:
1877:Polyculturalism
1773:Civil liberties
1745:
1737:
1736:
1735:
1734:
1733:
1714:Reappropriation
1614:
1613:Countermeasures
1606:
1605:
1604:
1603:
1602:
1531:Racial steering
1497:Numerus clausus
1401:
1393:
1392:
1391:
1390:
1389:
1116:Ethnic conflict
1051:Corrective rape
1006:
998:
997:
996:
995:
994:
643:
632:
631:
630:
629:
628:
481:
471:
470:
469:
468:
467:
359:HIV/AIDS stigma
221:
213:
212:
211:
210:
209:
158:Mental disorder
100:
92:
91:
90:
89:
88:
61:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6510:
6508:
6500:
6499:
6494:
6489:
6484:
6479:
6474:
6469:
6464:
6459:
6449:
6448:
6442:
6441:
6439:
6438:
6428:
6417:
6414:
6413:
6411:
6410:
6405:
6404:
6403:
6393:
6388:
6383:
6382:
6381:
6376:
6371:
6361:
6356:
6351:
6346:
6341:
6336:
6335:
6334:
6332:Reverse racism
6324:
6319:
6314:
6309:
6304:
6302:Prisoner abuse
6299:
6294:
6292:Power distance
6289:
6284:
6279:
6274:
6269:
6264:
6259:
6258:
6257:
6247:
6242:
6237:
6232:
6227:
6222:
6217:
6212:
6210:Ethnic penalty
6207:
6206:
6205:
6203:Neurodiversity
6200:
6190:
6188:Dehumanization
6185:
6180:
6178:Cisnormativity
6175:
6170:
6165:
6159:
6157:
6156:Related topics
6153:
6152:
6150:
6149:
6144:
6139:
6134:
6129:
6124:
6119:
6114:
6109:
6104:
6099:
6094:
6089:
6084:
6079:
6078:
6077:
6067:
6062:
6057:
6052:
6047:
6042:
6036:
6034:
6030:
6029:
6027:
6026:
6021:
6016:
6014:State religion
6011:
6006:
6001:
5996:
5995:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5969:
5964:
5959:
5954:
5953:
5952:
5950:Nuremberg Laws
5947:
5937:
5932:
5927:
5919:
5914:
5909:
5904:
5899:
5894:
5892:Ghetto benches
5889:
5887:Gerrymandering
5884:
5879:
5874:
5872:Gender pay gap
5869:
5868:
5867:
5862:
5852:
5847:
5842:
5837:
5831:
5829:
5826:Discriminatory
5823:
5822:
5820:
5819:
5814:
5809:
5804:
5799:
5794:
5789:
5784:
5779:
5774:
5769:
5764:
5759:
5754:
5749:
5744:
5739:
5734:
5729:
5724:
5719:
5714:
5709:
5704:
5703:
5702:
5697:
5692:
5682:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5662:
5657:
5655:Lavender scare
5652:
5650:Kill Haole Day
5647:
5645:Indian rolling
5642:
5637:
5632:
5627:
5622:
5621:
5620:
5610:
5605:
5604:
5603:
5593:
5588:
5583:
5578:
5573:
5568:
5563:
5558:
5553:
5548:
5543:
5538:
5533:
5531:Eliminationism
5528:
5523:
5518:
5513:
5508:
5503:
5498:
5493:
5488:
5483:
5478:
5473:
5468:
5466:Cancel culture
5463:
5458:
5453:
5452:
5451:
5440:
5438:
5437:Manifestations
5434:
5433:
5431:
5430:
5425:
5420:
5415:
5410:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5370:
5365:
5360:
5355:
5350:
5345:
5340:
5335:
5333:Middle Eastern
5330:
5325:
5320:
5315:
5310:
5305:
5300:
5295:
5290:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5274:
5273:
5268:
5263:
5255:
5250:
5245:
5240:
5235:
5230:
5225:
5220:
5215:
5210:
5205:
5200:
5195:
5190:
5185:
5180:
5175:
5170:
5169:
5168:
5163:
5158:
5148:
5143:
5138:
5137:
5136:
5131:
5126:
5116:
5111:
5106:
5101:
5096:
5091:
5085:
5083:
5076:
5075:
5073:
5072:
5070:Zoroastrianism
5067:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5046:
5045:
5035:
5034:
5033:
5032:
5031:
5026:
5021:
5016:
5001:
5000:
4999:
4997:Untouchability
4994:
4984:
4979:
4978:
4977:
4972:
4967:
4962:
4957:
4947:
4942:
4937:
4931:
4929:
4923:
4922:
4920:
4919:
4914:
4909:
4908:
4907:
4902:
4897:
4887:
4886:
4885:
4880:
4870:
4865:
4860:
4855:
4850:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4825:
4823:Leprosy stigma
4820:
4815:
4810:
4805:
4800:
4795:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4679:
4677:
4673:
4672:
4670:
4669:
4664:
4659:
4654:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4638:
4637:
4632:
4622:
4617:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4597:
4592:
4587:
4582:
4577:
4572:
4566:
4564:
4560:
4559:
4557:
4556:
4551:
4546:
4541:
4535:
4533:
4529:
4528:
4525:Discrimination
4523:
4521:
4520:
4513:
4506:
4498:
4489:
4488:
4486:
4485:
4480:
4475:
4470:
4465:
4460:
4455:
4446:
4443:
4442:
4440:
4439:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4404:
4402:Rehabilitation
4399:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4329:
4323:
4320:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4313:
4306:
4299:
4291:
4284:
4283:
4282:
4281:
4239:
4227:(5): 481â488.
4212:
4194:(3): 446â481.
4174:
4165:
4127:
4117:(2): 229â253.
4106:
4104:(25): 409â430.
4097:
4066:
4053:
4014:
3996:(4): 267â287.
3983:
3957:(1): 108â131.
3943:
3942:
3930:10.2307/353387
3924:(1): 188â200.
3913:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3893:
3866:(4): 589â617.
3841:
3791:
3770:10.1086/422588
3764:(3): 709â760.
3744:
3717:(4): 719â741.
3697:
3647:
3638:
3591:
3582:
3563:
3551:
3533:
3521:
3507:
3485:
3473:
3448:
3436:
3409:(3): 597â614.
3386:
3359:(4): 719â741.
3339:
3292:
3265:(2): 179â212.
3238:
3223:
3214:
3199:
3184:
3165:
3138:
3129:
3102:(1): 108â134.
3082:
3055:(4): 719â741.
3032:
3005:(4): 565â588.
2982:
2970:
2947:
2920:(1): 242â267.
2900:
2873:(3): 597â614.
2850:
2838:
2826:
2799:(4): 473â493.
2772:
2718:
2691:(4): 483â509.
2671:
2644:(2): 179â212.
2621:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2602:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2549:
2546:
2532:
2529:
2519:
2516:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2481:
2480:
2479:
2478:
2463:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2424:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2399:
2396:
2393:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2351:
2348:
2342:
2339:
2317:Gender pay gap
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2294:
2291:
2281:
2278:
2264:
2261:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2229:
2226:
2211:
2208:
2194:
2191:
2168:
2165:
2160:Heidi Hartmann
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2096:
2093:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2037:
2036:
2034:
2033:
2026:
2019:
2011:
2008:
2007:
2001:
2000:
1995:
1994:
1993:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1972:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1925:
1924:
1922:Reverse racism
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1892:Prisoner abuse
1889:
1884:
1882:Power distance
1879:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1848:
1847:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1800:Ethnic penalty
1797:
1796:
1795:
1793:Neurodiversity
1790:
1780:
1778:Dehumanization
1775:
1770:
1768:Cisnormativity
1765:
1760:
1755:
1749:
1748:
1747:
1746:
1744:Related topics
1743:
1742:
1739:
1738:
1732:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1660:
1659:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1618:
1617:
1616:
1615:
1612:
1611:
1608:
1607:
1601:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1588:State religion
1585:
1580:
1575:
1570:
1569:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1527:
1526:
1524:Nuremberg Laws
1521:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1466:Ghetto benches
1463:
1461:Gerrymandering
1458:
1453:
1448:
1446:Gender pay gap
1443:
1442:
1441:
1436:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1405:
1404:
1403:
1402:
1399:
1398:
1395:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1274:
1273:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1232:
1227:
1225:Lavender scare
1222:
1220:Kill Haole Day
1217:
1215:Indian rolling
1212:
1207:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1191:
1190:
1180:
1175:
1174:
1173:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1148:
1143:
1138:
1133:
1128:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1108:
1103:
1101:Eliminationism
1098:
1093:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1036:Cancel culture
1033:
1028:
1023:
1022:
1021:
1010:
1009:
1008:
1007:
1005:Manifestations
1004:
1003:
1000:
999:
993:
992:
987:
982:
977:
972:
967:
962:
957:
952:
947:
942:
937:
932:
927:
922:
917:
912:
907:
902:
897:
895:Middle Eastern
892:
887:
882:
877:
872:
867:
862:
857:
852:
847:
842:
837:
836:
835:
830:
825:
817:
812:
807:
802:
797:
792:
787:
782:
777:
772:
767:
762:
757:
752:
747:
742:
737:
732:
731:
730:
725:
720:
710:
705:
700:
699:
698:
693:
688:
678:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
647:
646:
645:
644:
638:
637:
634:
633:
627:
626:
624:Zoroastrianism
621:
616:
611:
606:
601:
600:
599:
589:
588:
587:
586:
585:
580:
575:
570:
555:
554:
553:
551:Untouchability
548:
538:
533:
532:
531:
526:
521:
516:
511:
501:
496:
491:
485:
484:
483:
482:
477:
476:
473:
472:
466:
465:
460:
455:
454:
453:
448:
443:
433:
432:
431:
426:
416:
411:
406:
401:
396:
391:
386:
381:
376:
371:
369:Leprosy stigma
366:
361:
356:
351:
346:
341:
336:
331:
326:
321:
316:
311:
306:
301:
296:
291:
286:
281:
276:
271:
266:
261:
256:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
225:
224:
223:
222:
219:
218:
215:
214:
208:
207:
202:
197:
192:
187:
182:
177:
176:
175:
170:
160:
155:
150:
145:
140:
135:
130:
125:
120:
115:
110:
104:
103:
102:
101:
98:
97:
94:
93:
87:
86:
81:
76:
71:
65:
64:
63:
62:
59:
58:
55:
54:
46:
45:
43:Discrimination
39:
38:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6509:
6498:
6495:
6493:
6490:
6488:
6485:
6483:
6480:
6478:
6475:
6473:
6470:
6468:
6465:
6463:
6460:
6458:
6455:
6454:
6452:
6437:
6429:
6427:
6419:
6418:
6415:
6409:
6406:
6402:
6399:
6398:
6397:
6394:
6392:
6389:
6387:
6386:Social stigma
6384:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6372:
6370:
6367:
6366:
6365:
6362:
6360:
6357:
6355:
6352:
6350:
6347:
6345:
6342:
6340:
6337:
6333:
6330:
6329:
6328:
6325:
6323:
6320:
6318:
6315:
6313:
6310:
6308:
6305:
6303:
6300:
6298:
6295:
6293:
6290:
6288:
6285:
6283:
6280:
6278:
6275:
6273:
6270:
6268:
6265:
6263:
6260:
6256:
6253:
6252:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6236:
6233:
6231:
6228:
6226:
6223:
6221:
6218:
6216:
6213:
6211:
6208:
6204:
6201:
6199:
6196:
6195:
6194:
6191:
6189:
6186:
6184:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6174:
6171:
6169:
6166:
6164:
6161:
6160:
6158:
6154:
6148:
6145:
6143:
6140:
6138:
6135:
6133:
6130:
6128:
6125:
6123:
6120:
6118:
6115:
6113:
6110:
6108:
6105:
6103:
6100:
6098:
6095:
6093:
6090:
6088:
6085:
6083:
6080:
6076:
6073:
6072:
6071:
6068:
6066:
6063:
6061:
6058:
6056:
6053:
6051:
6048:
6046:
6043:
6041:
6038:
6037:
6035:
6031:
6025:
6022:
6020:
6017:
6015:
6012:
6010:
6009:State atheism
6007:
6005:
6002:
6000:
5997:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5974:
5973:
5970:
5968:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5951:
5948:
5946:
5945:Jim Crow laws
5943:
5942:
5941:
5938:
5936:
5933:
5931:
5930:One-drop rule
5928:
5926:
5924:
5920:
5918:
5915:
5913:
5910:
5908:
5905:
5903:
5900:
5898:
5895:
5893:
5890:
5888:
5885:
5883:
5880:
5878:
5875:
5873:
5870:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5858:
5857:
5856:
5853:
5851:
5848:
5846:
5845:Blood quantum
5843:
5841:
5838:
5836:
5833:
5832:
5830:
5824:
5818:
5815:
5813:
5810:
5808:
5805:
5803:
5800:
5798:
5795:
5793:
5792:Victimisation
5790:
5788:
5787:Trans bashing
5785:
5783:
5780:
5778:
5775:
5773:
5770:
5768:
5765:
5763:
5760:
5758:
5757:Religious war
5755:
5753:
5750:
5748:
5745:
5743:
5740:
5738:
5737:Racialization
5735:
5733:
5730:
5728:
5725:
5723:
5720:
5718:
5715:
5713:
5710:
5708:
5705:
5701:
5698:
5696:
5693:
5691:
5688:
5687:
5686:
5683:
5681:
5678:
5676:
5673:
5671:
5668:
5666:
5663:
5661:
5658:
5656:
5653:
5651:
5648:
5646:
5643:
5641:
5638:
5636:
5633:
5631:
5628:
5626:
5623:
5619:
5616:
5615:
5614:
5611:
5609:
5608:Glass ceiling
5606:
5602:
5599:
5598:
5597:
5594:
5592:
5589:
5587:
5584:
5582:
5579:
5577:
5574:
5572:
5569:
5567:
5564:
5562:
5559:
5557:
5554:
5552:
5551:Ethnic hatred
5549:
5547:
5544:
5542:
5539:
5537:
5534:
5532:
5529:
5527:
5524:
5522:
5519:
5517:
5514:
5512:
5509:
5507:
5504:
5502:
5499:
5497:
5494:
5492:
5489:
5487:
5486:Counter-jihad
5484:
5482:
5479:
5477:
5474:
5472:
5469:
5467:
5464:
5462:
5459:
5457:
5454:
5450:
5447:
5446:
5445:
5442:
5441:
5439:
5435:
5429:
5426:
5424:
5421:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5376:
5374:
5371:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5359:
5356:
5354:
5351:
5349:
5346:
5344:
5341:
5339:
5336:
5334:
5331:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5314:
5311:
5309:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5272:
5271:United States
5269:
5267:
5264:
5262:
5259:
5258:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5246:
5244:
5241:
5239:
5236:
5234:
5231:
5229:
5226:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5216:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5206:
5204:
5201:
5199:
5196:
5194:
5191:
5189:
5186:
5184:
5181:
5179:
5176:
5174:
5171:
5167:
5164:
5162:
5159:
5157:
5154:
5153:
5152:
5149:
5147:
5144:
5142:
5139:
5135:
5134:United States
5132:
5130:
5127:
5125:
5122:
5121:
5120:
5117:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5095:
5092:
5090:
5087:
5086:
5084:
5082:
5077:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5055:Protestantism
5053:
5051:
5048:
5044:
5041:
5040:
5039:
5036:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5015:
5012:
5011:
5010:
5007:
5006:
5005:
5002:
4998:
4995:
4993:
4990:
4989:
4988:
4985:
4983:
4980:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4970:LDS or Mormon
4968:
4966:
4963:
4961:
4958:
4956:
4953:
4952:
4951:
4948:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4938:
4936:
4933:
4932:
4930:
4928:
4924:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4910:
4906:
4903:
4901:
4900:Transmisogyny
4898:
4896:
4893:
4892:
4891:
4888:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4875:
4874:
4871:
4869:
4866:
4864:
4861:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4826:
4824:
4821:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4811:
4809:
4806:
4804:
4803:Gerontophobia
4801:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4723:Anti-intersex
4721:
4719:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4698:Anti-albinism
4696:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4680:
4678:
4674:
4668:
4665:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4636:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4627:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4591:
4588:
4586:
4583:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4567:
4565:
4561:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4539:Institutional
4537:
4536:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4519:
4514:
4512:
4507:
4505:
4500:
4499:
4496:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4464:
4461:
4459:
4456:
4448:
4447:
4444:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4324:
4321:
4312:
4307:
4305:
4300:
4298:
4293:
4292:
4289:
4278:
4273:
4272:
4269:
4257:
4249:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4230:
4226:
4222:
4218:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4188:
4180:
4175:
4171:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4141:
4133:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4116:
4112:
4107:
4103:
4098:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4082:
4079:(5): 714â34.
4078:
4074:
4073:
4067:
4064:(122): 22â31.
4063:
4059:
4058:Bianchi, S.M.
4056:Cohen, P.N.;
4054:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4025:(2): 239â52.
4024:
4020:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3990:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3951:
3945:
3944:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3914:
3910:
3909:
3903:
3902:
3897:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3857:
3850:
3848:
3846:
3842:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3805:
3798:
3796:
3792:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3748:
3745:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3701:
3698:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3654:
3652:
3648:
3642:
3639:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3595:
3592:
3586:
3583:
3579:
3574:
3572:
3570:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3555:
3552:
3547:
3543:
3537:
3534:
3530:
3525:
3522:
3510:
3508:92-2-111386-8
3504:
3499:
3498:
3489:
3486:
3482:
3477:
3474:
3470:
3465:
3463:
3461:
3459:
3457:
3455:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3440:
3437:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3393:
3391:
3387:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3343:
3340:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3296:
3293:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3249:
3247:
3245:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3230:
3228:
3224:
3218:
3215:
3210:
3203:
3200:
3195:
3188:
3185:
3180:
3176:
3169:
3166:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3142:
3139:
3133:
3130:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3086:
3083:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3039:
3037:
3033:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2989:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2974:
2971:
2967:
2962:
2960:
2958:
2956:
2954:
2952:
2948:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2904:
2901:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2857:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2842:
2839:
2835:
2830:
2827:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2783:
2781:
2779:
2777:
2773:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2729:
2727:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2675:
2672:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2628:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2617:Bergmann 1981
2613:
2610:
2604:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2569:Glass ceiling
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2551:
2547:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2530:
2528:
2524:
2517:
2515:
2511:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2492:
2487:
2485:
2475:
2474:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2443:
2439:
2430:
2425:
2422:
2419:
2415:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2394:
2391:
2383:
2371:
2368:
2367:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2357:
2349:
2347:
2340:
2338:
2336:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2318:
2310:
2305:
2303:
2299:
2292:
2290:
2286:
2279:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2262:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2245:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2227:
2225:
2221:
2218:
2217:human capital
2209:
2207:
2203:
2200:
2192:
2190:
2188:
2184:
2179:
2175:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2143:
2135:
2130:
2128:
2124:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2109:
2107:
2102:
2095:Racial trends
2094:
2092:
2086:Gender trends
2085:
2080:
2078:
2076:
2070:
2066:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2052:, based upon
2051:
2047:
2043:
2032:
2027:
2025:
2020:
2018:
2013:
2012:
2010:
2009:
1999:
1996:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1976:Social stigma
1974:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1956:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1923:
1920:
1919:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1850:
1846:
1843:
1842:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1785:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1750:
1741:
1740:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1662:
1658:
1655:
1654:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1619:
1610:
1609:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1583:State atheism
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1548:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1519:Jim Crow laws
1517:
1516:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1504:One-drop rule
1502:
1500:
1498:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1487:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1474:
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1447:
1444:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1431:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1419:Blood quantum
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1406:
1397:
1396:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1360:Victimisation
1358:
1356:
1355:Trans bashing
1353:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1325:Religious war
1323:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1305:Racialization
1303:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1257:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1246:
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1178:Glass ceiling
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1122:
1121:Ethnic hatred
1119:
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1109:
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1056:Counter-jihad
1054:
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833:United States
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654:
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648:
642:
636:
635:
625:
622:
620:
617:
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612:
610:
609:Protestantism
607:
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598:
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584:
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524:LDS or Mormon
522:
520:
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512:
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492:
490:
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446:Transmisogyny
444:
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350:
349:Gerontophobia
347:
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322:
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272:
270:
269:Anti-intersex
267:
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257:
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250:
247:
245:
244:Anti-albinism
242:
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217:
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69:Institutional
67:
66:
57:
56:
52:
48:
47:
44:
40:
36:
32:
31:
19:
6220:Gender-blind
6107:Human rights
5935:Racial quota
5922:
5902:Jewish quota
5882:Gerontocracy
5877:Gender roles
5855:Disabilities
5840:Blood purity
5812:Wife selling
5802:White flight
5782:Slut-shaming
5762:Scapegoating
5706:
5680:Murder music
5353:Palestinians
5166:South Africa
5151:Black people
5129:South Africa
4950:Christianity
4940:Bahåʟà Faith
4868:Sectarianism
4808:Heterosexism
4773:Ephebiphobia
4738:Antisemitism
4733:Anti-Masonry
4600:Hair texture
4243:
4224:
4220:
4191:
4185:
4169:
4144:
4138:
4114:
4110:
4101:
4076:
4070:
4061:
4022:
4018:
3993:
3987:
3954:
3948:
3921:
3917:
3906:
3898:Bibliography
3863:
3859:
3814:(2): 25â51.
3811:
3807:
3761:
3757:
3747:
3714:
3710:
3700:
3667:
3663:
3641:
3611:(1): 35â56.
3608:
3604:
3594:
3585:
3554:
3545:
3536:
3524:
3512:. Retrieved
3496:
3488:
3476:
3444:Damaske 2004
3439:
3406:
3402:
3356:
3352:
3342:
3312:(4): 31â58.
3309:
3305:
3295:
3262:
3258:
3217:
3208:
3202:
3193:
3187:
3178:
3174:
3168:
3151:
3147:
3141:
3132:
3099:
3095:
3085:
3052:
3048:
3002:
2998:
2973:
2966:Charles 2003
2917:
2913:
2903:
2870:
2866:
2841:
2829:
2796:
2792:
2745:(1): 35â56.
2742:
2738:
2688:
2684:
2674:
2641:
2637:
2612:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2525:
2521:
2512:
2500:
2496:
2482:
2364:
2353:
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2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2300:
2296:
2287:
2283:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2231:
2222:
2213:
2204:
2198:
2196:
2170:
2145:
2125:
2110:
2098:
2089:
2071:
2067:
2041:
2040:
1810:Gender-blind
1689:Human rights
1509:Racial quota
1496:
1476:Jewish quota
1456:Gerontocracy
1451:Gender roles
1429:Disabilities
1414:Blood purity
1380:Wife selling
1370:White flight
1350:Slut-shaming
1330:Scapegoating
1250:Murder music
915:Palestinians
728:South Africa
713:Black people
691:South Africa
504:Christianity
494:Bahåʟà Faith
414:Sectarianism
354:Heterosexism
319:Ephebiphobia
284:Antisemitism
279:Anti-Masonry
138:Hair texture
6122:Nonviolence
6117:LGBT rights
6082:Empowerment
6050:Anti-racism
5972:Segregation
5917:No kid zone
5717:Persecution
5630:Hate speech
5581:Gay bashing
5556:Ethnic joke
5511:Dog whistle
5456:Blood libel
5146:Azerbaijani
5050:Neopaganism
5043:Persecution
5009:Persecution
4992:Persecution
4955:Catholicism
4890:Transphobia
4873:Supremacism
4828:Lesbophobia
4743:Aporophobia
4703:Anti-autism
4554:Taste-based
4549:Statistical
4264:|work=
3911:(71): 81â6.
3481:Mincer 1891
2834:Weeden 2007
2574:Mommy track
2350:Measurement
2224:over time.
2054:demographic
2050:occupations
1704:Nonviolence
1699:LGBT rights
1664:Empowerment
1632:Anti-racism
1546:Segregation
1491:No kid zone
1285:Persecution
1200:Hate speech
1151:Gay bashing
1126:Ethnic joke
1081:Dog whistle
1026:Blood libel
708:Azerbaijani
604:Neopaganism
597:Persecution
563:Persecution
546:Persecution
509:Catholicism
436:Transphobia
419:Supremacism
374:Lesbophobia
289:Aporophobia
249:Anti-autism
84:Taste-based
79:Statistical
6487:Inequality
6451:Categories
6396:Stereotype
6391:Speciesism
6272:Oppression
6267:Oikophobia
6163:Allophilia
6147:Toleration
6004:Sodomy law
5897:Internment
5817:Witch-hunt
5695:Blackhawks
5625:Hate group
5613:Hate crime
5586:Gendercide
5576:Freak show
5566:Excellence
5526:Employment
5496:Defamation
5428:Vietnamese
5423:Venezuelan
5313:Lithuanian
4982:Falun Gong
4917:Xenophobia
4912:Vegaphobia
4895:Non-binary
4853:Pedophobia
4818:Homophobia
4630:Skin color
4590:Disability
4563:Attributes
4544:Structural
4483:Employment
4392:Psychology
4367:Inequality
4147:: 114â30.
3670:(2): 210.
3514:21 October
3234:Watts 2005
2978:Cohen 2004
2605:References
2356:Duncan's D
2315:See also:
2178:housewives
2167:Horizontal
2140:See also:
1986:Stereotype
1981:Speciesism
1862:Oppression
1857:Oikophobia
1753:Allophilia
1729:Toleration
1578:Sodomy law
1471:Internment
1385:Witch-hunt
1265:Blackhawks
1195:Hate group
1183:Hate crime
1156:Gendercide
1146:Freak show
1136:Excellence
1096:Employment
1066:Defamation
990:Vietnamese
985:Venezuelan
875:Lithuanian
536:Falun Gong
463:Xenophobia
458:Vegaphobia
441:Non-binary
399:Pedophobia
364:Homophobia
168:Skin color
128:Disability
99:Attributes
74:Structural
6369:Christian
6297:Prejudice
6245:Masculism
6193:Diversity
5987:religious
5962:Redlining
5561:Ethnocide
5521:Education
5413:Ukrainian
5348:Pakistani
5338:Mongolian
5261:Australia
5243:Hungarian
5198:Colombian
5178:Bulgarian
5060:Rastafari
5014:Ahmadiyya
4927:Religious
4905:Trans men
4863:Pregnancy
4798:Gayphobia
4793:Fatphobia
4688:Acephobia
4683:Arophobia
4667:Viewpoint
4427:Therapist
4397:Psychosis
4377:Injustice
4327:Apartheid
4266:ignored (
4256:cite book
4208:197658682
4161:145618752
4027:CiteSeerX
4010:220174984
3880:0003-1224
3836:154242679
3828:0034-6446
3786:145447433
3778:0002-9602
3739:144056804
3731:0096-1442
3684:0003-1224
3633:153954367
3625:0034-6446
3423:0038-0253
3381:144056804
3373:0096-1442
3326:0020-7659
3287:154675302
3279:0019-8676
3154:: 41â62.
3124:155696086
3116:1354-5701
3077:144056804
3069:0096-1442
3019:0003-1224
2942:157046831
2934:0347-0520
2887:0038-0253
2813:1569-1721
2767:153954367
2759:0034-6446
2713:145308055
2705:0730-8884
2666:154675302
2658:1468-232X
2488:Solutions
2449:−
2416:∑
2197:The term
2183:care work
2099:Data for
1959:Christian
1887:Prejudice
1835:Masculism
1783:Diversity
1561:religious
1536:Redlining
1131:Ethnocide
1091:Education
975:Ukrainian
910:Pakistani
900:Mongolian
823:Australia
805:Hungarian
760:Colombian
740:Bulgarian
614:Rastafari
568:Ahmadiyya
479:Religious
451:Trans men
409:Pregnancy
344:Gayphobia
339:Fatphobia
234:Acephobia
229:Arophobia
205:Viewpoint
6426:Category
6408:The talk
6344:Snobbery
6262:Net bias
6092:Feminism
6019:Ugly law
5860:Catholic
5828:policies
5675:Mortgage
5670:Lynching
5601:examples
5596:Genocide
5516:Economic
5501:Democide
5461:Bullying
5378:Romanian
5343:Nigerian
5293:Japanese
5223:Georgian
5208:Filipino
5141:Assyrian
5114:Armenian
5104:American
5099:Albanian
5081:National
5065:Yazidism
4987:Hinduism
4945:Buddhism
4848:Nepotism
4843:Misogyny
4838:Misandry
4763:Cronyism
4758:Clannism
4753:Biphobia
4693:Adultism
4610:Language
4387:Prestige
4382:Medicine
4357:Fatality
4274:Online:
4049:18231053
3979:22304541
3971:12281309
3888:10327121
3431:55394864
3334:14946364
3181:: 51â74.
3027:55627674
2895:55394864
2821:59583403
2548:See also
2358:(or the
2311:Wage gap
2193:Vertical
2154:and the
2106:Jim Crow
1998:The talk
1934:Snobbery
1852:Net bias
1674:Feminism
1593:Ugly law
1434:Catholic
1400:Policies
1245:Mortgage
1240:Lynching
1171:examples
1166:Genocide
1086:Economic
1071:Democide
1031:Bullying
940:Romanian
905:Nigerian
855:Japanese
785:Georgian
770:Filipino
703:Assyrian
676:Armenian
666:American
661:Albanian
641:national
619:Yazidism
541:Hinduism
499:Buddhism
394:Nepotism
389:Misogyny
384:Misandry
309:Cronyism
304:Clannism
299:Biphobia
239:Adultism
148:Language
35:a series
33:Part of
6436:Commons
6215:Figleaf
5640:Housing
5408:Turkish
5358:Pashtun
5328:Mexican
5308:Kurdish
5288:Italian
5283:Israeli
5233:Haitian
5218:Finnish
5193:Chinese
5188:Chechen
5183:Catalan
5173:Bengali
5094:African
5079:Ethnic/
5038:Judaism
5029:Sunnism
5019:Shi'ism
4935:Atheism
4768:Elitism
4657:Species
4595:Genetic
4585:Dialect
4432:Therapy
4417:Science
4362:Hygiene
4352:Disease
4342:Closure
4337:Burnout
4093:2657356
3692:2088328
2306:Effects
2046:workers
1805:Figleaf
1210:Housing
970:Turkish
920:Pashtun
890:Mexican
870:Kurdish
850:Italian
845:Israeli
795:Haitian
780:Finnish
755:Chinese
750:Chechen
745:Catalan
735:Bengali
656:African
639:Ethnic/
592:Judaism
583:Sunnism
573:Shi'ism
489:Atheism
314:Elitism
195:Species
133:Genetic
123:Dialect
6467:Sexism
6401:threat
6255:autism
5992:sexual
5982:racial
5865:Jewish
5722:Pogrom
5700:Chiefs
5690:Braves
5418:Uyghur
5393:Somali
5388:Slavic
5373:Romani
5368:Quebec
5363:Polish
5303:Korean
5298:Jewish
5266:Canada
5253:Indian
5238:Hazara
5213:Fulani
5124:France
5089:Afghan
5024:Sufism
4748:Audism
4676:Social
4605:Height
4422:Stress
4372:Injury
4332:Asthma
4206:
4172:(802).
4159:
4091:
4047:
4029:
4008:
3977:
3969:
3938:353387
3936:
3886:
3878:
3834:
3826:
3784:
3776:
3737:
3729:
3690:
3682:
3631:
3623:
3505:
3429:
3421:
3379:
3371:
3332:
3324:
3285:
3277:
3122:
3114:
3075:
3067:
3025:
3017:
2940:
2932:
2893:
2885:
2819:
2811:
2765:
2757:
2711:
2703:
2664:
2656:
2241:Causes
2187:nurses
2136:Gender
2062:racial
2058:gender
1991:threat
1845:autism
1566:sexual
1556:racial
1439:Jewish
1290:Pogrom
1270:Chiefs
1260:Braves
980:Uyghur
955:Somali
950:Slavic
935:Romani
930:Quebec
925:Polish
865:Korean
860:Jewish
828:Canada
815:Indian
800:Hazara
775:Fulani
686:France
651:Afghan
578:Sufism
294:Audism
220:Social
143:Height
6379:white
5732:Purge
5398:Tatar
5323:MÄori
5318:Malay
5278:Irish
5228:Greek
5203:Croat
5161:China
5119:Asian
5004:Islam
4878:White
4615:Looks
4580:Class
4575:Caste
4532:Forms
4347:Crime
4204:S2CID
4182:(PDF)
4157:S2CID
4135:(PDF)
4089:JSTOR
4045:S2CID
4006:S2CID
3975:S2CID
3934:JSTOR
3884:S2CID
3832:S2CID
3782:S2CID
3735:S2CID
3688:JSTOR
3629:S2CID
3427:S2CID
3377:S2CID
3330:S2CID
3283:S2CID
3120:S2CID
3073:S2CID
3023:S2CID
2938:S2CID
2891:S2CID
2817:S2CID
2763:S2CID
2709:S2CID
2662:S2CID
2131:Types
1969:white
1300:Purge
960:Tatar
885:MÄori
880:Malay
840:Irish
790:Greek
765:Croat
723:China
681:Asian
558:Islam
424:White
153:Looks
118:Class
113:Caste
60:Forms
6374:male
6173:Bias
5618:LGBT
5403:Thai
5383:Serb
5248:Igbo
5109:Arab
4883:Male
4662:Size
4642:Rank
4268:help
3967:PMID
3876:ISSN
3824:ISSN
3774:ISSN
3727:ISSN
3680:ISSN
3621:ISSN
3516:2019
3503:ISBN
3419:ISSN
3369:ISSN
3322:ISSN
3275:ISSN
3112:ISSN
3065:ISSN
3015:ISSN
2930:ISSN
2883:ISSN
2809:ISSN
2755:ISSN
2701:ISSN
2654:ISSN
2501:The
2232:The
2210:Race
2111:The
1964:male
1763:Bias
1188:LGBT
965:Thai
945:Serb
810:Igbo
671:Arab
429:Male
200:Size
180:Rank
5977:age
4647:Sex
4570:Age
4229:doi
4196:doi
4149:doi
4145:639
4119:doi
4081:doi
4037:doi
3998:doi
3959:doi
3926:doi
3868:doi
3816:doi
3766:doi
3762:110
3719:doi
3672:doi
3613:doi
3411:doi
3361:doi
3314:doi
3267:doi
3156:doi
3104:doi
3057:doi
3007:doi
2922:doi
2918:120
2875:doi
2801:doi
2747:doi
2693:doi
2646:doi
1551:age
185:Sex
108:Age
6453::
4260::
4258:}}
4254:{{
4246:.
4225:21
4223:.
4219:.
4202:.
4192:60
4190:.
4184:.
4155:.
4143:.
4137:.
4115:81
4113:.
4087:.
4077:62
4075:.
4043:.
4035:.
4023:18
4021:.
4004:.
3994:46
3992:.
3973:.
3965:.
3953:.
3932:.
3922:58
3920:.
3882:.
3874:.
3864:71
3862:.
3858:.
3844:^
3830:.
3822:.
3812:30
3810:.
3806:.
3794:^
3780:.
3772:.
3760:.
3756:.
3733:.
3725:.
3715:40
3713:.
3709:.
3686:.
3678:.
3668:20
3666:.
3662:.
3650:^
3627:.
3619:.
3609:43
3607:.
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