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274:. Being now cooler than the environmental air and unstable, they descend until in static equilibrium, at which point a restoring force curves the edges of the fallout back up, creating the lobed appearance. One problem with this theory is that observations show that cloud-base evaporation does not always produce mammatus. This mechanism could be responsible for the earliest stage of development, but other processes (namely process 1, above) may come into play as the lobes are formed and mature.
375:, where differential heating (cooling at the top and heating at the bottom) of a layer causes convective overturning. However, in this case of mammatus, the base is cooled by thermodynamical mechanisms mentioned above. As the cloud base descends, it happens on the scale of mammatus lobes, while adjacent to the lobes, there is a compensating ascent. This method has not proven to be observationally sound and is viewed as generally insubstantial.
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Mammatus may appear as smooth, ragged or lumpy lobes and may be opaque or translucent. Because mammatus occur as a grouping of lobes, the way they clump together can vary from an isolated cluster to a field of mammae that spread over hundreds of kilometers to being organized along a line, and may be
363:
is the name given to the instability that exists between two fluids of differing densities, when the denser of the two is atop the less dense fluid. Along a cloud-base/sub-cloud interface, the denser, hydrometeor-laden air could cause mixing with the less-dense sub-cloud air. This mixing would take
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along the cloud-base may cause inhomogeneous descent along the base. Frictional drag and associated eddy-like structures create the lobed appearance of the fallout. The main shortcoming of this theory is that vertical velocities in the lobes have been observed to be greater than the fall speeds of
341:
impinging upon the tropopause and spreading out in wave form over the entirety of the anvil. Therefore, this method does not explain the prevalence of mammatus clouds in one part of the anvil versus another. Furthermore, time and size scales for gravity waves and mammatus do not match up entirely.
164:
True to their ominous appearance, mammatus clouds are often harbingers of a coming storm or other extreme weather system. Typically composed primarily of ice, they can extend for hundreds of miles in each direction and individual formations can remain visibly static for ten to fifteen minutes at a
277:
There may also be destabilization at cloud base due to melting. If the cloud base exists near the freezing line, then the cooling in the immediate air caused by melting can lead to convective overturning, just as in the processes above. However, this strict temperature environment is not always
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is prevalent along cloud boundaries and results in the formation of wave-like protrusions (called Kelvin-Helmholtz billows) from a cloud boundary. Mammatus are not in the form of K-H billows, thus, it is proposed that the instability can trigger the formation of the protrusions, but that another
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is a cloud supplementary feature rather than a genus, species or variety of cloud. The distinct "lumpy" undersides are formed by cold air sinking down to form the pockets contrary to the puffs of clouds rising through the convection of warm air. These formations were first described in 1894 by
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kilometre (0.3 mi). A lobe can last an average of 10 minutes, but a whole cluster of mamma can range from 15 minutes to a few hours. They are usually composed of ice, but also can be a mixture of ice and liquid water or be composed of almost entirely liquid water.
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cloud can penetrate downward through the entire layer and emerge as mammatus at cloud-base. Another idea is that as the cloud-base warms due to radiative heating from land surface's longwave emission, the base destabilizes and overturns. This method is valid for only
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overturning can occur, creating a lumpy cloud-base. The problems with this theory are that there are observations of mammatus lobes that do not support the presence of strong subsidence in the lobes, and that it is difficult to separate the processes of
214:
The existence of many different types of mammatus clouds, each with distinct properties and occurring in distinct environments, has given rise to multiple hypotheses on their formation, which are also relevant to other cloud forms.
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are proposed to be the formation mechanism of linearly organized mammatus clouds. Indeed, wave patterns have been observed in the mammatus environment, but this is mostly due to gravity wave creation as a response to a convective
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Clouds undergo thermal reorganization due to radiative effects as they evolve. There are a couple of ideas as to how radiation can cause mammatus to form. One is that, because clouds radiatively cool
138:
clouds, as well as volcanic ash clouds. When occurring in cumulonimbus, mammatus are often indicative of a particularly strong storm. Due to the intensely sheared environment in which mammatus form,
364:
the form of mammatus clouds. The physical problem with this proposed method is that an instability existing along a static interface cannot necessarily be applied to the interface between two
759:
226:) across the anvil cloud/sub-cloud air boundary, which strongly influence interactions therein. The following are the proposed mechanisms, each described with its shortcomings:
313:. In CDI, cloudy air is mixed into the dry sub-cloud air rather than precipitating into it. The cloudy layer destabilizes due to evaporative cooling and mammatus are formed.
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composed of either unequal or similarly-sized lobes. The individual mammatus lobe average diameters of 1–3 kilometres (0.6–1.9 mi) and lengths on average of
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gradually subsides as it spreads out from its source cloud. As air descends, it warms. However, the cloudy air will warm more slowly (at the
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with mammatus as they indicate convectively induced turbulence. Contrails may also produce lobes but these are incorrectly termed as mammatus.
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fallout is a second proposed formation mechanism. As hydrometeors fall into the dry sub-cloud air, the air containing the precipitation
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Winstead, Nathaniel S.; Verlinde, J.; Arthur, S. Tracy; Jaskiewicz, Francine; Jensen, Michael; Miles, Natasha; Nicosia, David (2001).
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process must form the protrusions into lobes. Still, the main downfall with this theory is that K-H instability occurs in a stably
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clouds. However, the nature of anvil clouds is that they are largely made up of ice, and are therefore relatively optically thin.
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This plenitude of proposed formation mechanisms shows, if nothing else, that the mammatus cloud is generally poorly understood.
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One environmental trend is shared by all of the formation mechanisms hypothesized for mammatus clouds: sharp
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fallout and cloud-base subsidence, thus rendering it unclear as to whether either process is occurring.
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Kanak, Katharine M.; Straka, Jerry M.; Schultz, David M. (2008). "Numerical
Simulation of Mammatus".
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505:; Bryan, George H.; Durant, Adam J.; Garrett, Timothy J.; Klein, Petra M.; Lilly, Douglas K. (2006).
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Lane, Todd P.; Sharman, Robert D.; Trier, Stanley B.; Fovell, Robert G.; Williams, John K. (2012).
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Schultz, David M.; Kanak, Katharine M.; Straka, Jerry M.; Trapp, Robert J.; Gordon, Brent A.;
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The above processes specifically relied on the destabilization of the sub-cloud layer due to
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Gravity wave trains may be responsible for organizing the mammatus rather than forming them.
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International Cloud Atlas. Volume I. Manual on the observation of clouds and other
Meteors
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the hydrometeors within them; thus, there should be a dynamical downward forcing, as well.
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of the fallout alone are enough to create the lobes. Inhomogeneities in the masses of the
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raincloud, although they may be attached to other classes of parent clouds. The name
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53:, meaning "mammary cloud") is a cellular pattern of pouches hanging underneath the
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Garrett, Timothy J.; Schmidt, Clinton T.; Kihlgren, Stina; Cornet, CĂ©line (2010).
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NASA Astronomy
Picture of the Day: Mammatus Clouds Over Mexico (30 December 2007)
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507:"The Mysteries of Mammatus Clouds: Observations and Formation Mechanisms"
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time. They usually appear around, before, or even after severe weather.
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environment, and the mammatus environment is usually at least somewhat
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321:) very efficiently at their tops, entire pockets of cool, negatively
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and also severe thunderstorms. They often extend from the base of a
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Mammatus Clouds over St Albans, Hertfordshire, UK on 12 August 2008
242:). Because of the differential warming, the cloud/sub-cloud layer
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The last proposed formation mechanism is that mammatus arise from
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and selected species, supplementary features, and other airborne
405:"Contrail lobes or mamma? The importance of correct terminology"
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effects of hydrometeor fallout, another mechanism proposes that
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597:"Mammatus Clouds as a Response to Cloud-Base Radiative Heating"
556:"Recent Advances in the Understanding of Near-Cloud Turbulence"
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Cumulus castellanus (unofficial alternative name for Cu con))
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Cloudland: A study on the structure and characters of clouds
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No differentiated sub-types; tends to resemble cirrostratus
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10.1175/1520-0493(2001)129<0159:HRAROO>2.0.CO;2
16:
Distinct pattern of pouches on the underside of some clouds
19:"Mammatus" redirects here. For the Ninjago character, see
646:"High-Resolution Airborne Radar Observations of Mammatus"
487:. London, England: Edward Stanford. pp. 104–105.
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term for Cu con and "Cu cas" is
Towering cumulus ))
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456:. World Meteorological Organization. Archived from
1706:(Mother cloud)+mutatus (e.g. cumulomutatus (cumut)
1703:(Mother cloud)+genitus (e.g. cumulogenitus (cugen)
560:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
199:Several pouches of mammatus clouds seen under
30:Mammatus clouds formation in Coimbatore, India
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744:Mammatus Clouds sagging pouch-like structures
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305:Another method, that was first proposed by
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188:Mammatus cloud formation lit by sunset in
883:Nacreous polar stratospheric clouds (PSC)
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177:Panorama of mammatus cloud formations in
804:Latin terminology except where indicated
756:at the BBC News web site. 21 August 2008
734:Forming Mammatus Clouds Time Lapse Video
122:Mammatus are most often associated with
38:Mammatus clouds over the Nepal Himalayas
1107:Mutatus non-height specific (see below)
739:Mammatus clouds over Hastings, Nebraska
403:Schultz, David M.; Hancock, Y. (2016).
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222:in temperature, moisture and momentum (
238:) than the sub-cloud, dry air (at the
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1509:Stratocumulus stratiformis (Sc str)
1504:Stratocumulus lenticularis (Sc len)
687:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
601:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
511:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
1494:Stratocumulus castellanus (Sc cas)
1050:Cirrocumulus stratiformis (Cc str)
1045:Cirrocumulus lenticularis (Cc len)
346:Kelvin–Helmholtz (K–H) instability
14:
1166:Altocumulus stratiformis (Ac str)
1161:Altocumulus lenticularis (Ac len)
1035:Cirrocumulus castellanus (Cc cas)
169:Hypothesized formation mechanisms
1271:Cumulonimbus capillatus (Cb cap)
1146:Altocumulus castellanus (Ac cas)
904:polar stratospheric clouds (PSC)
142:are strongly cautioned to avoid
1450:St-only genitus cloud and other
1086:Cirrostratus nebulosus (Cs neb)
1519:Stratocumulus volutus (Sc vol)
1499:Stratocumulus floccus (Sc flo)
1280:Cb-only supplementary features
1081:Cirrostratus fibratus (Cs fib)
130:, but may also be found under
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1457:Stratus silvagenitus (St sil)
1315:Cumulonimbus flumen ((Cb flu)
1308:Cb-only accessories and other
1156:Altocumulus lacunosus (Ac la)
1040:Cirrocumulus floccus (Cc flo)
481:Ley, William Clement (1894).
1266:Cumulonimbus calvus (Cb cal)
1171:Altocumulus volutus (Ac vol)
1151:Altocumulus floccus (Ac flo)
845:Noctilucent type III billows
1220:Nimbostratus virga (Ns vir)
963:Cirrus castellanus (Ci cas)
361:Rayleigh–Taylor instability
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1441:Stratus nebulosus (St neb)
1375:Cumulus congestus (Cu con)
1369:Cumulus mediocris (Cu med)
1004:Cirrus vertebratus (Ci ve)
848:Noctilucent type IV whirls
373:Rayleigh–Bénard convection
289:effects. Discounting the
236:moist adiabatic lapse rate
69:is derived from the Latin
18:
1298:Cumulonimbus murus ((mur)
1287:Cumulonimbus cauda ((cau)
978:Cirrus spissatus (Ci spa)
842:Noctilucent type II bands
581:10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00062.1
91:International Cloud Atlas
1436:Stratus fractus (St fra)
1364:Cumulus humilis (Cu hum)
1343:Variable vertical extent
1293:Cumulonimbus incus (inc)
968:Cirrus fibratus (Ci fib)
839:Noctilucent type I veils
833:Polar mesospheric clouds
240:dry adiabatic lapse rate
1514:Stratocumulus Undulatus
999:Cirrus intortus (Ci in)
983:Cirrus uncinus (Ci unc)
973:Cirrus floccus (Ci flo)
1654:Supplementary features
1534:supplementary features
650:Monthly Weather Review
211:
192:
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179:Swifts Creek, Victoria
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1697:and human-made clouds
1193:Altostratus undulatus
902:Nitric acid and water
717:10.1175/2007JAS2469.1
622:10.1175/2010JAS3513.1
198:
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114:Mammatus clouds on a
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319:Stefan–Boltzmann law
190:Visakhapatnam, India
1715:Homomutatus (homut)
1711:Homogenitus (hogen)
1681:Praecipitatio (pra)
893:Lenticular nacreous
699:2008JAtS...65.1606K
662:2001MWRv..129..159W
613:2010JAtS...67.3891G
572:2012BAMS...93..499L
523:2006JAtS...63.2409S
424:2016Wthr...71..203S
100:William Clement Ley
1477:Stratocumulus (Sc)
1464:(Fg) Surface level
1405:Trade wind cumulus
890:Cirriform nacreous
447:Anonymous (1975).
368:atmospheric flows.
232:cumulonimbus cloud
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463:on 2017-07-08
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334:Gravity waves
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307:Kerry Emanuel
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45:(also called
44:
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28:
22:
1675:
1579:Pannus (pan)
1569:Pileus (pil)
1541:Arcus ((arc)
1419:Stratus (St)
1340:Cumulus (Cu)
1317:Beaver tail)
1119:Medium-level
928:Tropospheric
798:hydrometeors
690:
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607:(12): 3891.
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517:(10): 2409.
514:
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483:
476:
465:. Retrieved
458:the original
449:
442:
415:
411:
378:
299:hydrometeors
244:destabilizes
217:
213:
163:
148:
144:cumulonimbus
124:anvil clouds
121:
116:cumulonimbus
94:
85:
70:
66:
63:cumulonimbus
50:
46:
42:
41:
1686:Virga (vir)
1676:Mamma (mam)
1666:Cavum (cav)
1625:Opacus (op)
1574:Velum (vel)
1547:Tuba ((tub)
1300:Wall cloud)
1289:Tail cloud)
1206:Multi-level
946:Cirrus (Ci)
829:Noctilucent
811:Mesospheric
693:(5): 1606.
311:entrainment
272:sublimation
268:evaporation
260:hydrometeor
253:hydrometeor
132:altostratus
1737:Categories
1599:Non-height
936:High-level
566:(4): 499.
467:2017-05-13
418:(8): 203.
383:References
351:stratified
248:convective
224:wind shear
118:capillatus
75:(meaning "
1608:Varieties
1562:and other
1400:Horseshoe
1326:Hot tower
1237:Low-level
1213:Varieties
703:CiteSeerX
355:turbulent
283:adiabatic
220:gradients
1601:specific
875:15–30 km
821:80–85 km
631:54938314
541:53128552
295:dynamics
278:present.
140:aviators
67:mammatus
43:Mammatus
1748:Cumulus
1583:Other-
1486:Species
1428:Species
1359:Fractus
1351:Species
1258:Species
1138:Species
1073:Species
1027:Species
955:Species
938:3–18 km
695:Bibcode
658:Bibcode
609:Bibcode
568:Bibcode
519:Bibcode
420:Bibcode
412:Weather
366:sheared
339:updraft
323:buoyant
266:due to
155:⁄
1543:Shelf)
1239:0–2 km
1121:2–8 km
794:genera
705:
629:
539:
209:Laguna
136:cirrus
134:, and
81:breast
79:" or "
1393:Other
831:(NLC)
791:Cloud
627:S2CID
537:S2CID
461:(PDF)
454:(PDF)
408:(PDF)
264:cools
205:Biñan
95:mamma
77:udder
72:mamma
59:cloud
57:of a
47:mamma
1383:ICAO
246:and
83:").
55:base
49:or
1462:Fog
802:WMO
713:doi
666:doi
654:129
617:doi
576:doi
527:doi
428:doi
285:or
270:or
203:in
88:WMO
1739::
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493:^
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391:^
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783:e
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357:.
317:(
157:2
153:1
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
