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363:. While males have long tails that are selected for by female choice, female tastes in tail length are still more extreme with females being attracted to tails longer than those that naturally occur. Fisher understood that female preference for long tails may be passed on genetically, in conjunction with genes for the long tail itself. Long-tailed widowbird offspring of both sexes inherit both sets of genes, with females
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325:... plumage development in the male, and sexual preference for such developments in the female, must thus advance together, and so long as the process is unchecked by severe counterselection, will advance with ever-increasing speed. In the total absence of such checks, it is easy to see that the speed of development will be proportional to the development already attained, which will therefore increase with time
395:
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474:. The general conditions of sexual discrimination appear to be (1) the acceptance of one mate precludes the effective acceptance of alternative mates, and (2) the rejection of an offer is followed by other offers, either certainly or at such high chance that the risk of non-occurrence is smaller than the chance advantage to be gained by selecting a mate.
42:
860:, are sexually dimorphic; the differences such as in size and coloration are energetically costly attributes that signal competitive breeding. Conflicts between an individual's fitness and signalling adaptations ensure that sexually selected ornaments such as coloration of plumage and courtship behaviour are
755:
species, both before and after copulation. Post-copulatory sexual selection involves sperm competition and cryptic female choice. Sperm competition occurs where the sperm of more than one male competes to fertilise the egg of the female. Cryptic female choice involves the expelling of a male's sperm
818:
Many amphibians have annual breeding seasons with male–male competition. Males arrive at the water's edge first in large numbers, and produce a wide range of vocalizations to attract mates. Among frogs, the fittest males have the deepest croaks and the best territories; females select their mates at
410:
It is important to notice that the conditions of relative stability brought about by these or other means, will be far longer duration than the process in which the ornaments are evolved. In most existing species the runaway process must have been already checked, and we should expect that the more
405:
The female widowbird chooses to mate with the most attractive long-tailed male so that her progeny, if male, will themselves be attractive to females of the next generation—thereby fathering many offspring that carry the female's genes. Since the rate of change in preference is proportional to the
823:
are suggested to engage in male-male competition with their elongated prepollex to maintain their mating site. The prepollex, which serves as a rudimentary digit, contains a projecting spine that may be used during this combat, leaving scars on the head and forelimbs of other males. Some species,
554:
Male–male competition occurs when two males of the same species compete for the opportunity to mate with a female. Sexually dimorphic traits, size, sex ratio, and the social situation may all play a role in the effects male–male competition has on the reproductive success of a male and the mate
855:
Birds have evolved a wide variety of mating behaviours and many types of sexual selection. These include intersexual selection (female choice) and intrasexual competition, where individuals of the more abundant sex compete with each other for the privilege to mate. Many species, notably the
422:
and Peter O'Donald have provided detailed mathematical proofs that define the circumstances under which runaway sexual selection can take place. Alongside this, biologists have extended Darwin's formulation; Malte
Andersson's widely-accepted 1994 definition is that "sexual selection is the
383:. The taste for long tails and tail length itself may therefore become correlated, tending to increase together. The more tails lengthen, the more long tails are desired. Any slight initial imbalance between taste and tails may set off an explosion in tail lengths. Fisher wrote that:
258:
Darwin's ideas on sexual selection were met with scepticism by his contemporaries and not considered of great importance, until in the 1930s biologists decided to include sexual selection as a mode of natural selection. Only in the 21st century have they become more important in
231:, mostly after Darwin's death. He accepted that sexual selection could occur, but argued that it was a relatively weak form of selection. He argued that male–male competitions were forms of natural selection, but that the "drab" peahen's coloration is itself adaptive as
680:, occurring in plants, fungi, and animals. Since Darwin's pioneering observations on humans, it has been studied intensively among the insects, spiders, amphibians, scaled reptiles, birds, and mammals, revealing many distinctive behaviours and physical adaptations.
406:
average taste amongst females, and as females desire to secure the services of the most sexually attractive males, an additive effect is created that, if unchecked, can yield exponential increases in a given taste and in the corresponding desired sexual attribute.
486:, and the limited capacity of females to reproduce; for example, in humans, a woman can only give birth every ten months, whereas a male can become a father numerous times in the same period. More recently, researchers have doubted whether Bateman was correct.
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differences in reproduction that arise from variation among individuals in traits that affect success in competition over mates and fertilizations". Despite some practical challenges for biologists, the concept of sexual selection is "straightforward".
774:(Lampyrid beetles), males fly in darkness and emit a species-specific pattern of light flashes, which are answered by perching receptive females. The colour and temporal variation of the flashes contribute to success in attracting females. Among the
581:
More recently, the field has grown to include other areas of study, not all of which fit Darwin's definition of sexual selection. A "bewildering" range of models variously attempt to relate sexual selection not only to the fundamental questions of
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of several dozen females; unsuccessful males may attempt to copulate with a harem male's females if the dominant male is inattentive. This forces the harem male to defend his territory continuously, not feeding for as much as three months.
524:, or that he possesses more speed or a greater physical strength that is used to combat the troubles brought on by the exaggerated trait. Zahavi's work spurred a re-examination of the field and several new theories. In 1984, Hamilton and
663:
Eurasia (although climate-induced habitat deterioration and anthropogenic pressure are now considered more likely causes). It may, however, also do the opposite, driving species divergence—sometimes through elaborate changes in
864:
traits. Signals must be costly to ensure that only good-quality individuals can present these exaggerated sexual ornaments and behaviours. Males with the brightest plumage are favoured by females of multiple species of bird.
643:
had well-developed feathers but could not fly. The feathers may have served as insulation, helping females incubate their eggs, but if proto-bird courtship combined displays of forelimb feathers with energetic jumps, then the
96:. Successful males benefit from frequent mating and monopolizing access to one or more fertile females. Females can maximise the return on the energy they invest in reproduction by selecting and mating with the best males.
379:. Females that prefer long tailed males tend to have mothers that chose long-tailed fathers. As a result, they carry both sets of genes in their bodies. That is, genes for long tails and for preferring long tails become
1093:
79:
with (intersexual selection), and compete with members of the same sex for access to members of the opposite sex (intrasexual selection). These two forms of selection mean that some individuals have greater
1057:
729:, where a large female is dominant within a pack, and female–female competition is observed. The dominant female produces most of the offspring; the subordinate females are nonbreeding, providing
2462:
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is used by female gametes and by conidia, implying male choice in these cases. Female–female competition may also occur, indicated by the much faster evolution of female-biased genes in fungi.
218:... depends, not on a struggle for existence, but on a struggle between the males for possession of the females; the result is not death to the unsuccessful competitor, but few or no offspring.
800:, the Japanese pygmy squid. Males place their spermatangia on an external location on the female's body. The female physically removes spermatangia of males she is presumed to favour less.
3487:"Impact of cryptic female choice on insemination success: Larger sized and longer copulating male squid ejaculate more, but females influence insemination success by removing spermatangia"
2200:
Proctor, D. S.; Moore, A. J.; Miller, C. W. (2012-03-09). "The form of sexual selection arising from male–male competition depends on the presence of females in the social environment".
1024:
947:
223:... when the males and females of any animal have the same general habits ... but differ in structure, colour, or ornament, such differences have been mainly caused by sexual selection.
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further influence male behaviour. Male–male competition may also affect a female's ability to select the best mates, and therefore decrease the likelihood of successful reproduction.
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choice of a female. Larger males tend to win male–male conflicts. Males take many risks in such conflicts, so the value of the resource must be large enough to justify those risks.
1006:
841:
in which one male will twist around the vertically elevated fore body of its opponent and forcing it downward. It is common for neck biting to occur while the snakes are entwined.
210:(1871), as he felt that natural selection alone was unable to account for certain types of non-survival adaptations. He once wrote to a colleague that "The sight of a feather in a
2321:
Luo, Zhenhua; Li, Chenliang; Wang, Hui; et al. (2016-02-23). "Male–male competition drives sexual selection and group spawning in the Omei treefrog, Rhacophorus omeimontis".
713:
Among the many instances of sexual selection in mammals is extreme sexual dimorphism, with males as much as six times heavier than females, and male fighting for dominance among
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206:
193:
612:), do not always have an energetics, performance or even survival cost; this may be because "compensatory traits" have evolved in concert with the sexually selected traits.
990:
3749:
Shine, Richard; Langkilde, Tracy; Mason, Robert T. (2004). "Courtship tactics in garter snakes: How do a male's morphology and behaviour influence his mating success?".
2908:
Feinberg, D. R.; Jones, B. C.; Law Smith, M. J.; et al. (1 February 2006). "Menstrual cycle, trait estrogen level, and masculinity preferences in the human voice".
2165:
Weir, Laura K. (2012-11-22). "Male–male competition and alternative male mating tactics influence female behavior and fertility in
Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes)".
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1200:
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least partly based on the depth of croaking. This has led to sexual dimorphism, with females larger than males in 90% of species, and male fighting to access females.
317:
describes how sexual selection accelerates the preference for a specific ornament, causing the preferred trait and female preference for it to increase together in a
528:
introduced the "Bright Male" hypothesis, suggesting that male elaborations might serve as a marker of health, by exaggerating the effects of disease and deficiency.
387:
The exponential element, which is the kernel of the thing, arises from the rate of change in hen taste being proportional to the absolute average degree of taste. —
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extraordinary developments of sexual plumage are not due like most characters to a long and even course of evolutionary progress, but to sudden spurts of change. —
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147:, where the passing-on of the desire for a trait in one sex is as important as having the trait in the other sex in producing the runaway effect. Although the
359:
loop is created, producing extravagant physical structures in the non-limiting sex. A classic example of female choice and potential runaway selection is the
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Sexual selection may explain how characteristics such as feathers had survival value at an early stage in their evolution. The earliest proto-birds such as
478:
states that the sex which invests the most in producing offspring becomes a limiting resource for which the other sex competes, illustrated by the greater
767:
hatch 2–4 weeks later. The eggs are large and reduce the ability of the male to fertilise other females and catch prey, and increases its predation risk.
759:
Many forms of sexual selection exist among the insects. Parental care is often provided by female insects, as in bees, but male parental care is found in
1268:
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Sexual selection may sometimes generate features that help cause a species' extinction, as has historically been suggested for the giant antlers of the
4163:"A global analysis of song frequency in passerines provides no support for the acoustic adaptation hypothesis but suggests a role for sexual selection"
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Nelson-Flower, Martha J.; Ridley, Amanda R. (2015-09-24). "Male–male competition is not costly to dominant males in a cooperatively breeding bird".
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263:; the theory is now seen as generally applicable and analogous to natural selection. A ten-year study, experimentally varying sexual selection on
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visit flowers assortatively by degree of symmetry, nectar production, floral structure, and inflorescences, as well as sexual dimorphisms.
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516:, holds that the male's survival until and through the age of reproduction with seemingly maladaptive traits is taken by the female as
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Blouin-Demers, Gabriel; Gibbs, H. Lisle; Weatherhead, Patrick J. (2005). "Genetic evidence for sexual selection in black ratsnakes,
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water bugs, where the male, after fertilizing the eggs, allows the female to glue her eggs onto his back. He broods them until the
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710:. Humans are sexually dimorphic; females select males using factors including voice pitch, facial shape, muscularity, and height.
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males release pheromones to attract females to mate. Females choose mates based on whether they are infected, and on their mass.
3456:"Females prefer noninfected males as mates in the grain beetle Tenebrio molitor: evidence in pre- and postcopulatory behaviours"
876:
that are complex and varied in amplitude, structure, and frequency. Larger males have deeper songs and increased mating success.
235:. In his opinion, ascribing mate choice to females was attributing the ability to judge standards of beauty to animals (such as
214:'s tail, whenever I gaze at it, makes me sick!" His work divided sexual selection into male–male competition and female choice.
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1147:"On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection"
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3542:"Sperm transfer or spermatangia removal: postcopulatory behaviour of picking up spermatangium by female Japanese pygmy squid"
809:
5982:
4218:
Møller, Anders Pape; Eriksson, Mats (1995). "Pollinator
Preference for Symmetrical Flowers and Sexual Selection in Plants".
3258:
Lewis, Sara M.; Cratsley, Christopher K. (January 2008). "Flash Signal
Evolution, Mate Choice, and Predation in Fireflies".
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This causes a dramatic increase in both the male's conspicuous feature and in female preference for it, resulting in marked
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3825:"Sexual Dimorphism in Melanin Pigmentation, Feather Coloration and Its Heritability in the Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica)"
1698:(1974). "Origin and Function of 'Bizarre' Structures – Antler Size and Skull Size in 'Irish Elk', Megaloceros giganteus".
1194:(1st edition). Chapter 4, p. 88. "And this leads me to say a few words on what I call Sexual Selection. This depends ..."
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Clutton-Brock, T. H.; Russell, A. F.; Sharpe, L. L. (2004). "Behavioural tactics of breeders in cooperative meerkats".
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van der Plicht, J.; Molodin, V. I.; Kuzmin, Y. V.; Vasiliev, S. K.; Postnov, A. V.; Slavinsky, V. S. (15 April 2015).
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107:, in which competition between mate candidates could lead to speciation. The theory was given a mathematical basis by
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Many different tactics are used by snakes to acquire mates. Ritual combat between males for the females they want to
184:
Victorian cartoonists mocked Darwin's ideas about display in sexual selection. Here he is fascinated by the apparent
4053:"Song repertoire size varies with HVC volume and is indicative of male quality in song sparrows (Melospiza melodia)"
3884:"Immune investment is explained by sexual selection and pace-of-life, but not longevity in parrots (Psittaciformes)"
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Mikula, P.; Valcu, M.; Brumm, H.; Bulla, M.; Forstmeier, W.; Petrusková, T.; Kempenaers, B.; Albrecht, T (2021).
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3348:"Total evidence phylogeny and the evolution of adult bioluminescence in fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae)"
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2623:"New Holocene refugia of giant deer (Megaloceros giganteus Blum.) in Siberia: updated extinction patterns"
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This article is about the evolutionary concept. For the artificial selection of the sex of offspring, see
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Pfaff, J. A.; Zanette, L.; MacDougall-Shackleton, S. A.; MacDougall-Shackleton, E. A. (22 August 2007).
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Phelps, S.; Rand, A.; Ryan, M. (2006). "A cognitive framework for mate choice and species recognition".
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Beekman, Madeleine; Nieuwenhuis, Bart; Ortiz-Barrientos, Daniel; Evans, Jonathan P. (19 October 2016).
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is most often 1:1. Sexual selection is widely distributed in the animal kingdom, and is also found in
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Otronen, Merja (1984-08-01). "Male contests for territories and females in the fly
Dryomyza Anilis".
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Population benefits of sexual selection explain the existence of males phys.org May 18, 2015 Report
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in the early 20th century. Sexual selection can lead males to extreme efforts to demonstrate their
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Wells, Kentwood D.; Schwartz, Joshua J. (2006). "The
Behavioral Ecology of Anuran Communication".
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Cayuela, Hugo; Lengagne, Thierry; Kaufmann, Bernard; Joly, Pierre; LĂ©na, Jean-Paul (2016-06-24).
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3943:"Female plumage coloration is sensitive to the cost of reproduction. An experiment in blue tits"
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2670:"The extinction of the giant deer Megaloceros giganteus (Blumenbach): New radiocarbon evidence"
606:. Elaborated characteristics that might seem costly, like the tail of the Montezuma swordfish (
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appear to make use of sexual selection, although they also often reproduce asexually. In the
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their genetic preference for long tails, and males showing off the coveted long tail itself.
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3657:. Springer Handbook of Auditory Research. Vol. 28. New York: Springer. pp. 44–86.
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presents a non-mathematical explanation of the runaway sexual selection process in his book
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2144:. Vol. 2. Primates. London, New Delhi, New York, Sydney: Bloomsbury. pp. 45–53.
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3696:"The underground sex life of the Guatemalan Spike-thumb Frog (Plectrohyla guatemalensis)"
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Martin, Gavin J.; Branham, Marc A.; Whiting, Michael F.; Bybee, Seth M. (February 2017).
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guards its bower from rival males in the hope of attracting females with its decorations.
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3960:
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Doutrelant, C.; Grégoire, A.; Midamegbe, A.; Lambrechts, M.; Perret, P. (January 2012).
3899:
3840:
3557:
3365:
3028:
2685:
2638:
2583:
2521:
2381:
2102:
2003:
1957:
1899:
1559:
1379:
520:
of his overall fitness. Such handicaps might prove he is either free of or resistant to
7597:
7587:
7501:
7380:
7216:
7211:
7144:
6665:
6537:
5839:
5834:
5772:
5750:
5346:
5151:
4975:
4711:
4469:
4436:
4138:
4103:
4079:
4052:
4028:
3993:
3918:
3883:
3859:
3824:
3431:
3398:
3397:
Pölkki, Mari; Krams, Indrikis; Kangassalo, Katariina; Rantala, Markus J. (2012-06-23).
3227:
3202:
3154:"Cryptic female choice via sperm dumping favours male copulatory courtship in a spider"
3129:
3102:
2997:
2980:
McCann, T. S. (1981). "Aggression and sexual activity of male
Southern elephant seals,
2861:
2505:
2423:"Larval competition risk shapes male–male competition and mating behavior in an anuran"
2398:
2365:
2082:
1767:
1742:
1669:
1636:
1286:
1234:
1187:
1166:
1142:
981:
912:
760:
620:
513:
100:
69:
7261:
How Long Is the Coast of
Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension
2256:
1578:
1543:
7652:
7537:
7527:
7483:
7206:
7201:
6867:
6745:
6704:
6550:
6444:
6319:
6304:
5972:
5967:
5560:
5491:
5457:
5368:
5334:
5155:
4726:
4721:
4618:
4204:
3969:
3942:
3695:
3680:
3591:
3304:
3170:
3153:
2213:
2011:
1965:
1918:
1883:
1539:
1518:
1467:
The Blind
Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe Without Design
1423:
920:
861:
714:
509:
419:
285:
108:
33:
17:
4437:"Sexual selection in hermaphrodites, sperm and broadcast spawners, plants and fungi"
4380:
4345:
3634:
3289:
3244:
3087:
2937:
2646:
2607:
2350:
2307:
2264:
2186:
1405:
7553:
7405:
7117:
7040:
7023:
6862:
6810:
6755:
6588:
6583:
6324:
5935:
5627:
5479:
5356:
5351:
5297:
4989:
4938:
4933:
4731:
4701:
4667:
4559:
3809:
3770:
3526:
3399:"Inbreeding affects sexual signalling in males but not females of Tenebrio molitor"
3187:
3052:
2847:
2751:
2041:
1987:
1941:
1032:
699:
505:
292:
264:
251:
3801:
3762:
3729:"Hylid frogs of the genus Plectrohyla: systematics and phylogenetic relationships"
3712:
3471:
3079:
2229:
4128:
4018:
3908:
3849:
3012:
2882:
2693:
2529:
1465:
897:
have many secondary sexual characteristics subject to sexual selection including
267:
with other factors held constant, showed that sexual selection protected even an
7235:
7193:
7112:
7008:
7003:
6889:
6760:
6541:
6489:
6024:
5854:
5760:
5718:
4776:
4655:
3662:
3374:
3347:
2921:
2086:
1652:
869:
703:
603:
576:
525:
185:
72:
2389:
7182:
7177:
7095:
6998:
6750:
6651:
6573:
6560:
6449:
6309:
5994:
5881:
5859:
5812:
5807:
5755:
5723:
5074:
5013:
4928:
4871:
4766:
4680:
4328:
4303:
3565:
2735:
2334:
2291:
2178:
1388:
1363:
1105:
902:
665:
630:
442:
268:
232:
85:
4460:
3583:
3510:
3422:
2701:
2654:
2342:
2299:
2019:
1908:
1660:
139:. Depending on the species, these rules can be reversed. This is caused by a
29:
Mode of natural selection involving the choosing of and competition for mates
7558:
7284:
7187:
6884:
6735:
6479:
6299:
5962:
5710:
5467:
5442:
5432:
5420:
4650:
4510:
4493:
4263:"Trait selection in flowering plants: how does sexual selection contribute?"
3541:
3119:
2591:
2439:
2422:
2110:
2068:
1121:
838:
677:
652:
587:
583:
459:
447:
394:
240:
156:
93:
65:
4519:
4478:
4452:
4421:
4337:
4288:
4196:
4147:
4088:
4070:
4037:
3978:
3927:
3868:
3626:
3518:
3440:
3414:
3383:
3305:"The Evolution of Bioluminescence in Cantharoids (Coleoptera: Elateroidea)"
3281:
3236:
3179:
3138:
3044:
2929:
2839:
2743:
2599:
2407:
2221:
1927:
1868:
1776:
1727:
1678:
1587:
1568:
1397:
7637:
2537:
2118:
2089:(1982). "Heritable true fitness and bright birds: a role for parasites?".
1973:
1884:"Genetic benefits enhance the reproductive success of polyandrous females"
915:, the sex ratio is biased towards males, implying sexual selection there.
7013:
6978:
6787:
6135:
5989:
5484:
5385:
4588:
4412:
4395:
4279:
4262:
3203:"The evolution of parental care in insects: A test of current hypotheses"
3103:"Postcopulatory sexual selection: Darwin's omission and its consequences"
2366:"Fight outcome briefly affects the reproductive fitness of male crickets"
2027:
1811:
779:
660:
3036:
2959:(2nd ed.). Burlington, Massachusetts: Academic Press. p. 346.
1859:
1842:
7139:
7134:
7122:
7100:
7085:
6993:
6429:
6329:
6177:
6172:
5886:
5638:
5452:
5425:
5078:
4913:
4247:
3574:
3332:
2790:
Comparative evidence for the evolution of genitalia by sexual selection
1719:
1339:
The Mating Mind: How sexual choice shaped the evolution of human nature
997:
771:
726:
521:
289:
260:
132:
124:
7300:
4441:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
4187:
4162:
3994:"Male songbird indicates body size with low-pitched advertising songs"
3502:
3218:
2830:
2813:
2490:
1527:
The genetical theory of natural selection: A complete variorum edition
6933:
5474:
5447:
5280:
4494:"Evolutionary Dynamics of Sex-Biased Genes in a Hermaphrodite Fungus"
3013:"Intrasexual competition and sexual selection in cooperative mammals"
2951:
Perrin, William F.; WĂĽrsig, Bernd; Thewissen, J. G. M., eds. (2008).
954:
834:
775:
752:
483:
236:
211:
76:
4239:
3486:
3323:
1882:
Newcomer, Scott D.; Zeh, Jeanne A.; Zeh, David W. (31 August 1999).
1758:
1711:
1154:
Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London. Zoology
355:, until practical physical constraints halt further exaggeration. A
4372:
3823:
Saino, Nicola; Romano, Maria; Rubolini, Diego; et al. (2013).
3618:
3540:
Sato, Noriyosi; Kasugai, Takashi; Munehara, Hiroyuki (2013-03-01).
1104:
flower's symmetry may have been subject to sexual selection by its
725:
Also seen in mammals is sex-role reversal, as in the highly social
7172:
6385:
6194:
6093:
3485:
Sato, Noriyosi; Yoshida, Masa-aki; Kasugai, Takashi (2016-11-17).
908:
629:
was flightless, but had feathers, perhaps used in courtship, that
619:
535:
441:
418:
Since Fisher's initial conceptual model of the 'runaway' process,
393:
339:
245:
179:
1525:, 22 November 1932, cited in Fisher, R. A., Bennett, J. H. 1999.
7050:
6988:
6983:
6344:
5275:
2717:"Evolution of genitalia: theories, evidence, and new directions"
313:, which explains why the sex ratio is usually close to 1:1. The
136:
7304:
6937:
5642:
5227:
4844:
4532:
4528:
1637:"The Relationship between Sexual Selection and Sexual Conflict"
830:, are polyandrous, with one female mating with multiple males.
5254:
4104:"Rock sparrow song reflects male age and reproductive success"
1544:"Models of speciation by sexual selection on polygenic traits"
398:
The peacock tail in flight, the proposed classic example of a
299:, developed his ideas about sexual selection in his 1930 book
4840:
4396:"Sexual selection: lessons from hermaphrodite mating systems"
4359:
Wilson, Mary F. (June 1979). "Sexual Selection In Plants".
4102:
Nemeth, E.; Kempenaers, B.; Matessi, G.; Brumm, H. (2012).
2881:
Buss, David (2019). "Women's Long-Term Mating Strategies".
2461:
Kokko, Hanna; Jennions, Michael D.; Brooks, Robert (2006).
309:, which might suggest a preference for male offspring, and
2047:
The handicap principle: a missing piece of Darwin's puzzle
4492:
Whittle, Carrie A.; Johannesson, Hanna (20 August 2013).
198:
Sexual selection was first proposed by Charles Darwin in
2364:
Zeng, Yang; Zhou, Feng-Hao; Zhu, Dao-Hong (2018-06-26).
5223:
3454:
Worden, Bradley D.; Parker, Patricia G. (2005-11-05).
3201:
Gilbert, James D. J.; Manica, Andrea (30 April 2015).
3011:
Clutton-Brock, T. H.; Hodge, S. J.; Spong, G. (2006).
2456:
2454:
2452:
2450:
2140:. In Butynski, T. M.; Kingdon, J.; Kalina, J. (eds.).
1630:
1628:
1626:
1470:. Norton. pp. Chapter 8, Explosions and Spirals.
7626:
1944:(1975). "Mate selection—A selection for a handicap".
1362:
Hosken, David J.; House, Clarissa M. (January 2011).
927:
Example sexual selection mechanisms in the named taxa
2884:
Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind
2668:
Lister, Adrian M.; Stuart, Anthony J. (2019-01-01).
2555:. University of California Riverside. Archived from
2470:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
837:
with includes topping, a behavior exhibited by most
207:
The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex
194:
The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex
151:
indicates that females would prefer male offspring,
7546:
7520:
7482:
7457:
7424:
7338:
7272:
7165:
7073:
6971:
6803:
6728:
6632:
6559:
6515:
6370:
6274:
6091:
6050:
5919:
5709:
5571:
5404:
5261:
5112:
5061:
5004:
4952:
4906:
4754:
4689:
4566:
4261:Ashman, Tia-Lynn; Delph, Lynda F. (1 August 2006).
3303:Branham, Marc A.; Wenzel, John W. (December 2001).
2867:
The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex
2807:
2805:
2570:Clarke, J. (9 May 2013). "Feathers Before Flight".
586:and parental roles, but also to mechanisms such as
239:) far too cognitively undeveloped to be capable of
3694:Gonzalez-Mollinedo, S.; Marmol-Kattan, A. (2020).
1000:species attracts mates with its own flash pattern.
2463:"Unifying and Testing Models of Sexual Selection"
1489:
1487:
676:Sexual selection is widely distributed among the
1498:. Princeton University Press. pp. 115–117.
3107:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1888:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1743:"Fitness and its role in evolutionary genetics"
1124:become blue to signal their fitness to females.
919:to fertilise occurs in fungi including yeasts.
794:Postcopulatory intersexual selection occurs in
466:. Sexual preference creates a tendency towards
408:
385:
323:
221:
216:
941:, the male gorilla is much larger than female.
706:in different human populations are results of
462:left behind, and by their quality or probable
450:might have helped it on its way to extinction.
446:The enormous sexually-selected antlers of the
92:or prefer more attractive partners to produce
7316:
6949:
5654:
5239:
4856:
4544:
3651:Hearing and Sound Communication in Amphibians
1690:
1688:
1647:(9). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory: a017517.
1419:
1417:
1415:
8:
3992:Hall, L.; Kingma, S. A.; Peters, A. (2013).
2812:Nieuwenhuis, B. P. S.; Aanen, D. K. (2012).
458:of an organism is measured by the number of
2553:"Sexual Selection, Costs, and Compensation"
2132:Williamson, E. A.; Butynski, T. M. (2013).
1635:Kokko, H.; Jennions, M. D. (18 July 2014).
1030:Territorial fight in the Indian rat snake,
751:Sexual selection occurs in a wide range of
227:These views were to some extent opposed by
7323:
7309:
7301:
6956:
6942:
6934:
5661:
5647:
5639:
5246:
5232:
5224:
4863:
4849:
4841:
4551:
4537:
4529:
4504:(11). Oxford University Press: 2435–2446.
4302:Moore, Jamie C.; Pannell, John R. (2011).
1807:"Large testicles are linked to infidelity"
1792:Biology: The Unity & Diversity of Life
1641:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
103:who wrote of a "second agency" other than
4509:
4468:
4411:
4327:
4278:
4186:
4137:
4127:
4078:
4027:
4017:
3968:
3917:
3907:
3858:
3848:
3736:Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan
3711:
3573:
3430:
3373:
3322:
3226:
3169:
3128:
3118:
2829:
2489:
2438:
2397:
1917:
1907:
1858:
1766:
1668:
1577:
1567:
1529:, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p. 308
1429:The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection
1387:
1165:
702:traits such as beards, hairlessness, and
302:The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection
254:from extinction in a ten-year experiment.
6895:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
3152:Peretti, A. V.; Eberhard, W. G. (2010).
2482:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.37.091305.110259
1310:
1308:
602:, and the "most-debated effect", namely
53:. Male above; female below. Painting by
40:
7633:
3727:Duellman, W.E.; Campbell, J.A. (1992).
1456:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1287:"Note on Sexual Selection (S459: 1892)"
1134:
925:
7616:Index of evolutionary biology articles
2766:Sexual selection and genital evolution
2715:Eberhard, William G. (24 March 2009).
1843:"Intra-sexual selection in Drosophila"
1267:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1260:
1220:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1213:
6658:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
4447:(1706). The Royal Society: 20150541.
3353:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
3274:10.1146/annurev.ento.53.103106.093346
3101:Eberhard, William G. (16 June 2009).
2053:. New York: Oxford University Press.
1819:from the original on January 31, 2014
1293:from the original on 17 February 2017
1177:from the original on 22 October 2012.
778:, sexual selection is common. In the
99:The concept was first articulated by
7:
5182:
4811:
3700:Neotropical Biology and Conservation
2764:Hosken, David J.; Stockley, Paula. "
2676:. SI: Quaternary International 500.
2551:Oufiero, Christopher E. (May 2015).
2508:(1967). "Extraordinary sex ratios".
963:, have elaborate courtship displays.
886:Sexual selection in flowering plants
88:, for example because they are more
7242:The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis
5342:Heterogametic sex / Homogametic sex
5206:
4604:Evolutionary models of food sharing
4400:Integrative and Comparative Biology
4394:Leonard, Janet L. (1 August 2006).
4267:Integrative and Comparative Biology
2870:. London: John Murray. p. 578.
2323:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
2280:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
2167:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
814:Sexual selection in scaled reptiles
648:could have been relatively smooth.
115:to be chosen by females, producing
45:Sexual selection creates colourful
6063:Evolutionary developmental biology
4058:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
2998:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1981.tb03467.x
1603:Genetic Models of Sexual Selection
1167:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1858.tb02500.x
25:
2777:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1341:. London: Heinemann. p. 24.
1241:(1st edition). Chapter 4, p. 89.
717:. Dominant males establish large
544:, a species with very large males
321:runaway cycle. He remarked that:
7636:
7064:
6917:
6908:
6907:
5623:
5622:
5416:Evolution of sexual reproduction
5205:
5193:
5181:
5170:
5169:
4822:
4810:
4799:
4798:
3970:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2011.01889.x
3171:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2009.01900.x
2214:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2012.02485.x
1805:Vogt, Yngve (January 29, 2014).
1794:. Cengage Learning. p. 281.
1113:
1092:
1072:
1056:
1040:
1023:
1005:
989:
968:
946:
931:
121:secondary sexual characteristics
6720:Extended evolutionary synthesis
5909:Gene-centered view of evolution
4738:Sociobiology: The New Synthesis
4498:Molecular Biology and Evolution
3158:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
2818:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
2799:." Nature 393.6687 (1998): 784.
2647:10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.02.013
2202:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
1990:(1977). "The cost of honesty".
1250:from the original on 2011-11-05
1203:from the original on 2011-11-05
668:—such that new species emerge.
271:population against extinction.
7416:Constructive neutral evolution
6848:Hologenome theory of evolution
6715:History of molecular evolution
5941:Evolutionarily stable strategy
5830:Last universal common ancestor
5524:Sexual reproduction in animals
2957:Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals
1992:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1946:Journal of Theoretical Biology
868:Many bird species make use of
810:Sexual selection in amphibians
1:
6642:Renaissance and Enlightenment
3802:10.1016/j.anbehav.2004.03.012
3763:10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.05.007
3713:10.3897/neotropical.15.e57142
3472:10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.01.023
3113:(supplement 1): 10025–10032.
3080:10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.10.024
2887:(Sixth ed.). Routledge.
2257:10.1016/S0003-3472(84)80167-0
756:during or after copulations.
7366:Fisher's fundamental theorem
6853:Missing heritability problem
6480:Gamete differentiation/sexes
5396:Sex as a biological variable
5379:Simultaneous hermaphroditism
4304:"Sexual selection in plants"
4129:10.1371/journal.pone.0043259
4019:10.1371/journal.pone.0056717
3909:10.1371/journal.pone.0053066
3850:10.1371/journal.pone.0058024
2694:10.1016/j.quaint.2019.03.025
2530:10.1126/science.156.3774.477
2012:10.1016/0022-5193(77)90061-3
1966:10.1016/0022-5193(75)90111-3
616:Toolkit of natural selection
550:Male intrasexual competition
532:Male intrasexual competition
7391:Coefficient of relationship
5200:Evolutionary biology Portal
4829:Evolutionary biology portal
3663:10.1007/978-0-387-47796-1_3
3375:10.1016/j.ympev.2016.12.017
3261:Annual Review of Entomology
2922:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.07.004
2814:"Sexual selection in fungi"
1653:10.1101/cshperspect.a017517
1432:. Oxford University Press,
1015:Dendropsophus microcephalus
747:Sexual selection in insects
743:Sexual selection in spiders
694:Sexual selection in mammals
250:Sexual selection protected
7680:
6485:Life cycles/nuclear phases
6037:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
5534:Penile-vaginal intercourse
5374:Sequential hermaphroditism
2627:Quaternary Science Reviews
2390:10.1038/s41598-018-27866-4
2044:; Zahavi, Avishag (1997).
1741:Orr, H. A. (August 2009).
1607:Cambridge University Press
883:
848:
807:
804:In amphibians and reptiles
740:
708:sexual selection in humans
690:Sexual selection in humans
687:
566:
547:
493:
435:
278:
191:
31:
7611:
7386:Coefficient of inbreeding
7222:D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson
7062:
6903:
5983:Parent–offspring conflict
5788:Earliest known life forms
5676:
5618:
5364:Testis-determining factor
5165:
4878:
4794:
4329:10.1016/j.cub.2010.12.035
3948:Journal of Animal Ecology
3566:10.1007/s00227-012-2112-5
2736:10.1007/s10709-009-9358-y
2335:10.1007/s00265-016-2078-2
2292:10.1007/s00265-015-2011-0
2179:10.1007/s00265-012-1438-9
1389:10.1016/j.cub.2010.11.053
1319:University of East Anglia
984:carries eggs on its back.
890:Sexual selection in fungi
872:, the females preferring
851:Sexual selection in birds
659:) that became extinct in
51:Goldie's bird-of-paradise
47:differences between sexes
7564:Evolutionary game theory
7346:Hardy–Weinberg principle
6836:Cultural group selection
6700:The eclipse of Darwinism
6672:On the Origin of Species
6647:Transmutation of species
5305:Sex-determination system
5043:Nonecological speciation
3310:The Florida Entomologist
2674:Quaternary International
1909:10.1073/pnas.96.18.10236
1601:O'Donald, Peter (1980).
1324:August 21, 2015, at the
1239:On the Origin of Species
1192:On the Origin of Species
698:Darwin conjectured that
557:Winner and loser effects
204:(1859) and developed in
201:On the Origin of Species
68:in which members of one
7376:Shifting balance theory
6841:Dual inheritance theory
6680:History of paleontology
4624:Male warrior hypothesis
4594:Evolutionary psychology
4584:Dual inheritance theory
4361:The American Naturalist
3607:The American Naturalist
3120:10.1073/pnas.0901217106
2795:27 January 2012 at the
2771:12 October 2017 at the
2592:10.1126/science.1235463
2111:10.1126/science.7123238
1747:Nature Reviews Genetics
1081:southern elephant seals
7361:Linkage disequilibrium
6529:Punctuated equilibrium
5850:Non-adaptive radiation
5798:Evolutionary arms race
5288:Sexual differentiation
5148:Punctuated equilibrium
5104:Character displacement
4924:Reproductive isolation
4893:Laboratory experiments
4453:10.1098/rstb.2015.0541
4071:10.1098/rspb.2007.0170
3882:Edwards, D.B. (2012).
3415:10.1098/rsbl.2011.1135
1569:10.1073/pnas.78.6.3721
1494:Andersson, M. (1994).
1337:Miller, G. F. (2000).
1283:Wallace, Alfred Russel
1051:displaying to a female
634:
609:Xiphophorus montezumae
596:investing in sexy sons
545:
480:nutritional investment
451:
416:
402:
392:
348:
338:
297:evolutionary biologist
255:
225:
220:
189:
188:in the latest fashion.
58:
55:John Gerrard Keulemans
7603:Quantitative genetics
7512:Balding–Nichols model
7497:Population bottleneck
7492:Small population size
7396:Selection coefficient
7056:Widmanstätten pattern
6821:Evolutionary medicine
6695:Mendelian inheritance
6403:Biological complexity
6391:Programmed cell death
6083:Phenotypic plasticity
5803:Evolutionary pressure
5793:Evidence of evolution
5691:Timeline of evolution
5330:Temperature-dependent
5029:Ecological speciation
4944:Evidence of evolution
4599:Evolution of morality
4511:10.1093/molbev/mst143
2910:Hormones and Behavior
2440:10.1093/beheco/arw100
1790:Starr, Cecie (2013).
1523:Charles Galton Darwin
1087:for the right to mate
917:Male–male competition
657:Megaloceros giganteus
623:
567:Further information:
539:
494:Further information:
445:
436:Further information:
397:
361:long-tailed widowbird
346:long-tailed widowbird
343:
331:geometric progression
249:
229:Alfred Russel Wallace
192:Further information:
183:
143:mechanism known as a
123:, such as the ornate
84:than others within a
44:
18:Male-male competition
7643:Evolutionary biology
7474:Background selection
7461:on genomic variation
7459:Effects of selection
7411:Population structure
6795:Teleology in biology
6690:Blending inheritance
6068:Genetic assimilation
5931:Artificial selection
5670:Evolutionary biology
4579:Challenge hypothesis
4574:Behavioural genetics
1049:Victoria's riflebird
797:Idiosepius paradoxus
646:transition to flight
456:reproductive success
432:Reproductive success
376:The Blind Watchmaker
305:. These include the
135:, or the antlers of
82:reproductive success
75:of the other sex to
7664:Population genetics
7593:Population genomics
7469:Genetic hitchhiking
7356:Identity by descent
7332:Population genetics
7290:Mathematics and art
7280:Pattern recognition
7250:Aristid Lindenmayer
6858:Molecular evolution
6816:Ecological genetics
6685:Transitional fossil
6475:Sexual reproduction
6315:endomembrane system
6244:pollinator-mediated
6200:dolphins and whales
5978:Parental investment
5546:Hormonal motivation
5519:Fungal reproduction
5438:Reproductive system
5033:Parallel speciation
4629:Reciprocal altruism
4320:2011CBio...21.R176M
4232:1995Oikos..73...15M
4179:2021EcolL..24..477M
4120:2012PLoSO...743259N
4010:2013PLoSO...856717H
3961:2012JAnEc..81...87D
3900:2012PLoSO...753066E
3841:2013PLoSO...858024S
3558:2013MarBi.160..553S
3366:2017MolPE.107..564M
3037:10.1038/nature05386
3029:2006Natur.444.1065C
2779:19.2 (2004): 87–93.
2686:2019QuInt.500..185L
2639:2015QSRv..114..182V
2584:2013Sci...340..690C
2522:1967Sci...156..477H
2382:2018NatSR...8.9695Z
2103:1982Sci...218..384H
2004:1977JThBi..67..603Z
1958:1975JThBi..53..205Z
1900:1999PNAS...9610236N
1894:(18): 10236–10241.
1860:10.1038/hdy.1948.21
1560:1981PNAS...78.3721L
1380:2011CBio...21..R62H
921:Pheromone signaling
880:In plants and fungi
569:Sexy son hypothesis
476:Bateman's principle
438:Bateman's principle
413:Ronald Fisher, 1930
389:Ronald Fisher, 1932
335:Ronald Fisher, 1930
307:sexy son hypothesis
149:sexy son hypothesis
7579:Landscape genetics
7228:On Growth and Form
7128:Logarithmic spiral
6965:Patterns in nature
6831:Cultural evolution
5946:Fisher's principle
5875:Handicap principle
5865:Parallel evolution
5729:Adaptive radiation
5551:Human reproduction
5529:Sexual intercourse
5514:Plant reproduction
5113:Speciation in taxa
5048:Assortative mating
4717:Sarah Blaffer Hrdy
4646:Sex and psychology
4413:10.1093/icb/icj041
4280:10.1093/icb/icj038
2986:Journal of Zoology
2788:Arnqvist, Göran. "
2427:Behavioral Ecology
2370:Scientific Reports
1853:(Pt. 3): 349–368.
1696:Gould, Stephen Jay
1364:"Sexual Selection"
1317:on a study by the
733:care to the young.
635:
592:Fisher's principle
546:
502:handicap principle
468:assortative mating
452:
403:
349:
311:Fisher's principle
256:
190:
153:Fisher's principle
64:is a mechanism of
59:
7624:
7623:
7574:Genetic genealogy
7569:Fitness landscape
7298:
7297:
7255:Benoît Mandelbrot
7155:Self-organization
7091:Natural selection
7081:Pattern formation
6931:
6930:
6547:Uniformitarianism
6500:Sex-determination
6005:Sexual dimorphism
6000:Natural selection
5904:Unit of selection
5870:Signalling theory
5636:
5635:
5556:Lordosis behavior
5271:Sexual dimorphism
5221:
5220:
5099:Secondary contact
5071:Hybrid speciation
5019:Natural selection
5006:Isolating factors
4838:
4837:
4762:Stephen Jay Gould
4188:10.1111/ele.13662
4065:(1621): 2035–40.
3672:978-0-387-32521-7
3503:10.1111/evo.13108
3219:10.1111/evo.12656
2966:978-0-12-373553-9
2831:10.1111/jeb.12017
2824:(12): 2397–2411.
2578:(6133): 690–692.
2516:(3774): 477–488.
2286:(12): 1997–2004.
2142:Mammals of Africa
2097:(4570): 384–387.
2060:978-0-19-510035-8
1839:Bateman, Angus J.
1477:978-0-393-31570-7
1348:978-0-434-00741-7
1289:. Charles Smith.
978:Abedus indentatus
960:Phidippus putnami
858:birds-of-paradise
784:Tenebrio molitor,
672:In different taxa
640:Protarchaeopteryx
626:Protarchaeopteryx
594:, parental care,
496:Signalling theory
490:Honest signalling
400:Fisherian runaway
357:positive feedback
353:sexual dimorphism
319:positive feedback
315:Fisherian runaway
281:Fisherian runaway
275:Fisherian runaway
155:explains why the
145:Fisherian runaway
141:positive feedback
129:birds-of-paradise
117:sexual dimorphism
105:natural selection
16:(Redirected from
7671:
7659:Sexual selection
7641:
7640:
7632:
7533:J. B. S. Haldane
7325:
7318:
7311:
7302:
7106:Sexual selection
7068:
6958:
6951:
6944:
6935:
6921:
6911:
6910:
6710:Modern synthesis
6470:Multicellularity
6465:Mosaic evolution
6350:auditory ossicle
6032:Social selection
6015:Flowering plants
6010:Sexual selection
5663:
5656:
5649:
5640:
5626:
5625:
5586:Animal sexuality
5509:Sexual selection
5248:
5241:
5234:
5225:
5209:
5208:
5197:
5185:
5184:
5173:
5172:
5024:Sexual selection
4953:Geographic modes
4865:
4858:
4851:
4842:
4826:
4814:
4813:
4802:
4801:
4783:Not in Our Genes
4772:Richard Lewontin
4634:Sexual selection
4553:
4546:
4539:
4530:
4524:
4523:
4513:
4489:
4483:
4482:
4472:
4432:
4426:
4425:
4415:
4391:
4385:
4384:
4356:
4350:
4349:
4331:
4314:(5): R176–R182.
4299:
4293:
4292:
4282:
4258:
4252:
4251:
4215:
4209:
4208:
4190:
4158:
4152:
4151:
4141:
4131:
4099:
4093:
4092:
4082:
4048:
4042:
4041:
4031:
4021:
3989:
3983:
3982:
3972:
3938:
3932:
3931:
3921:
3911:
3879:
3873:
3872:
3862:
3852:
3820:
3814:
3813:
3790:Animal Behaviour
3781:
3775:
3774:
3751:Animal Behaviour
3746:
3740:
3739:
3733:
3724:
3718:
3717:
3715:
3691:
3685:
3684:
3656:
3645:
3639:
3638:
3602:
3596:
3595:
3577:
3537:
3531:
3530:
3482:
3476:
3475:
3466:(5): 1047–1053.
3460:Animal Behaviour
3451:
3445:
3444:
3434:
3394:
3388:
3387:
3377:
3343:
3337:
3336:
3326:
3300:
3294:
3293:
3255:
3249:
3248:
3230:
3213:(5): 1255–1270.
3198:
3192:
3191:
3173:
3149:
3143:
3142:
3132:
3122:
3098:
3092:
3091:
3074:(5): 1029–1040.
3068:Animal Behaviour
3063:
3057:
3056:
3023:(7122): 1065–8.
3008:
3002:
3001:
2982:Mirounga leonina
2977:
2971:
2970:
2948:
2942:
2941:
2905:
2899:
2898:
2878:
2872:
2871:
2858:
2852:
2851:
2833:
2809:
2800:
2786:
2780:
2762:
2756:
2755:
2721:
2712:
2706:
2705:
2665:
2659:
2658:
2618:
2612:
2611:
2567:
2561:
2560:
2548:
2542:
2541:
2502:
2496:
2495:
2493:
2467:
2458:
2445:
2444:
2442:
2418:
2412:
2411:
2401:
2361:
2355:
2354:
2318:
2312:
2311:
2275:
2269:
2268:
2245:Animal Behaviour
2240:
2234:
2233:
2197:
2191:
2190:
2162:
2156:
2155:
2138:eastern gorilla"
2136:Gorilla beringei
2129:
2123:
2122:
2079:
2073:
2072:
2052:
2038:
2032:
2031:
1984:
1978:
1977:
1938:
1932:
1931:
1921:
1911:
1879:
1873:
1872:
1862:
1835:
1829:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1802:
1796:
1795:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1770:
1738:
1732:
1731:
1692:
1683:
1682:
1672:
1632:
1621:
1620:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1581:
1571:
1554:(6): 3721–3725.
1536:
1530:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1496:Sexual Selection
1491:
1482:
1481:
1462:Dawkins, Richard
1458:
1445:
1421:
1410:
1409:
1391:
1359:
1353:
1352:
1334:
1328:
1312:
1303:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1266:
1258:
1256:
1255:
1232:
1226:
1225:
1219:
1211:
1209:
1208:
1185:
1179:
1178:
1176:
1169:
1151:
1139:
1117:
1096:
1085:Macquarie Island
1076:
1060:
1044:
1027:
1009:
993:
982:belostomatid bug
972:
950:
935:
895:Flowering plants
874:males with songs
821:Spikethumb frogs
542:mountain gorilla
62:Sexual selection
21:
7679:
7678:
7674:
7673:
7672:
7670:
7669:
7668:
7649:
7648:
7647:
7635:
7627:
7625:
7620:
7607:
7542:
7516:
7478:
7462:
7460:
7453:
7420:
7351:Genetic linkage
7334:
7329:
7299:
7294:
7268:
7161:
7069:
7060:
6967:
6962:
6932:
6927:
6899:
6826:Group selection
6799:
6724:
6628:
6555:
6517:Tempo and modes
6511:
6366:
6270:
6087:
6046:
5922:
5915:
5892:Species complex
5705:
5696:History of life
5672:
5667:
5637:
5632:
5614:
5601:Differentiation
5591:Human sexuality
5581:Plant sexuality
5567:
5463:Spermatogenesis
5407:
5400:
5263:
5257:
5252:
5222:
5217:
5161:
5144:Paleopolyploidy
5108:
5063:Hybrid concepts
5057:
5000:
4948:
4918:Species complex
4902:
4874:
4869:
4839:
4834:
4790:
4750:
4707:Richard Dawkins
4685:
4676:Dunbar's number
4614:Kin recognition
4609:Group selection
4562:
4557:
4527:
4491:
4490:
4486:
4434:
4433:
4429:
4393:
4392:
4388:
4358:
4357:
4353:
4308:Current Biology
4301:
4300:
4296:
4260:
4259:
4255:
4240:10.2307/3545720
4217:
4216:
4212:
4167:Ecology Letters
4160:
4159:
4155:
4101:
4100:
4096:
4050:
4049:
4045:
3991:
3990:
3986:
3940:
3939:
3935:
3881:
3880:
3876:
3822:
3821:
3817:
3786:Elaphe obsoleta
3783:
3782:
3778:
3748:
3747:
3743:
3731:
3726:
3725:
3721:
3693:
3692:
3688:
3673:
3654:
3647:
3646:
3642:
3604:
3603:
3599:
3539:
3538:
3534:
3484:
3483:
3479:
3453:
3452:
3448:
3403:Biology Letters
3396:
3395:
3391:
3345:
3344:
3340:
3324:10.2307/3496389
3302:
3301:
3297:
3257:
3256:
3252:
3200:
3199:
3195:
3151:
3150:
3146:
3100:
3099:
3095:
3065:
3064:
3060:
3010:
3009:
3005:
2979:
2978:
2974:
2967:
2953:"Earless Seals"
2950:
2949:
2945:
2907:
2906:
2902:
2895:
2880:
2879:
2875:
2862:Darwin, Charles
2860:
2859:
2855:
2811:
2810:
2803:
2797:Wayback Machine
2787:
2783:
2773:Wayback Machine
2763:
2759:
2719:
2714:
2713:
2709:
2667:
2666:
2662:
2620:
2619:
2615:
2569:
2568:
2564:
2559:on 6 June 2014.
2550:
2549:
2545:
2506:Hamilton, W. D.
2504:
2503:
2499:
2465:
2460:
2459:
2448:
2420:
2419:
2415:
2363:
2362:
2358:
2320:
2319:
2315:
2277:
2276:
2272:
2242:
2241:
2237:
2199:
2198:
2194:
2164:
2163:
2159:
2152:
2131:
2130:
2126:
2083:Hamilton, W. D.
2081:
2080:
2076:
2061:
2050:
2040:
2039:
2035:
1986:
1985:
1981:
1940:
1939:
1935:
1881:
1880:
1876:
1837:
1836:
1832:
1822:
1820:
1804:
1803:
1799:
1789:
1788:
1784:
1759:10.1038/nrg2603
1740:
1739:
1735:
1712:10.2307/2407322
1694:
1693:
1686:
1634:
1633:
1624:
1617:
1600:
1599:
1595:
1538:
1537:
1533:
1521:in a letter to
1517:
1513:
1506:
1493:
1492:
1485:
1478:
1460:
1459:
1448:
1422:
1413:
1368:Current Biology
1361:
1360:
1356:
1349:
1336:
1335:
1331:
1326:Wayback Machine
1313:
1306:
1296:
1294:
1281:
1280:
1276:
1259:
1253:
1251:
1244:"Archived copy"
1242:
1235:Darwin, Charles
1233:
1229:
1212:
1206:
1204:
1197:"Archived copy"
1195:
1188:Darwin, Charles
1186:
1182:
1174:
1149:
1143:Darwin, Charles
1141:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1118:
1109:
1097:
1088:
1077:
1068:
1065:satin bowerbird
1061:
1052:
1045:
1036:
1028:
1019:
1010:
1001:
994:
985:
973:
964:
957:, such as this
951:
942:
936:
899:floral symmetry
892:
884:Main articles:
882:
853:
847:
816:
808:Main articles:
806:
792:
749:
741:Main articles:
739:
696:
688:Main articles:
686:
674:
618:
600:sexual conflict
579:
573:Sexual conflict
565:
563:Multiple models
552:
534:
498:
492:
482:of an egg in a
440:
434:
429:
371:Richard Dawkins
283:
277:
196:
178:
173:
37:
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7677:
7675:
7667:
7666:
7661:
7651:
7650:
7646:
7645:
7622:
7621:
7619:
7618:
7612:
7609:
7608:
7606:
7605:
7600:
7598:Phylogeography
7595:
7590:
7588:Microevolution
7585:
7576:
7571:
7566:
7561:
7556:
7550:
7548:
7547:Related topics
7544:
7543:
7541:
7540:
7535:
7530:
7524:
7522:
7518:
7517:
7515:
7514:
7509:
7504:
7502:Founder effect
7499:
7494:
7488:
7486:
7480:
7479:
7477:
7476:
7471:
7465:
7463:
7458:
7455:
7454:
7452:
7451:
7446:
7441:
7436:
7430:
7428:
7422:
7421:
7419:
7418:
7413:
7408:
7403:
7398:
7393:
7388:
7383:
7381:Price equation
7378:
7373:
7371:Neutral theory
7368:
7363:
7358:
7353:
7348:
7342:
7340:
7336:
7335:
7330:
7328:
7327:
7320:
7313:
7305:
7296:
7295:
7293:
7292:
7287:
7282:
7276:
7274:
7270:
7269:
7267:
7266:
7265:
7264:
7252:
7247:
7246:
7245:
7233:
7232:
7231:
7219:
7217:Wilson Bentley
7214:
7212:Joseph Plateau
7209:
7204:
7199:
7198:
7197:
7185:
7180:
7175:
7169:
7167:
7163:
7162:
7160:
7159:
7158:
7157:
7152:
7150:Plateau's laws
7147:
7145:Fluid dynamics
7142:
7132:
7131:
7130:
7125:
7120:
7110:
7109:
7108:
7103:
7098:
7093:
7083:
7077:
7075:
7071:
7070:
7063:
7061:
7059:
7058:
7053:
7048:
7043:
7038:
7037:
7036:
7031:
7026:
7021:
7011:
7006:
7001:
6996:
6991:
6986:
6981:
6975:
6973:
6969:
6968:
6963:
6961:
6960:
6953:
6946:
6938:
6929:
6928:
6926:
6925:
6915:
6904:
6901:
6900:
6898:
6897:
6892:
6887:
6882:
6877:
6876:
6875:
6865:
6860:
6855:
6850:
6845:
6844:
6843:
6838:
6833:
6823:
6818:
6813:
6807:
6805:
6801:
6800:
6798:
6797:
6792:
6791:
6790:
6785:
6780:
6779:
6778:
6768:
6763:
6758:
6753:
6748:
6738:
6732:
6730:
6726:
6725:
6723:
6722:
6717:
6712:
6707:
6702:
6697:
6692:
6687:
6682:
6677:
6676:
6675:
6666:Charles Darwin
6663:
6662:
6661:
6649:
6644:
6638:
6636:
6630:
6629:
6627:
6626:
6621:
6616:
6611:
6606:
6604:Non-ecological
6601:
6596:
6591:
6586:
6581:
6576:
6571:
6565:
6563:
6557:
6556:
6554:
6553:
6544:
6535:
6521:
6519:
6513:
6512:
6510:
6509:
6504:
6503:
6502:
6497:
6492:
6487:
6482:
6472:
6467:
6462:
6457:
6452:
6447:
6442:
6437:
6432:
6427:
6422:
6421:
6420:
6410:
6405:
6400:
6395:
6394:
6393:
6388:
6377:
6375:
6368:
6367:
6365:
6364:
6363:
6362:
6357:
6355:nervous system
6352:
6347:
6342:
6334:
6333:
6332:
6327:
6322:
6317:
6312:
6307:
6297:
6292:
6287:
6281:
6279:
6272:
6271:
6269:
6268:
6263:
6258:
6253:
6248:
6247:
6246:
6236:
6235:
6234:
6229:
6228:
6227:
6222:
6212:
6207:
6202:
6197:
6192:
6191:
6190:
6185:
6175:
6165:
6160:
6159:
6158:
6148:
6143:
6138:
6133:
6132:
6131:
6121:
6116:
6115:
6114:
6104:
6098:
6096:
6089:
6088:
6086:
6085:
6080:
6075:
6070:
6065:
6060:
6054:
6052:
6048:
6047:
6045:
6044:
6039:
6034:
6029:
6028:
6027:
6022:
6017:
6007:
6002:
5997:
5992:
5987:
5986:
5985:
5980:
5970:
5965:
5960:
5959:
5958:
5948:
5943:
5938:
5933:
5927:
5925:
5917:
5916:
5914:
5913:
5912:
5911:
5901:
5896:
5895:
5894:
5889:
5879:
5878:
5877:
5867:
5862:
5857:
5855:Origin of life
5852:
5847:
5842:
5840:Microevolution
5837:
5835:Macroevolution
5832:
5827:
5822:
5821:
5820:
5810:
5805:
5800:
5795:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5775:
5773:Common descent
5770:
5769:
5768:
5758:
5753:
5751:Baldwin effect
5748:
5747:
5746:
5741:
5731:
5726:
5721:
5715:
5713:
5707:
5706:
5704:
5703:
5698:
5693:
5688:
5683:
5677:
5674:
5673:
5668:
5666:
5665:
5658:
5651:
5643:
5634:
5633:
5631:
5630:
5619:
5616:
5615:
5613:
5612:
5611:
5610:
5609:
5608:
5603:
5598:
5583:
5577:
5575:
5569:
5568:
5566:
5565:
5564:
5563:
5558:
5553:
5548:
5543:
5538:
5537:
5536:
5521:
5516:
5511:
5506:
5505:
5504:
5499:
5489:
5488:
5487:
5482:
5472:
5471:
5470:
5465:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5435:
5430:
5429:
5428:
5423:
5412:
5410:
5402:
5401:
5399:
5398:
5393:
5388:
5383:
5382:
5381:
5376:
5366:
5361:
5360:
5359:
5354:
5347:Sex chromosome
5344:
5339:
5338:
5337:
5332:
5327:
5322:
5317:
5312:
5302:
5301:
5300:
5295:
5285:
5284:
5283:
5278:
5267:
5265:
5259:
5258:
5253:
5251:
5250:
5243:
5236:
5228:
5219:
5218:
5216:
5215:
5203:
5191:
5179:
5166:
5163:
5162:
5160:
5159:
5152:Macroevolution
5137:
5132:
5127:
5122:
5116:
5114:
5110:
5109:
5107:
5106:
5101:
5096:
5086:
5067:
5065:
5059:
5058:
5056:
5055:
5053:Haldane's rule
5050:
5045:
5040:
5026:
5021:
5016:
5010:
5008:
5002:
5001:
4999:
4998:
4993:
4979:
4976:Founder effect
4956:
4954:
4950:
4949:
4947:
4946:
4941:
4936:
4931:
4926:
4921:
4910:
4908:
4907:Basic concepts
4904:
4903:
4901:
4900:
4895:
4890:
4885:
4879:
4876:
4875:
4870:
4868:
4867:
4860:
4853:
4845:
4836:
4835:
4833:
4832:
4820:
4808:
4795:
4792:
4791:
4789:
4788:
4787:
4786:
4774:
4769:
4764:
4758:
4756:
4752:
4751:
4749:
4748:
4743:
4742:
4741:
4729:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4712:Daniel Dennett
4709:
4704:
4699:
4693:
4691:
4687:
4686:
4684:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4672:
4671:
4665:
4664:
4663:
4648:
4643:
4642:
4641:
4631:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4601:
4596:
4591:
4586:
4581:
4576:
4570:
4568:
4564:
4563:
4558:
4556:
4555:
4548:
4541:
4533:
4526:
4525:
4484:
4427:
4406:(4): 349–367.
4386:
4373:10.1086/283437
4367:(6): 777–790.
4351:
4294:
4273:(4): 465–472.
4253:
4210:
4173:(3): 477–486.
4153:
4094:
4043:
3984:
3933:
3894:(12): e53066.
3874:
3815:
3776:
3757:(3): 477–483.
3741:
3719:
3706:(4): 551–559.
3686:
3671:
3640:
3619:10.1086/498538
3597:
3552:(3): 553–561.
3546:Marine Biology
3532:
3497:(1): 111–120.
3477:
3446:
3409:(3): 423–425.
3389:
3338:
3295:
3268:(1): 293–321.
3250:
3193:
3164:(2): 271–281.
3144:
3093:
3058:
3003:
2992:(3): 295–310.
2972:
2965:
2943:
2916:(2): 215–222.
2900:
2893:
2873:
2853:
2801:
2781:
2757:
2707:
2660:
2613:
2562:
2543:
2497:
2446:
2413:
2356:
2329:(4): 593–605.
2313:
2270:
2251:(3): 891–898.
2235:
2208:(5): 803–812.
2192:
2173:(2): 193–203.
2157:
2150:
2124:
2074:
2059:
2033:
1998:(3): 603–605.
1979:
1952:(1): 205–214.
1933:
1874:
1830:
1797:
1782:
1733:
1706:(2): 191–220.
1684:
1622:
1615:
1593:
1540:Lande, Russell
1531:
1511:
1504:
1483:
1476:
1446:
1411:
1374:(2): R62–R65.
1354:
1347:
1329:
1304:
1274:
1227:
1180:
1133:
1131:
1128:
1127:
1126:
1119:
1112:
1110:
1098:
1091:
1089:
1078:
1071:
1069:
1062:
1055:
1053:
1046:
1039:
1037:
1029:
1022:
1020:
1011:
1004:
1002:
995:
988:
986:
974:
967:
965:
953:Males of many
952:
945:
943:
937:
930:
928:
913:Basidiomycetes
881:
878:
849:Main article:
846:
843:
805:
802:
791:
788:
738:
735:
715:elephant seals
685:
682:
673:
670:
633:it for flight.
617:
614:
590:– governed by
564:
561:
548:Main article:
533:
530:
514:W. D. Hamilton
491:
488:
433:
430:
428:
425:
279:Main article:
276:
273:
177:
174:
172:
169:
101:Charles Darwin
70:biological sex
28:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7676:
7665:
7662:
7660:
7657:
7656:
7654:
7644:
7639:
7634:
7630:
7617:
7614:
7613:
7610:
7604:
7601:
7599:
7596:
7594:
7591:
7589:
7586:
7584:
7580:
7577:
7575:
7572:
7570:
7567:
7565:
7562:
7560:
7557:
7555:
7552:
7551:
7549:
7545:
7539:
7538:Sewall Wright
7536:
7534:
7531:
7529:
7526:
7525:
7523:
7519:
7513:
7510:
7508:
7505:
7503:
7500:
7498:
7495:
7493:
7490:
7489:
7487:
7485:
7484:Genetic drift
7481:
7475:
7472:
7470:
7467:
7466:
7464:
7456:
7450:
7447:
7445:
7442:
7440:
7437:
7435:
7432:
7431:
7429:
7427:
7423:
7417:
7414:
7412:
7409:
7407:
7404:
7402:
7399:
7397:
7394:
7392:
7389:
7387:
7384:
7382:
7379:
7377:
7374:
7372:
7369:
7367:
7364:
7362:
7359:
7357:
7354:
7352:
7349:
7347:
7344:
7343:
7341:
7337:
7333:
7326:
7321:
7319:
7314:
7312:
7307:
7306:
7303:
7291:
7288:
7286:
7283:
7281:
7278:
7277:
7275:
7271:
7263:
7262:
7258:
7257:
7256:
7253:
7251:
7248:
7244:
7243:
7239:
7238:
7237:
7234:
7230:
7229:
7225:
7224:
7223:
7220:
7218:
7215:
7213:
7210:
7208:
7207:Ernst Haeckel
7205:
7203:
7202:Adolf Zeising
7200:
7196:
7195:
7191:
7190:
7189:
7186:
7184:
7181:
7179:
7176:
7174:
7171:
7170:
7168:
7164:
7156:
7153:
7151:
7148:
7146:
7143:
7141:
7138:
7137:
7136:
7133:
7129:
7126:
7124:
7121:
7119:
7116:
7115:
7114:
7111:
7107:
7104:
7102:
7099:
7097:
7094:
7092:
7089:
7088:
7087:
7084:
7082:
7079:
7078:
7076:
7072:
7067:
7057:
7054:
7052:
7049:
7047:
7046:Vortex street
7044:
7042:
7039:
7035:
7032:
7030:
7027:
7025:
7024:Quasicrystals
7022:
7020:
7017:
7016:
7015:
7012:
7010:
7007:
7005:
7002:
7000:
6997:
6995:
6992:
6990:
6987:
6985:
6982:
6980:
6977:
6976:
6974:
6970:
6966:
6959:
6954:
6952:
6947:
6945:
6940:
6939:
6936:
6924:
6920:
6916:
6914:
6906:
6905:
6902:
6896:
6893:
6891:
6888:
6886:
6883:
6881:
6878:
6874:
6871:
6870:
6869:
6868:Phylogenetics
6866:
6864:
6861:
6859:
6856:
6854:
6851:
6849:
6846:
6842:
6839:
6837:
6834:
6832:
6829:
6828:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6812:
6809:
6808:
6806:
6802:
6796:
6793:
6789:
6786:
6784:
6781:
6777:
6774:
6773:
6772:
6771:Structuralism
6769:
6767:
6764:
6762:
6759:
6757:
6754:
6752:
6749:
6747:
6746:Catastrophism
6744:
6743:
6742:
6739:
6737:
6734:
6733:
6731:
6727:
6721:
6718:
6716:
6713:
6711:
6708:
6706:
6705:Neo-Darwinism
6703:
6701:
6698:
6696:
6693:
6691:
6688:
6686:
6683:
6681:
6678:
6674:
6673:
6669:
6668:
6667:
6664:
6660:
6659:
6655:
6654:
6653:
6650:
6648:
6645:
6643:
6640:
6639:
6637:
6635:
6631:
6625:
6622:
6620:
6619:Reinforcement
6617:
6615:
6612:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6602:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6592:
6590:
6587:
6585:
6582:
6580:
6577:
6575:
6572:
6570:
6567:
6566:
6564:
6562:
6558:
6552:
6551:Catastrophism
6548:
6545:
6543:
6542:Macromutation
6539:
6538:Micromutation
6536:
6534:
6530:
6526:
6523:
6522:
6520:
6518:
6514:
6508:
6505:
6501:
6498:
6496:
6493:
6491:
6488:
6486:
6483:
6481:
6478:
6477:
6476:
6473:
6471:
6468:
6466:
6463:
6461:
6458:
6456:
6453:
6451:
6448:
6446:
6445:Immune system
6443:
6441:
6438:
6436:
6433:
6431:
6428:
6426:
6423:
6419:
6416:
6415:
6414:
6411:
6409:
6406:
6404:
6401:
6399:
6396:
6392:
6389:
6387:
6384:
6383:
6382:
6379:
6378:
6376:
6374:
6369:
6361:
6358:
6356:
6353:
6351:
6348:
6346:
6343:
6341:
6338:
6337:
6335:
6331:
6328:
6326:
6323:
6321:
6318:
6316:
6313:
6311:
6308:
6306:
6305:symbiogenesis
6303:
6302:
6301:
6298:
6296:
6293:
6291:
6288:
6286:
6283:
6282:
6280:
6278:
6273:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6249:
6245:
6242:
6241:
6240:
6237:
6233:
6230:
6226:
6223:
6221:
6218:
6217:
6216:
6213:
6211:
6208:
6206:
6203:
6201:
6198:
6196:
6193:
6189:
6186:
6184:
6181:
6180:
6179:
6176:
6174:
6171:
6170:
6169:
6166:
6164:
6161:
6157:
6154:
6153:
6152:
6149:
6147:
6144:
6142:
6139:
6137:
6134:
6130:
6127:
6126:
6125:
6122:
6120:
6117:
6113:
6110:
6109:
6108:
6105:
6103:
6100:
6099:
6097:
6095:
6090:
6084:
6081:
6079:
6076:
6074:
6071:
6069:
6066:
6064:
6061:
6059:
6056:
6055:
6053:
6049:
6043:
6040:
6038:
6035:
6033:
6030:
6026:
6023:
6021:
6018:
6016:
6013:
6012:
6011:
6008:
6006:
6003:
6001:
5998:
5996:
5993:
5991:
5988:
5984:
5981:
5979:
5976:
5975:
5974:
5973:Kin selection
5971:
5969:
5968:Genetic drift
5966:
5964:
5961:
5957:
5954:
5953:
5952:
5949:
5947:
5944:
5942:
5939:
5937:
5934:
5932:
5929:
5928:
5926:
5924:
5918:
5910:
5907:
5906:
5905:
5902:
5900:
5897:
5893:
5890:
5888:
5885:
5884:
5883:
5880:
5876:
5873:
5872:
5871:
5868:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5858:
5856:
5853:
5851:
5848:
5846:
5843:
5841:
5838:
5836:
5833:
5831:
5828:
5826:
5823:
5819:
5816:
5815:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5804:
5801:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5779:
5776:
5774:
5771:
5767:
5764:
5763:
5762:
5759:
5757:
5754:
5752:
5749:
5745:
5742:
5740:
5737:
5736:
5735:
5732:
5730:
5727:
5725:
5722:
5720:
5717:
5716:
5714:
5712:
5708:
5702:
5699:
5697:
5694:
5692:
5689:
5687:
5684:
5682:
5679:
5678:
5675:
5671:
5664:
5659:
5657:
5652:
5650:
5645:
5644:
5641:
5629:
5621:
5620:
5617:
5607:
5604:
5602:
5599:
5597:
5594:
5593:
5592:
5589:
5588:
5587:
5584:
5582:
5579:
5578:
5576:
5574:
5570:
5562:
5561:Pelvic thrust
5559:
5557:
5554:
5552:
5549:
5547:
5544:
5542:
5539:
5535:
5532:
5531:
5530:
5527:
5526:
5525:
5522:
5520:
5517:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5503:
5500:
5498:
5495:
5494:
5493:
5492:Fertilization
5490:
5486:
5483:
5481:
5478:
5477:
5476:
5473:
5469:
5466:
5464:
5461:
5460:
5459:
5458:Gametogenesis
5456:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5436:
5434:
5431:
5427:
5424:
5422:
5419:
5418:
5417:
5414:
5413:
5411:
5409:
5403:
5397:
5394:
5392:
5391:parasexuality
5389:
5387:
5384:
5380:
5377:
5375:
5372:
5371:
5370:
5369:Hermaphrodite
5367:
5365:
5362:
5358:
5355:
5353:
5350:
5349:
5348:
5345:
5343:
5340:
5336:
5335:Haplodiploidy
5333:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5307:
5306:
5303:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5291:
5290:
5289:
5286:
5282:
5279:
5277:
5274:
5273:
5272:
5269:
5268:
5266:
5260:
5256:
5249:
5244:
5242:
5237:
5235:
5230:
5229:
5226:
5214:
5213:
5204:
5202:
5201:
5196:
5192:
5190:
5189:
5180:
5178:
5177:
5168:
5167:
5164:
5157:
5156:Chronospecies
5153:
5149:
5145:
5141:
5138:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5117:
5115:
5111:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5094:
5090:
5089:Reinforcement
5087:
5084:
5083:Recombination
5080:
5076:
5072:
5069:
5068:
5066:
5064:
5060:
5054:
5051:
5049:
5046:
5044:
5041:
5038:
5034:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5015:
5012:
5011:
5009:
5007:
5003:
4997:
4994:
4991:
4987:
4983:
4980:
4977:
4973:
4969:
4965:
4961:
4958:
4957:
4955:
4951:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4919:
4915:
4912:
4911:
4909:
4905:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4884:
4881:
4880:
4877:
4873:
4866:
4861:
4859:
4854:
4852:
4847:
4846:
4843:
4831:
4830:
4825:
4821:
4819:
4818:
4809:
4807:
4806:
4797:
4796:
4793:
4785:
4784:
4780:
4779:
4778:
4775:
4773:
4770:
4768:
4765:
4763:
4760:
4759:
4757:
4753:
4747:
4746:Robert Wright
4744:
4740:
4739:
4735:
4734:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4727:Frans de Waal
4725:
4723:
4722:Steven Pinker
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4697:Anne Campbell
4695:
4694:
4692:
4688:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4669:
4666:
4662:
4659:
4658:
4657:
4654:
4653:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4640:
4637:
4636:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4619:Kin selection
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4572:
4571:
4569:
4565:
4561:
4554:
4549:
4547:
4542:
4540:
4535:
4534:
4531:
4521:
4517:
4512:
4507:
4503:
4499:
4495:
4488:
4485:
4480:
4476:
4471:
4466:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4450:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4431:
4428:
4423:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4390:
4387:
4382:
4378:
4374:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4355:
4352:
4347:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4330:
4325:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4298:
4295:
4290:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4257:
4254:
4249:
4245:
4241:
4237:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4214:
4211:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4180:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4157:
4154:
4149:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4114:(8): e43259.
4113:
4109:
4105:
4098:
4095:
4090:
4086:
4081:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4059:
4054:
4047:
4044:
4039:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4004:(2): e56717.
4003:
3999:
3995:
3988:
3985:
3980:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3949:
3944:
3937:
3934:
3929:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3878:
3875:
3870:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3835:(2): e58024.
3834:
3830:
3826:
3819:
3816:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3796:(1): 225–34.
3795:
3791:
3787:
3780:
3777:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3752:
3745:
3742:
3737:
3730:
3723:
3720:
3714:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3690:
3687:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3653:
3652:
3644:
3641:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3601:
3598:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3536:
3533:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3481:
3478:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3450:
3447:
3442:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3393:
3390:
3385:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3354:
3349:
3342:
3339:
3334:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3311:
3306:
3299:
3296:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3262:
3254:
3251:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3197:
3194:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3148:
3145:
3140:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3097:
3094:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3062:
3059:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3007:
3004:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2976:
2973:
2968:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2947:
2944:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2904:
2901:
2896:
2894:9780429590061
2890:
2886:
2885:
2877:
2874:
2869:
2868:
2863:
2857:
2854:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2808:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2791:
2785:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2767:
2761:
2758:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2718:
2711:
2708:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2664:
2661:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2617:
2614:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2566:
2563:
2558:
2554:
2547:
2544:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2501:
2498:
2492:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2464:
2457:
2455:
2453:
2451:
2447:
2441:
2436:
2433:(6): arw100.
2432:
2428:
2424:
2417:
2414:
2409:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2360:
2357:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2317:
2314:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2274:
2271:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2239:
2236:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2196:
2193:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2161:
2158:
2153:
2151:9781408189962
2147:
2143:
2139:
2137:
2128:
2125:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2078:
2075:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2056:
2049:
2048:
2043:
2042:Zahavi, Amotz
2037:
2034:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1988:Zahavi, Amotz
1983:
1980:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1942:Zahavi, Amotz
1937:
1934:
1929:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1878:
1875:
1870:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1834:
1831:
1818:
1814:
1813:
1808:
1801:
1798:
1793:
1786:
1783:
1778:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1737:
1734:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1691:
1689:
1685:
1680:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1631:
1629:
1627:
1623:
1618:
1616:9780521225335
1612:
1608:
1604:
1597:
1594:
1589:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1535:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1519:Ronald Fisher
1515:
1512:
1507:
1505:0-691-00057-3
1501:
1497:
1490:
1488:
1484:
1479:
1473:
1469:
1468:
1463:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1438:0-19-850440-3
1435:
1431:
1430:
1425:
1424:Fisher, R. A.
1420:
1418:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1358:
1355:
1350:
1344:
1340:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1323:
1320:
1316:
1311:
1309:
1305:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1278:
1275:
1270:
1264:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1236:
1231:
1228:
1223:
1217:
1202:
1198:
1193:
1189:
1184:
1181:
1173:
1168:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1148:
1144:
1138:
1135:
1129:
1123:
1116:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1102:
1095:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1075:
1070:
1066:
1059:
1054:
1050:
1043:
1038:
1035:
1034:
1026:
1021:
1017:
1016:
1008:
1003:
999:
992:
987:
983:
980:
979:
971:
966:
962:
961:
956:
949:
944:
940:
939:Among mammals
934:
929:
926:
924:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
904:
900:
896:
891:
887:
879:
877:
875:
871:
866:
863:
859:
852:
844:
842:
840:
836:
831:
829:
828:
822:
815:
811:
803:
801:
799:
798:
789:
787:
785:
781:
777:
773:
768:
766:
762:
757:
754:
748:
744:
737:In arthropods
736:
734:
732:
728:
723:
720:
716:
711:
709:
705:
701:
695:
691:
683:
681:
679:
671:
669:
667:
662:
658:
654:
649:
647:
642:
641:
632:
628:
627:
622:
615:
613:
611:
610:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
578:
574:
570:
562:
560:
558:
551:
543:
538:
531:
529:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
510:Russell Lande
507:
503:
497:
489:
487:
485:
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
449:
444:
439:
431:
427:Modern theory
426:
424:
421:
420:Russell Lande
415:
414:
407:
401:
396:
391:
390:
384:
382:
378:
377:
372:
368:
366:
362:
358:
354:
347:
342:
337:
336:
332:
328:
327:exponentially
322:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
303:
298:
294:
291:
287:
286:Ronald Fisher
282:
274:
272:
270:
266:
265:flour beetles
262:
253:
252:flour beetles
248:
244:
242:
238:
234:
230:
224:
219:
215:
213:
209:
208:
203:
202:
195:
187:
182:
175:
170:
168:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
109:Ronald Fisher
106:
102:
97:
95:
91:
87:
83:
78:
74:
71:
67:
63:
56:
52:
48:
43:
39:
35:
34:sex selection
27:
19:
7554:Biogeography
7528:R. A. Fisher
7443:
7406:Heritability
7339:Key concepts
7259:
7240:
7226:
7192:
7118:Chaos theory
7105:
7041:Tessellation
6880:Polymorphism
6863:Astrobiology
6811:Biogeography
6766:Saltationism
6756:Orthogenesis
6741:Alternatives
6670:
6656:
6589:Cospeciation
6584:Cladogenesis
6533:Saltationism
6490:Mating types
6413:Color vision
6398:Avian flight
6320:mitochondria
6058:Canalisation
6009:
5936:Biodiversity
5681:Introduction
5508:
5480:spermatozoon
5408:reproduction
5357:Y chromosome
5352:X chromosome
5298:Virilization
5293:Feminization
5210:
5198:
5186:
5174:
5023:
4990:Ring species
4939:Cospeciation
4934:Cladogenesis
4883:Introduction
4827:
4815:
4803:
4781:
4736:
4732:E. O. Wilson
4702:Noam Chomsky
4668:presociality
4633:
4560:Sociobiology
4501:
4497:
4487:
4444:
4440:
4430:
4403:
4399:
4389:
4364:
4360:
4354:
4311:
4307:
4297:
4270:
4266:
4256:
4226:(1): 15–22.
4223:
4219:
4213:
4170:
4166:
4156:
4111:
4107:
4097:
4062:
4056:
4046:
4001:
3997:
3987:
3955:(1): 87–96.
3952:
3946:
3936:
3891:
3887:
3877:
3832:
3828:
3818:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3779:
3754:
3750:
3744:
3735:
3722:
3703:
3699:
3689:
3650:
3643:
3613:(1): 28–42.
3610:
3606:
3600:
3549:
3545:
3535:
3494:
3490:
3480:
3463:
3459:
3449:
3406:
3402:
3392:
3357:
3351:
3341:
3314:
3308:
3298:
3265:
3259:
3253:
3210:
3206:
3196:
3161:
3157:
3147:
3110:
3106:
3096:
3071:
3067:
3061:
3020:
3016:
3006:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2975:
2956:
2946:
2913:
2909:
2903:
2883:
2876:
2866:
2856:
2821:
2817:
2784:
2776:
2760:
2727:
2723:
2710:
2677:
2673:
2663:
2630:
2626:
2616:
2575:
2571:
2565:
2557:the original
2546:
2513:
2509:
2500:
2476:(1): 43–66.
2473:
2469:
2430:
2426:
2416:
2373:
2369:
2359:
2326:
2322:
2316:
2283:
2279:
2273:
2248:
2244:
2238:
2205:
2201:
2195:
2170:
2166:
2160:
2141:
2135:
2127:
2094:
2090:
2077:
2046:
2036:
1995:
1991:
1982:
1949:
1945:
1936:
1891:
1887:
1877:
1850:
1846:
1833:
1821:. Retrieved
1810:
1800:
1791:
1785:
1753:(8): 531–9.
1750:
1746:
1736:
1703:
1699:
1644:
1640:
1602:
1596:
1551:
1547:
1534:
1526:
1514:
1495:
1466:
1427:
1371:
1367:
1357:
1338:
1332:
1295:. Retrieved
1277:
1252:. Retrieved
1238:
1230:
1205:. Retrieved
1191:
1183:
1160:(9): 46–50.
1157:
1153:
1137:
1099:
1083:fighting on
1033:Ptyas mucosa
1031:
1013:
976:
958:
907:
893:
870:mating calls
867:
854:
832:
825:
817:
795:
793:
783:
769:
761:belostomatid
758:
750:
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712:
697:
675:
656:
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636:
624:
607:
580:
553:
506:Amotz Zahavi
499:
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417:
412:
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374:
369:
350:
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324:
300:
293:statistician
284:
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226:
222:
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197:
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60:
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26:
7507:Coalescence
7236:Alan Turing
7194:Liber Abaci
7113:Mathematics
7019:in crystals
7009:Soap bubble
7004:Phyllotaxis
6890:Systematics
6761:Mutationism
6579:Catagenesis
6507:Snake venom
6440:Eusociality
6418:in primates
6408:Cooperation
6336:In animals
6156:butterflies
6129:Cephalopods
6119:Brachiopods
6051:Development
6025:Mate choice
5778:Convergence
5761:Coevolution
5719:Abiogenesis
5212:WikiProject
4972:Centrifugal
4777:Steven Rose
4656:eusociality
3575:10069/31698
3360:: 564–575.
2730:(1): 5–18.
2680:: 185–203.
2633:: 182–188.
2376:(1): 9695.
1823:January 31,
1106:pollinators
903:pollinators
827:P. bibronii
790:In molluscs
704:steatopygia
631:pre-adapted
604:mate choice
577:Mate choice
526:Marlene Zuk
186:steatopygia
7653:Categories
7449:Ecological
7439:Artificial
7183:Empedocles
7178:Pythagoras
7096:Camouflage
7034:in biology
7029:in flowers
6999:Parastichy
6751:Lamarckism
6729:Philosophy
6652:David Hume
6614:Peripatric
6609:Parapatric
6594:Ecological
6574:Anagenesis
6569:Allopatric
6561:Speciation
6525:Gradualism
6450:Metabolism
6310:chromosome
6300:Eukaryotes
6078:Modularity
5995:Population
5921:Population
5882:Speciation
5860:Panspermia
5813:Extinction
5808:Exaptation
5783:Divergence
5756:Cladistics
5744:Reciprocal
5724:Adaptation
5541:Copulation
5262:Biological
5075:Polyploidy
5037:Allochrony
5014:Adaptation
4982:Parapatric
4964:Peripatric
4960:Allopatric
4929:Anagenesis
4872:Speciation
4767:Leon Kamin
4690:Supporters
4681:Polyethism
3317:(4): 565.
2491:1885/22652
1297:13 January
1254:2011-05-22
1207:2011-05-22
1130:References
1122:moor frogs
1101:Citronella
770:Among the
731:altruistic
684:In mammals
678:eukaryotes
588:sex ratios
365:expressing
233:camouflage
90:attractive
86:population
7559:Evolution
7426:Selection
7285:Emergence
7188:Fibonacci
6885:Protocell
6736:Darwinism
6624:Sympatric
6373:processes
6261:Tetrapods
6210:Kangaroos
6136:Dinosaurs
6073:Inversion
6042:Variation
5963:Gene flow
5956:Inclusive
5766:Mutualism
5711:Evolution
5596:Mechanics
5573:Sexuality
5468:Oogenesis
5443:Sex organ
5433:Germ cell
5421:Anisogamy
4996:Sympatric
4755:Opponents
4661:evolution
4651:Sociality
4639:in humans
4461:0962-8436
4205:229176172
3681:160384362
3592:253740276
3584:1432-1793
3511:0014-3820
3491:Evolution
3423:1744-9561
3207:Evolution
2702:1040-6182
2655:0277-3791
2343:0340-5443
2300:0340-5443
2020:0022-5193
1700:Evolution
1661:1943-0264
1442:Chapter 6
772:fireflies
700:heritable
666:genitalia
653:Irish elk
584:anisogamy
460:offspring
448:Irish elk
243:feeling.
241:aesthetic
157:sex ratio
94:offspring
66:evolution
7583:genomics
7521:Founders
7014:Symmetry
6972:Patterns
6913:Category
6788:Vitalism
6783:Theistic
6776:Spandrel
6460:Morality
6455:Monogamy
6330:plastids
6295:Flagella
6251:Reptiles
6232:sea cows
6215:primates
6124:Molluscs
6102:Bacteria
5990:Mutation
5923:genetics
5899:Taxonomy
5845:Mismatch
5825:Homology
5739:Cheating
5734:Altruism
5628:Category
5606:Activity
5502:Internal
5497:External
5386:Intersex
5176:Category
5093:evidence
4898:Glossary
4805:Category
4589:Ethology
4520:23966547
4479:27619704
4422:21672747
4381:84970789
4346:18044399
4338:21377091
4289:21672758
4197:33314573
4148:22927955
4108:PLOS ONE
4089:17567560
4038:23437221
3998:PLOS ONE
3979:21819397
3928:23300862
3888:PLOS ONE
3869:23469134
3829:PLOS ONE
3635:15851718
3627:16475097
3519:27805265
3441:22237501
3384:27998815
3290:16360536
3282:17877452
3245:17791711
3237:25825047
3180:20487130
3139:19528642
3088:53175143
3045:17183322
2938:14884832
2930:16055126
2864:(1882).
2840:23163326
2793:Archived
2769:Archived
2744:19308664
2724:Genetica
2608:31802107
2600:23661746
2408:29946077
2351:13912038
2308:15032582
2265:53188298
2222:22404372
2187:15410498
2069:35360821
1928:10468592
1869:18103134
1847:Heredity
1841:(1948).
1817:Archived
1812:Phys.org
1777:19546856
1728:28563271
1679:25038050
1588:16593036
1542:(1981).
1464:(1996).
1406:18470445
1398:21256434
1322:Archived
1291:Archived
1285:(1892).
1263:cite web
1248:Archived
1237:(1859).
1216:cite web
1201:Archived
1190:(1859).
1172:Archived
1145:(1858).
845:In birds
839:viperids
782:beetle,
780:mealworm
727:meerkats
661:Holocene
518:a signal
472:homogamy
329:, or in
7434:Natural
7401:Fitness
7273:Related
7140:Crystal
7135:Physics
7123:Fractal
7101:Mimicry
7086:Biology
6994:Meander
6804:Related
6634:History
6495:Meiosis
6430:Empathy
6425:Emotion
6325:nucleus
6266:Viruses
6256:Spiders
6168:Mammals
6151:Insects
5951:Fitness
5887:Species
5686:Outline
5453:Meiosis
5426:Isogamy
5188:Commons
5140:Fossils
5130:Insects
5079:Klepton
4968:Quantum
4914:Species
4888:History
4817:Commons
4470:5031625
4316:Bibcode
4248:3545720
4228:Bibcode
4175:Bibcode
4139:3426517
4116:Bibcode
4080:2275172
4029:3577745
4006:Bibcode
3957:Bibcode
3919:3531452
3896:Bibcode
3860:3585210
3837:Bibcode
3810:3907523
3771:4830666
3554:Bibcode
3527:8866473
3432:3367757
3362:Bibcode
3333:3496389
3228:4529740
3188:9110472
3130:2702800
3053:4397323
3025:Bibcode
2848:5657743
2752:1409845
2682:Bibcode
2635:Bibcode
2580:Bibcode
2572:Science
2538:6021675
2518:Bibcode
2510:Science
2399:6018733
2378:Bibcode
2119:7123238
2099:Bibcode
2091:Science
2087:Zuk, M.
2000:Bibcode
1974:1195756
1954:Bibcode
1896:Bibcode
1768:2753274
1720:2407322
1670:4142970
1556:Bibcode
1426:(1930)
1376:Bibcode
1063:A male
1018:calling
998:firefly
975:A male
955:spiders
776:beetles
522:disease
464:fitness
290:English
261:biology
237:beetles
212:peacock
171:History
133:peafowl
125:plumage
113:fitness
7629:Portal
7444:Sexual
7166:People
7074:Causes
6923:Portal
6599:Hybrid
6435:Ethics
6277:organs
6239:Plants
6225:lemurs
6220:humans
6205:horses
6195:hyenas
6183:wolves
6178:canids
6112:origin
5475:Gamete
5448:Mating
5406:Sexual
5281:Female
5135:Plants
4986:Clines
4567:Topics
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862:honest
765:nymphs
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381:linked
288:, the
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161:plants
7173:Plato
6979:Crack
6386:Death
6381:Aging
6360:brain
6146:Fungi
6107:Birds
6020:Fungi
5818:Event
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5264:terms
5120:Birds
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4342:S2CID
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4201:S2CID
3806:S2CID
3767:S2CID
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3588:S2CID
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540:Male
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6285:Cell
6188:dogs
6173:cats
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5276:Male
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