33:
428:), as well as a number of memories and other devices, were interconnected by a high-speed Exchange. All three processors ran a version of MUSS. MUSS also encompassed compilers for various languages and runtime packages to support the compiled code. It was structured as a small kernel that implemented an arbitrary set of virtual machines analogous to a corresponding set of processors. The MUSS code appeared in the common segments that formed part of each virtual machine's virtual address space.
417:
optimally buffered. Thus named variables were buffered separately from array elements, which were themselves accessed by means of named descriptors. Each descriptor included an array length which could be used in string processing instructions or to enable array bound checking to be carried out by hardware. The instruction pre-fetching mechanism used an associative jump trace to predict the outcome of impending branches.
444:
MU6V, a parallel vector processing system. A prototype model of MU6V, based on 68000 microprocessors with vector orders emulated as "extracodes" was constructed and tested but not further developed beyond this. MU6-G was built with a grant from SRC and successfully ran as a service machine in the
Department between 1982 and 1987, using the MUSS operating system developed as part of the MU5 project.
409:, made its production facilities available to the University. In that year a group of 20 people was involved in the design: 11 Department of Computer Science staff, 5 seconded ICT staff and 4 SRC supported staff. The peak level of staffing was in 1971, when the numbers, including research students, rose to 60.
443:
Once MU5 was fully operational, a new project was initiated to produce its successor, MU6. MU6 was intended to be a range of processors: MU6P, an advanced microprocessor architecture intended for use as a personal computer, MU6-G, a high performance machine for general or scientific applications and
324:
At the end of 1958 Ferranti agreed to collaborate with
Manchester University on the project, and the computer was shortly afterwards renamed Atlas, with the joint venture under the control of Tom Kilburn. The first Atlas was officially commissioned on 7 December 1962, and was considered at that time
197:
Two versions of the
Manchester Mark 1 were produced, the first of which, the Intermediary Version, was operational by April 1949. The Final Specification machine, which was fully working by October 1949, contained 4,050 valves and had a power consumption of 25 kilowatts. Perhaps the Manchester
393:
The
Manchester MU5 was the successor to Atlas. An outline proposal for a successor to Atlas was presented at the 1968 IFIP Conference in Edinburgh, although work on the project and talks with ICT (of which Ferranti had become part) aimed at obtaining their assistance and support had begun in 1966.
416:
to speed up operand and instruction accesses. The instruction set was designed to permit the generation of efficient object code by compilers, to allow for a pipeline organisation of the processor and to provide information to the hardware on the nature of operands, so as to allow them to be
294:, in which all the circuitry was modified to make use of junction transistors. Six Metrovick 950s were built, the first completed in 1956. They were successfully deployed within various departments of the company and were in use for about five years.
435:. ICL's 2980 in particular, first delivered in June 1975, owed a great deal to the design of MU5. MU5 remained in operation at the University until 1982. A fuller article about MU5 can be found on the Engineering and Technology History Wiki.
135:, an early form of computer memory, rather than as a practical computer. Work on the machine began in 1947, and on 21 June 1948 the computer successfully ran its first program, consisting of 17 instructions written to find the highest
213:
As a result of experience gained from the Mark 1, the developers concluded that computers would be used more in scientific roles than pure maths. They therefore embarked on the design of a new machine which would include a
218:; work began in 1951. The resulting machine, which ran its first program in May 1954, was known as Meg, or the megacycle machine. It was smaller and simpler than the Mark 1, as well as quicker at solving maths problems.
1901:
A description of the
Globally Asynchronous, Locally Synchronous (GALS) nature of SpiNNaker, with an overview of the asynchronous communications hardware designed to transmit neural 'spikes' between processors.
2115:
312:
engine" β began at the university in 1956. The aim was to build a computer that could operate at processing speeds approaching one microsecond per instruction, one million instructions per second.
420:
The MU5 operating system MUSS was designed to be highly adaptable and was ported to a variety of processors at
Manchester and elsewhere. In the completed MU5 system, three processors (MU5 itself, an
182:
Development of the
Manchester Mark 1 began in August 1948, with the initial aim of providing the university with a more realistic computing facility. In October 1948 UK Government Chief Scientist
333:
and paging allowed each concurrent user to have up to one million words of storage space available. Atlas pioneered many hardware and software concepts still in common use today including the
893:
267:, and had a power consumption of 150 watts. The machine did however make use of valves to generate its 125 kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic
1953:
Modelling and analysis of the SpiNNaker interconnect in a million-core machine, showing the suitability of the packet-switched network for large-scale spiking neural network simulation.
82:(CRTs); and to construct a machine that could be used to investigate how computers might be able to assist in the solution of mathematical problems. The first of the series, the
329:. It was said that whenever Atlas went offline half of the UK's computer capacity was lost. Its fastest instructions took 1.59 microseconds to execute, and the machine's use of
1861:
A manifesto for the SpiNNaker project, surveying and reviewing the general level of understanding of brain function and approaches to building computer modelof the brain.
256:
Two versions of the machine were produced. The first was the world's first transistorised computer, a prototype, and became operational on 16 November 1953. "The
260:
machine used 92 point-contact transistors and 550 diodes". The second version was completed in April 1955. The 1955 version used 250 junction transistors, 1,300
372:
37:
378:
The
University of Manchester's Atlas was decommissioned in 1971, but the last was in service until 1974. Parts of the Chilton Atlas are preserved by the
431:
MU5 was fully operational by
October 1974, coinciding with ICL's announcement that it was working on the development of a new range of computers, the
1993:
A demonstration of SpiNNaker's ability to simulate different neural models (simultaneously, if necessary) in contrast to other neuromorphic hardware.
139:
of 2 (262,144) by trying every integer from 2 β 1 downwards. The program ran for 52 minutes before producing the correct answer of 2 (131,072).
164:
published in
September 1948, establishing it as the world's first stored-program computer. It quickly evolved into a more practical machine, the
900:
2041:
Four-chip, real-time simulation of a four-million-synapse cortical circuit, showing the extreme energy efficiency of the SpiNNaker architecture
402:
394:
The new machine, later to become known as MU5, was intended to be at the top end of a range of machines and to be 20 times faster than Atlas.
1778:
839:
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was given a demonstration of the prototype, and was so impressed that he immediately initiated a government contract with the local firm of
1911:
Navaridas, J.; LujΓ‘n, M.; Miguel-Alonso, J.; Plana, L. A.; Furber, S. (2009). "Understanding the interconnection network of SpiNNaker".
1083:
90:
developed from it, quickly attracted the attention of the United Kingdom government, who contracted the electrical engineering firm of
1599:
Edwards, D.B.G; Knowles, A.E.; Woods, J.V. (1980), "MU6-G: a new design to achieve mainframe performance from a mini-sized computer",
401:(SRC) awarded Manchester University a five-year grant of Β£630,466 (equivalent to Β£12 million in 2023) to develop the machine and
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1938:
1640:
56:
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238:
Work on building a smaller and cheaper computer began in 1952, in parallel with Meg's ongoing development. Two of Kilburn's team,
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473:
in the University of Manchester's Advanced Processor Technologies Research Group (APT). Built in 2019, it is composed of 57,600
67:, the world's first transistorised computer, and what was the world's fastest computer at the time of its inauguration in 1962.
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406:
102:
1287:
2125:
2110:
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205:
In June 2022 an IEEE Milestone was dedicated to the "Manchester University "Baby" Computer and its Derivatives, 1948-1951".
158: β and had a power consumption of 3.5 kilowatts. Its successful operation was reported in a letter to the journal
1875:; Temple, S.; Khan, M.; Shi, Y.; Wu, J.; Yang, S. (2007). "A GALS Infrastructure for a Massively Parallel Multiprocessor".
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The Baby was 17 feet (5.2 m) in length, 7 feet 4 inches (2.24 m) tall, and weighed almost 1
1801:
385:
In June 2022 an IEEE Milestone was dedicated to the "Atlas Computer and the Invention of Virtual Memory 1957β1962".
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413:
279:
1197:
349:
261:
1763:
2008 IEEE International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (IEEE World Congress on Computational Intelligence)
398:
250:
49:
482:
357:
64:
1761:; Woods, J. V. (2008). "Efficient modelling of spiking neural networks on a scalable chip multiprocessor".
1916:
1038:
86:, ran its first program on 21 June 1948. As the world's first stored-program computer, the Baby, and the
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588:
361:
242:
and D. C. Webb, were assigned to the task of designing and building a machine using the newly developed
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246:
instead of valves, which became known as the Manchester TC. Initially the only devices available were
101:
The collaboration with Ferranti eventually led to an industrial partnership with the computer company
937:
345:
287:
105:, who made use of many of the ideas developed at the university, particularly in the design of their
1921:
1550:
1482:
Lavington, S.H.; Thomas, G.; Edwards, D.B.G. (1977), "The MU5 Multicomputer Communication System",
490:
215:
1152:"COMPUTERS, Overseas: 5. Manchester University - A SMALL EXPERIMENTAL TRANSISTOR DIGITAL COMPUTER"
828:
Napper, R. B. E. (2000), "The Manchester Mark 1 Computers", in Rojas, RaΓΊl; Hashagen, Ulf (eds.),
2032:
1944:
1892:
1784:
1612:
1453:
955:
412:
The most significant novel features of the MU5 processor were its instruction set and the use of
286:
became available. The Transistor Computer's design was adopted by the local engineering firm of
1967:(2011). "Concurrent heterogeneous neural model simulation on real-time neuromimetic hardware".
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2024:
1984:
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87:
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Ibbett, R.N.; Capon, P.C.; Topham, N.P. (1985), "MU6V: a parallel vector processing system",
271:, so it was not the first completely transistorised computer, a distinction that went to the
2016:
1976:
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1766:
1737:
1604:
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1533:
1445:
1235:
945:
584:
568:
368:
334:
321:) is a prefix in the SI and other systems of units denoting a factor of 10 (one millionth).
303:
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160:
79:
75:
1913:
Proceedings of the 23rd international conference on Conference on Supercomputing - ICS '09
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83:
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278:
Problems with the reliability of early batches of transistors meant that the machine's
32:
2007:(2012). "Power-efficient simulation of detailed cortical microcircuits on SpiNNaker".
1389:
Kilburn, T.; Morris, D.; Rohl, J.S.; Sumner, F.H. (1969), "A System Design Proposal",
1198:"1953: Transistorized Computers Emerge | The Silicon Engine | Computer History Museum"
481:, totalling 1,036,800 cores and over 7 TB of RAM. The computing platform is based on
253:; these were less reliable than the valves they replaced but consumed far less power.
2099:
1963:
Rast, A.; Galluppi, F.; Davies, S.; Plana, L.; Patterson, C.; Sharp, T.; Lester, D.;
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147:
1980:
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55:
developed during the 30-year period between 1947 and 1977 by a small team at the
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486:
309:
268:
227:
60:
1770:
1742:
1725:
1524:
Ibbett, Roland N. (1999), "The University of Manchester MU5 Computer Project",
1159:
1585:
1436:
Frank, G.R.; Theaker, C.J. (1979), "The design of the MUSS operating system",
1251:
871:
658:
478:
243:
17:
1247:
867:
654:
337:, "considered by many to be the first recognisable modern operating system".
1930:
1239:
739:
714:
453:
247:
2028:
1988:
1856:
1838:
1449:
1016:
1608:
1376:"Milestones:Atlas Computer and the Invention of Virtual Memory, 1957β1962"
1888:
1805:
463:
326:
219:
187:
143:
98:, was the world's first commercially available general-purpose computer.
91:
52:
1656:"Themes - Department of Computer Science - The University of Manchester"
155:
136:
128:
1537:
1084:"Manchester University "Baby" Computer and its Derivatives, 1948-1951"
950:
425:
353:
325:
to be the most powerful computer in the world, equivalent to four
264:
151:
70:
The project began with two aims: to prove the practicality of the
364:
or Atlas 2, which had a different memory organisation, and ran a
226:, in which the Williams tubes were replaced by the more reliable
474:
198:
Mark 1's most significant innovation was its incorporation of
1322:
1320:
1632:
12th Annual International Symposium on Computer Architecture
282:
was about 90 minutes, which improved once the more reliable
94:
to produce a commercial version. The resulting machine, the
1601:
7th Annual International Symposium on Computer Architecture
1039:"The Manchester Mark 1 and Atlas: a Historical Perspective"
341:
1421:
Sumner, F.H. (1974), "MU5 - An Assessment of the Design",
1133:
1131:
1110:"The "Manchester TC" transistor computer - CHM Revolution"
994:
992:
763:
761:
2116:
Department of Computer Science, University of Manchester
477:(specifically ARM968), each with 18 cores and 128 MB of
894:"The "Baby": The World's First Stored-Program Computer"
892:
Manchester Museum of Science & Industry (2011),
458:
SpiNNaker: Spiking Neural Network Architecture is a
1551:"The University of Manchester MU5 Computer System"
924:Williams, F. C.; Kilburn, T. (25 September 1948),
1724:; Galluppi, F.; Temple, S.; Plana, L. A. (2014).
190:to make a commercial version of the machine, the
356:. A derivative system was built by Ferranti for
308:Development of MUSE β a name derived from "
1570:"MU6P: an advanced microprocessor architecture"
340:Two other machines were built: one for a joint
2070:Thomas, Ryland; Williamson, Samuel H. (2024).
1393:, vol. 2, North Holland, pp. 806β811
1224:"Some early transistor applications in the UK"
1192:
1190:
831:The First Computers: History and Architectures
808:(2nd ed.), The British Computer Society,
222:produced a commercial version marketed as the
27:Series of stored-program electronic computers
8:
1496:
1469:
1802:A million ARM cores to host brain simulator
1404:Morris, Derrick; Ibbett, Roland N. (1979),
1228:Engineering Science & Education Journal
677:
675:
636:
634:
1290:, University of Manchester, archived from
1015:, University of Manchester, archived from
713:, University of Manchester, archived from
705:
703:
500:
1920:
1846:
1741:
1362:
1350:
1338:
1326:
1311:
1274:
1137:
1122:
1096:
1070:
998:
949:
862:(20), The Computer Conservation Society,
767:
752:
649:(20), The Computer Conservation Society,
625:
1674:"SpiNNaker Project - The SpiNNaker Chip"
31:
2053:
618:
1827:Journal of the Royal Society Interface
1176:
1165:
983:
684:"50th Birthday of Transistor Computer"
36:Replica of the Manchester Baby at the
1222:Cooke-Yarborough, E. H. (June 1998),
1053:. (Reprint of the paper published in
7:
711:"A Timeline of Manchester Computing"
2003:Sharp, T.; Galluppi, F.; Rast, A.;
1877:IEEE Design & Test of Computers
1804:News article on the project in the
1568:Woods, J.V.; Wheen, A.J.T. (1983).
1150:Neumann, Albrecht J. (April 1955).
641:Enticknap, Nicholas (Summer 1998),
202:, commonplace on modern computers.
1526:Annals of the History of Computing
348:consortium, and the other for the
63:. They included the world's first
25:
1438:Software: Practice and Experience
1425:, North Holland, pp. 133β136
806:A History of Manchester Computers
2068:"consistent series" supplied in
1486:, vol. C-26, pp. 19β28
562:Manchester Mark II a.k.a. "Meg"
2062:Gross Domestic Product deflator
2009:Journal of Neuroscience Methods
1044:, University of Central Florida
856:"The Original Original Program"
834:, MIT Press, pp. 356β377,
784:, Manchester University Press,
109:of computers during the 1970s.
2021:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2012.03.001
1037:Lavington, S. H. (July 1977),
926:"Electronic Digital Computers"
854:Tootill, Geoff (Summer 1998),
38:Museum of Science and Industry
1:
2072:"What Was the U.K. GDP Then?"
738:. 5 July 2008. Archived from
373:Cambridge Computer Laboratory
48:were an innovative series of
1981:10.1016/j.neunet.2011.06.014
1823:"Neural systems engineering"
688:curation.cs.manchester.ac.uk
643:"Computing's Golden Jubilee"
380:National Museums of Scotland
502:Chronology of developments
485:, useful in simulating the
2142:
1771:10.1109/IJCNN.2008.4634194
1743:10.1109/JPROC.2014.2304638
1703:, University of Manchester
1635:, IEEE, pp. 136β144,
1497:Morris & Ibbett (1979)
1470:Morris & Ibbett (1979)
1158:(2): 16β17. Archived from
467:supercomputer architecture
451:
301:
280:mean time between failures
175:
116:
59:, under the leadership of
1423:Information Processing 74
1391:Information Processing 68
1055:Communications of the ACM
804:Lavington, Simon (1998),
780:Lavington, Simon (1980),
594:
574:
558:
542:
527:, which evolved into the
520:
350:Atlas Computer Laboratory
251:point-contact transistors
2121:Transistorized computers
1509:Buckle, John K. (1978),
399:Science Research Council
146:. It contained 550
57:University of Manchester
2106:Early British computers
1931:10.1145/1542275.1542317
1730:Proceedings of the IEEE
1726:"The SpiNNaker Project"
1678:apt.cs.manchester.ac.uk
1660:www.cs.manchester.ac.uk
1586:10.1093/comjnl/26.3.208
1407:The MU5 Computer System
1264:(subscription required)
1202:www.computerhistory.org
1013:"The Manchester Mark 1"
782:Early British Computers
483:spiking neural networks
65:stored-program computer
1839:10.1098/rsif.2006.0177
1765:. pp. 2812β2819.
1450:10.1002/spe.4380090802
1410:, Macmillan, p. 1
1175:Cite journal requires
899:, MOSI, archived from
41:
2126:Vacuum tube computers
2111:History of Manchester
1609:10.1145/800053.801921
1513:, The Macmillan Press
1484:IEEE Trans. Computers
1240:10.1049/esej:19980301
510:University Prototype
35:
1889:10.1109/MDT.2007.149
1603:, pp. 161β167,
1574:The Computer Journal
546:Transistor computer
516:Commercial Computer
358:Cambridge University
346:University of London
288:Metropolitan-Vickers
284:junction transistors
53:electronic computers
46:Manchester computers
2064:figures follow the
1700:SpiNNaker Home Page
1511:The ICL 2900 Series
1499:, pp. 132β140.
1234:(3), IEE: 100β106,
942:1948Natur.162..487W
906:on 15 February 2012
503:
491:Human Brain Project
234:Transistor Computer
216:floating-point unit
74:, an early form of
1472:, pp. 189β211
1019:on 9 February 2014
1011:Napper, R. B. E.,
501:
460:massively parallel
414:associative memory
405:, later to become
127:was designed as a
78:based on standard
42:
1780:978-1-4244-1820-6
1538:10.1109/85.759366
874:on 9 January 2012
841:978-0-262-68137-7
815:978-1-902505-01-5
791:978-0-7190-0803-0
682:Grimsdale, Dick,
661:on 9 January 2012
610:
609:
529:Manchester Mark 1
342:British Petroleum
240:Richard Grimsdale
178:Manchester Mark 1
172:Manchester Mark 1
166:Manchester Mark 1
150: β 300
148:thermionic valves
88:Manchester Mark 1
80:cathode-ray tubes
16:(Redirected from
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1341:, pp. 50β52
1339:Lavington (1980)
1336:
1330:
1329:, pp. 44β45
1327:Lavington (1998)
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1315:
1312:Lavington (1998)
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1277:, pp. 36β37
1275:Lavington (1998)
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1915:. p. 286.
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1566:
1562:
1557:. 10 June 2022.
1549:
1548:
1544:
1532:, IEEE: 24β31,
1523:
1522:
1518:
1508:
1507:
1503:
1495:
1491:
1481:
1480:
1476:
1468:
1464:
1435:
1434:
1430:
1420:
1419:
1415:
1403:
1402:
1398:
1388:
1387:
1383:
1374:
1373:
1369:
1361:
1357:
1349:
1345:
1337:
1333:
1325:
1318:
1310:
1306:
1297:
1295:
1294:on 28 July 2012
1286:
1285:
1281:
1273:
1269:
1263:
1257:
1255:
1221:
1220:
1216:
1206:
1204:
1196:
1195:
1188:
1174:
1164:
1162:on 10 May 2024.
1149:
1148:
1144:
1136:
1129:
1121:
1117:
1108:
1107:
1103:
1095:
1091:
1082:
1081:
1077:
1069:
1065:
1057:(January 1978)
1047:
1045:
1041:
1036:
1035:
1031:
1022:
1020:
1010:
1009:
1005:
997:
990:
982:
978:
969:
967:
966:on 6 April 2009
923:
922:
918:
909:
907:
903:
896:
891:
890:
886:
877:
875:
853:
852:
848:
842:
827:
826:
822:
816:
803:
802:
798:
792:
779:
778:
774:
766:
759:
751:
747:
742:on 5 July 2008.
734:
733:
729:
720:
718:
709:
708:
701:
692:
690:
681:
680:
673:
664:
662:
640:
639:
632:
624:
620:
615:
605:ICL 2900 Series
537:Ferranti Mark 1
525:Manchester Baby
499:
475:ARM9 processors
456:
450:
441:
391:
331:virtual storage
306:
300:
236:
211:
209:Meg and Mercury
200:index registers
192:Ferranti Mark 1
184:Ben Lockspeiser
180:
174:
125:Manchester Baby
121:
119:Manchester Baby
115:
113:Manchester Baby
96:Ferranti Mark 1
84:Manchester Baby
76:computer memory
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2139:
2137:
2129:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2098:
2097:
2091:
2090:
2077:MeasuringWorth
2066:MeasuringWorth
2052:
2050:
2047:
2044:
2043:
2015:(1): 110β118.
1995:
1975:(9): 961β978.
1955:
1939:
1903:
1871:Plana, L. A.;
1863:
1809:
1794:
1779:
1749:
1736:(5): 652β665.
1713:
1690:
1665:
1647:
1641:
1621:
1591:
1580:(3): 208β217.
1560:
1542:
1516:
1501:
1489:
1474:
1462:
1444:(8): 599β620,
1428:
1413:
1396:
1381:
1367:
1355:
1343:
1331:
1316:
1304:
1279:
1267:
1254:on 5 July 2020
1214:
1186:
1177:|journal=
1142:
1127:
1115:
1101:
1089:
1075:
1063:
1029:
1003:
988:
976:
916:
884:
846:
840:
820:
814:
796:
790:
772:
757:
745:
727:
717:on 5 July 2008
699:
671:
630:
617:
616:
614:
611:
608:
607:
602:
599:
596:
592:
591:
585:Ferranti Atlas
582:
579:
576:
572:
571:
566:
563:
560:
556:
555:
550:
547:
544:
540:
539:
534:
531:
522:
518:
517:
514:
511:
508:
498:
495:
452:Main article:
449:
446:
440:
437:
390:
387:
382:in Edinburgh.
302:Main article:
299:
298:Muse and Atlas
296:
235:
232:
210:
207:
176:Main article:
173:
170:
117:Main article:
114:
111:
50:stored-program
26:
24:
18:Manchester MU5
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2138:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2103:
2101:
2094:
2079:
2078:
2073:
2067:
2063:
2057:
2054:
2048:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
1999:
1996:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1959:
1956:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1940:9781605584980
1936:
1932:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1914:
1907:
1904:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1873:Furber, S. B.
1867:
1864:
1858:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1813:
1810:
1807:
1803:
1798:
1795:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1759:Furber, S. B.
1753:
1750:
1744:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1722:Furber, S. B.
1717:
1714:
1702:
1701:
1694:
1691:
1679:
1675:
1669:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1651:
1648:
1644:
1642:9780818606342
1638:
1634:
1633:
1625:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1595:
1592:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1564:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1546:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1520:
1517:
1512:
1505:
1502:
1498:
1493:
1490:
1485:
1478:
1475:
1471:
1466:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1432:
1429:
1424:
1417:
1414:
1409:
1408:
1400:
1397:
1392:
1385:
1382:
1377:
1371:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1356:
1352:
1347:
1344:
1340:
1335:
1332:
1328:
1323:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1308:
1305:
1293:
1289:
1283:
1280:
1276:
1271:
1268:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1218:
1215:
1203:
1199:
1193:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1169:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1146:
1143:
1139:
1134:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1119:
1116:
1111:
1105:
1102:
1098:
1093:
1090:
1085:
1079:
1076:
1072:
1067:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1040:
1033:
1030:
1018:
1014:
1007:
1004:
1000:
995:
993:
989:
986:, p. 365
985:
984:Napper (2000)
980:
977:
965:
961:
957:
952:
947:
943:
939:
936:(4117): 487,
935:
931:
927:
920:
917:
902:
895:
888:
885:
873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
850:
847:
843:
837:
833:
832:
824:
821:
817:
811:
807:
800:
797:
793:
787:
783:
776:
773:
769:
764:
762:
758:
754:
749:
746:
741:
737:
731:
728:
716:
712:
706:
704:
700:
689:
685:
678:
676:
672:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
637:
635:
631:
627:
622:
619:
612:
606:
603:
600:
597:
593:
590:
586:
583:
580:
577:
573:
570:
567:
564:
561:
557:
554:
553:Metrovick 950
551:
548:
545:
541:
538:
535:
532:
530:
526:
523:
519:
515:
512:
509:
506:
505:
496:
494:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
465:
461:
455:
447:
445:
438:
436:
434:
429:
427:
423:
418:
415:
410:
408:
404:
400:
395:
388:
386:
383:
381:
376:
374:
371:developed by
370:
367:
363:
360:, called the
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
338:
336:
332:
328:
322:
320:
316:
311:
305:
297:
295:
293:
292:Metrovick 950
289:
285:
281:
276:
274:
273:Harwell CADET
270:
266:
263:
259:
254:
252:
249:
245:
241:
233:
231:
229:
225:
221:
217:
208:
206:
203:
201:
195:
193:
189:
185:
179:
171:
169:
167:
163:
162:
157:
154:and 250
153:
149:
145:
140:
138:
137:proper factor
134:
133:Williams tube
130:
126:
120:
112:
110:
108:
104:
99:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
72:Williams tube
68:
66:
62:
58:
54:
51:
47:
40:in Manchester
39:
34:
30:
19:
2093:
2081:. Retrieved
2075:
2065:
2056:
2012:
2008:
1998:
1972:
1968:
1958:
1912:
1906:
1880:
1876:
1866:
1830:
1826:
1817:Temple, S.;
1812:
1797:
1762:
1752:
1733:
1729:
1716:
1705:, retrieved
1699:
1693:
1681:. Retrieved
1677:
1668:
1659:
1650:
1631:
1624:
1600:
1594:
1577:
1573:
1563:
1554:
1545:
1529:
1525:
1519:
1510:
1504:
1492:
1483:
1477:
1465:
1441:
1437:
1431:
1422:
1416:
1406:
1399:
1390:
1384:
1370:
1365:, p. 44
1358:
1353:, p. 43
1346:
1334:
1314:, p. 41
1307:
1298:21 September
1296:, retrieved
1292:the original
1282:
1270:
1256:, retrieved
1252:the original
1231:
1227:
1217:
1205:. Retrieved
1201:
1168:cite journal
1160:the original
1155:
1145:
1140:, p. 37
1118:
1104:
1099:, p. 31
1092:
1078:
1073:, p. 18
1066:
1058:
1054:
1046:, retrieved
1032:
1021:, retrieved
1017:the original
1006:
1001:, p. 17
979:
968:, retrieved
964:the original
933:
929:
919:
908:, retrieved
901:the original
887:
876:, retrieved
872:the original
860:Resurrection
859:
849:
830:
823:
805:
799:
781:
775:
770:, p. 21
748:
740:the original
730:
719:, retrieved
715:the original
691:, retrieved
687:
663:, retrieved
659:the original
647:Resurrection
646:
628:, p. 49
621:
471:Steve Furber
469:designed by
457:
442:
430:
419:
411:
397:In 1968 the
396:
392:
384:
377:
366:time-sharing
339:
323:
318:
314:
307:
277:
255:
237:
212:
204:
196:
181:
159:
141:
122:
100:
69:
45:
43:
29:
1683:17 November
1288:"The Atlas"
1207:2 September
755:, p. 7
721:25 February
693:24 February
487:human brain
433:2900 series
310:microsecond
269:drum memory
262:solid-state
244:transistors
228:core memory
107:2900 series
61:Tom Kilburn
2100:Categories
2005:Furber, S.
1965:Furber, S.
1883:(5): 454.
1819:Furber, S.
1048:8 February
1023:22 January
970:22 January
736:"timeline"
613:References
1917:CiteSeerX
1757:Xin Jin;
1248:0963-7346
868:0958-7403
655:0958-7403
454:SpiNNaker
448:SpiNNaker
422:ICL 1905E
327:IBM 7094s
290:in their
275:of 1955.
248:germanium
2037:19083072
2029:22465805
1989:21778034
1897:16758888
1857:17251143
1821:(2007).
1806:EE Times
1555:ethw.org
878:19 April
665:19 April
464:manycore
220:Ferranti
188:Ferranti
156:pentodes
144:long ton
131:for the
129:test-bed
92:Ferranti
2083:15 July
1949:3710084
1848:2359843
1789:2103654
1707:11 June
1617:7224504
1458:1962276
960:4110351
938:Bibcode
910:3 April
497:Summary
2035:
2027:
1987:
1947:
1937:
1919:
1895:
1855:
1845:
1787:
1777:
1639:
1615:
1456:
1258:7 June
1246:
958:
930:Nature
866:
838:
812:
788:
653:
426:PDP-11
424:and a
354:Oxford
265:diodes
258:48-bit
161:Nature
152:diodes
2049:Notes
2033:S2CID
1945:S2CID
1893:S2CID
1785:S2CID
1613:S2CID
1454:S2CID
1042:(PDF)
956:S2CID
904:(PDF)
897:(PDF)
601:1974
595:1974
589:Titan
581:1962
578:Muse
575:1959
565:1957
559:1954
549:1956
543:1953
533:1951
521:1948
513:Year
507:Year
489:(see
362:Titan
2085:2024
2025:PMID
1985:PMID
1935:ISBN
1853:PMID
1775:ISBN
1709:2012
1685:2018
1637:ISBN
1300:2010
1260:2009
1244:ISSN
1209:2019
1181:help
1050:2009
1025:2009
972:2009
912:2012
880:2008
864:ISSN
836:ISBN
810:ISBN
786:ISBN
723:2009
695:2018
667:2008
651:ISSN
598:MU5
317:(or
123:The
44:The
2017:doi
2013:210
1977:doi
1927:doi
1885:doi
1843:PMC
1835:doi
1767:doi
1738:doi
1734:102
1605:doi
1582:doi
1534:doi
1446:doi
1236:doi
1061:(1)
946:doi
934:162
493:).
439:MU6
407:ICL
403:ICT
389:MU5
103:ICL
2102::
2074:.
2031:.
2023:.
2011:.
1983:.
1973:24
1971:.
1943:.
1933:.
1925:.
1891:.
1881:24
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1841:.
1829:.
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1783:.
1773:.
1732:.
1728:.
1676:.
1658:.
1611:,
1578:26
1576:.
1572:.
1553:.
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1200:.
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315:Mu
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344:/
319:ΞΌ
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
