40:
954:
354:. Radar transmitters send out regular brief pulses of radio energy, the reflections from which are displayed on a CRT screen. As operators are usually interested only in moving targets, it was desirable to filter out any distracting reflections from stationary objects. The filtering was achieved by comparing each received pulse with the previous pulse, and rejecting both if they were identical, leaving a signal containing only the images of any moving objects. To store each received pulse for later comparison it was passed through a transmission line, delaying it by exactly the time between transmitted pulses.
667:
492:
278:, a theoretical concept intended to explore the limits of mechanical computation. Turing was not imagining a physical machine, but a person he called a "computer", who acted according to the instructions provided by a tape on which symbols could be read and written sequentially as the tape moved under a tape head. Turing proved that if an algorithm can be written to solve a mathematical problem, then a Turing machine can execute that algorithm.
330:
322:, with conditional branching, and programmable to solve a wide range of problems, but its program was held in the state of switches in patch cords, rather than machine-changeable memory, and it could take several days to reprogram. Researchers such as Turing and Zuse investigated the idea of using the computer's memory to hold the program as well as the data it was working on, and it was mathematician
893:
601:
184:. Described as "small and primitive" 50 years after its creation, it was the first working machine to contain all the elements essential to a modern electronic digital computer. As soon as the Baby had demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project was initiated at the university to develop it into a full-scale operational machine, the
480:. A dash generated a positive charge, and a dot a negative charge, either of which could be picked up by a detector plate in front of the screen; a negative charge represented 0, and a positive charge 1. The charge dissipated in about 0.2 seconds, but it could be automatically refreshed from the data picked up by the detector.
244:
905:
of 2 (262,144) by trying every integer from 2 − 1 downwards. The divisions were implemented by repeated subtractions of the divisor. The Baby took 3.5 million operations and 52 minutes to produce the answer (131,072). The program used eight words of working storage in addition to
690:
A word in the computer's memory could be read, written, or refreshed, in 360 microseconds. An instruction took four times as long to execute as accessing a word from memory, giving an instruction execution rate of about 700 per second. The main store was refreshed continuously, a process that
583:
explains that
Kilburn's first (pre-Baby) accumulator-free (decentralized, in Jack Good's nomenclature) design was based on inputs from Turing, but that he later switched to an accumulator-based (centralized) machine of the sort advocated by von Neumann, as written up and taught to him by Jack Good
531:
Having secured the support of the university, obtained funding from the Royal
Society, and assembled a first-rate team of mathematicians and engineers, Newman now had all elements of his computer-building plan in place. Adopting the approach he had used so effectively at Bletchley Park, Newman set
460:
or
Williams–Kilburn tube, based on a standard CRT: the first electronic random-access digital storage device. The Baby was designed to show that it was a practical storage device by demonstrating that data held within it could be read and written reliably at a speed suitable for use in a computer.
546:
on secondment. By the autumn of 1947 the pair had increased the storage capacity of the
Williams tube from one bit to 2,048, arranged in a 64 by 32-bit array, and demonstrated that it was able to store those bits for four hours. Engineer Geoff Tootill joined the team on loan from TRE in September
224:
of 2 (262,144), by testing every integer from 2 downwards. This algorithm would take a long time to execute—and so prove the computer's reliability, as division was implemented by repeated subtraction of the divisor. The program consisted of 17 instructions and ran for about 52 minutes
591:
was approximately a subset of the twelve operation instruction set proposed in 1947 by Jack Good, in the first known document to use the term "Baby" for this machine. Good did not include a "halt" instruction, and his proposed conditional jump instruction was more complicated than what the Baby
426:, and most of his circuit technicians were in the process of being transferred to the Department of Atomic Energy. The TRE agreed to second a small number of technicians to work under Williams' direction at the university, and to support another small group working with Uttley at the TRE.
365:
had concluded that
Britain needed a National Mathematical Laboratory to co-ordinate machine-aided computation. A Mathematics Division was set up at the NPL, and on 19 February 1946 Turing presented a paper outlining his design for an electronic stored-program computer to be known as the
416:
The government department responsible for the NPL decided that, of all the work being carried out by the TRE on its behalf, ACE was to be given the top priority. NPL's decision led to a visit by the superintendent of the TRE's
Physics Division on 22 November 1946, accompanied by
421:
and A. M. Uttley, also from the TRE. Williams led a TRE development group working on CRT stores for radar applications, as an alternative to delay lines. Williams was not available to work on the ACE because he had already accepted a professorship at the
456:(CRT) as an alternative to the delay line for removing ground echoes from radar signals. While working at the TRE, shortly before he joined the University of Manchester in December 1946, he and Tom Kilburn had developed a form of electronic memory known as the
702:
denotes the sign of a number; positive numbers have a zero in that position and negative numbers a one. Thus, the range of numbers that could be held in each 32-bit word was −2 to +2 − 1 (decimal: −2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647).
879:
Programs were entered in binary form by stepping through each word of memory in turn, and using a set of 32 buttons and switches known as the input device to set the value of each bit of each word to either 0 or 1. The Baby had no
551:
Now let's be clear before we go any further that neither Tom
Kilburn nor I knew the first thing about computers when we arrived at Manchester University ... Newman explained the whole business of how a computer works to
405:. Flowers, the designer of Colossus, the world's first programmable electronic computer, was committed elsewhere and was unable to take part in the project, although his team did build some mercury delay lines for ACE. The
341:
The construction of a von
Neumann computer depended on the availability of a suitable memory device on which to store the program. During the Second World War researchers working on the problem of removing the clutter from
979:
In 2008, an original panoramic photograph of the entire machine was discovered at the
University of Manchester. The photograph, taken on 15 December 1948 by a research student, Alec Robinson, had been reproduced in
900:
Three programs were written for the computer. The first, consisting of 17 instructions, was written by
Kilburn, and so far as can be ascertained first ran on 21 June 1948. It was designed to find the highest
444:, the technology had several drawbacks: it was heavy, it was expensive, and it did not allow data to be accessed randomly. In addition, because data was stored as a sequence of acoustic waves propagated through a
292:, fully automatic computer, with binary digital arithmetic logic, but it lacked the conditional branching of a Turing machine. On 12 May 1941, the Z3 was successfully presented to an audience of scientists of
686:
architecture meant that the second operand of any operation was implicit: the accumulator or the program counter (instruction address); program instructions specified only the address of the data in memory.
2286:
1637:
I. J. Good, "The Baby Machine", note, 4 May 1947, in Good, Early Notes on Electronic Computers (Virginia Tech University Libraries, Special Collections, collection Ms1982-018, the Irving J. Good papers)
483:
The Williams tube used in Baby was based on the CV1131, a commercially available 12-inch (300 mm) diameter CRT, but a smaller 6-inch (150 mm) tube, the CV1097, was used in the Mark I.
875:
LDN X // load negative X into the accumulator SUB Y // subtract Y from the value in the accumulator STO S // store the result at S LDN S // load negative value at S into the accumulator
448:
column, the device's temperature had to be very carefully controlled, as the velocity of sound through a medium varies with its temperature. Williams had seen an experiment at
523:
and David Rees to Manchester with him, and there they recruited F. C. Williams to be the "circuit man" for a new computer project for which he had secured funding from the
1671:
370:(ACE). This was one of several projects set up in the years following the Second World War with the aim of constructing a stored-program computer. At about the same time,
663:
in memory. A fourth CRT, without the storage electronics of the other three, was used as the output device, able to display the bit pattern of any selected storage tube.
2276:
976:, was built to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the running of its first program. Demonstrations of the machine in operation are held regularly at the museum.
623:
By June 1948 the Baby had been built and was working. It was 17 feet (5.2 m) in length, 7 feet 4 inches (2.24 m) tall, and weighed almost 1
387:
358:
383:
973:
616:, he was generally supportive and enthusiastic about the project, and arranged for the acquisition of war-surplus supplies for its construction, including
1964:
303:. The Z3 stored its program on an external tape, but it was electromechanical rather than electronic. The earliest electronic computing devices were the
225:
before reaching the correct answer of 131,072, after the Baby had performed about 3.5 million operations (for an effective CPU speed of about 1100
715:
field, which allowed a maximum of eight (2) different instructions. In contrast to the modern convention, the machine's storage was described with the
765:
Jump to the instruction at the program counter plus (+) the relative value obtained from the specified memory address S (relative unconditional jump)
674:
Each 32-bit word of RAM could contain either a program instruction or data. In a program instruction, bits 0–12 represented the memory address of the
468:
digital computer, the tube had to be capable of storing either one of two states at each of its memory locations, corresponding to the binary digits (
406:
212:, 1,024 bits). As it was designed to be the simplest possible stored-program computer, the only arithmetic operations implemented in hardware were
379:
2133:
2115:
2097:
2051:
2033:
941:, work on which began in August 1948. The first version was operational by April 1949, and it in turn led directly to the development of the
909:
Geoff Tootill wrote an amended version of the program the following month, and in mid-July Alan Turing — who had been appointed as a
935:, published in September 1948. The machine's successful demonstration quickly led to the construction of a more practical computer, the
519:. In 1945, he was appointed to the Fielden Chair of Pure Mathematics at Manchester University; he took his Colossus-project colleagues
220:; other arithmetic operations were implemented in software. The first of three programs written for the machine calculated the highest
953:
423:
1245:
2266:
2261:
2151:
1249:
542:
Following his appointment to the Chair of Electrical Engineering at Manchester University, Williams recruited his TRE colleague
1119:
1763:
1010:
As the program counter was incremented at the end of the decoding process, the stored address had to be the target address −1.
843:
The awkward negative operations were a consequence of the Baby's lack of hardware to perform any arithmetic operations except
2281:
2271:
1148:
809:
Subtract the number at the specified memory address S from the value in accumulator, and store the result in the accumulator
2200:
751:
Jump to the instruction at the address obtained from the specified memory address S (absolute unconditional indirect jump)
913:
in the mathematics department at Manchester University in September 1948 — submitted the third program, to carry out
691:
took 20 milliseconds to complete, as each of the Baby's 32 words had to be read and then refreshed in sequence.
238:
1842:
1678:
1471:
1079:
304:
918:
683:
656:
655:
in which the intermediate results of a calculation could be stored temporarily, and a third to hold the current program
644:
588:
402:
201:
2194:
1246:"Rechenhilfe für Ingenieure Konrad Zuses Idee vom ersten Computer der Welt wurde an der Technischen Hochschule geboren"
982:
45:
2214: – Run original program on a mobile phone and compare the performance with the Small-Scale Experimental Machine
1301:
568:
n that period, somehow or other I knew what a digital computer was ... Where I got this knowledge from I've no idea.
643:
pentode valves, which had been widely used during wartime. The Baby used one Williams tube to provide 32 by 32-bit
440:
Although some early computers such as EDSAC, inspired by the design of EDVAC, later made successful use of mercury
375:
367:
2291:
1894:
557:
418:
158:
71:
1040:
Burton, Christopher P. (2005). "Replicating the Manchester Baby: Motives, methods, and messages from the past".
326:
who wrote a widely distributed paper describing that computer architecture, still used in almost all computers.
2256:
2229:
2160:
2015:
Anderson, David (2010), "Contested Histories: De-mythologising the Early History of Modern British Computing",
334:
154:
2225:, a member of the team that designed and built the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, recorded for
2211:
652:
293:
226:
150:
1433:
17:
910:
2197:, archived from computer60.org, a website celebrating the 60th anniversary of the Manchester Baby in 2008
1202:
719:
to the left; thus a one was represented in three bits as "100", rather than the more conventional "001".
2188:
476:
generated by displaying either a dash or a dot at any position on the CRT screen, a phenomenon known as
682:
to be executed, such as storing a number in memory; the remaining 16 bits were unused. The Baby's
2239:
1914:
670:
The output CRT is immediately above the input device, flanked by the monitor and control electronics.
648:
613:
289:
181:
89:
612:
Although Newman played no engineering role in the development of the Baby, or any of the subsequent
2042:
Copeland, Jack (2010), "Colossus and the Rise of the Modern Computer", in Copeland, B. Jack (ed.),
852:
695:
666:
617:
491:
398:
319:
2222:
2124:
Napper, R. B. E. (2000), "The Manchester Mark 1 Computers", in Rojas, Raúl; Hashagen, Ulf (eds.),
2077:
2060:
Copeland, Jack (2011), "The Manchester Computer: A Revised History – Part 2: The Baby Computer",
1949:
1932:
1221:
1057:
779:
Take the number from the specified memory address S, negate it, and load it into the accumulator
477:
362:
2191:, archived from computer50.org, a website celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Baby in 1998.
2129:
2111:
2093:
2047:
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1850:
1483:
1087:
937:
500:
445:
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351:
347:
308:
267:
259:
186:
129:
318:(1946) was the first automatic computer that was both electronic and general-purpose. It was
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1922:
1560:
1445:
1213:
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605:
516:
453:
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217:
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The Baby was not intended to be a practical computing engine, but was instead designed as a
2233:
942:
532:
his people loose on the detailed work while he concentrated on orchestrating the endeavor.
473:
329:
255:
205:
191:
1551:
Anderson, David (2007). "Max Newman: Topologist, codebreaker, and pioneer of computing".
921:
at the university, although the laboratory did not become a physical reality until 1951.
1918:
1176:
2150:
Anderson, David (4 June 2004), "Was the Manchester Baby conceived at Bletchley Park?",
1429:
1253:
712:
660:
504:
410:
275:
248:
2189:
Computer 50 – The University of Manchester Celebrates the Birth of the Modern Computer
2164:
1450:
855:
before testing could begin as addition can easily be implemented by subtraction, i.e.
2250:
2090:
Early British Computers: The Story of Vintage Computers and the People who built them
914:
699:
639:—and had a power consumption of 3500 watts. The arithmetic unit was built using
580:
524:
465:
457:
435:
394:
285:
177:
166:
79:
2217:
1123:
350:, the first practical application of which was the mercury delay line, developed by
2081:
1988:
1936:
1061:
961:
881:
515:'s mathematical concepts and the stored-program concept that had been described by
263:
1154:
917:. Turing had by then been appointed to the nominal post of Deputy Director of the
393:
The NPL did not have the expertise to build a machine like ACE, so they contacted
1225:
1898:
871:). Therefore, adding two numbers together, X and Y, required four instructions:
844:
628:
573:
543:
512:
281:
271:
213:
162:
75:
49:
1217:
600:
1858:
1564:
1491:
1095:
716:
520:
508:
1854:
1487:
1091:
449:
906:
its 17 words of instructions, giving a program size of 25 words.
495:
A plaque in honour of Williams and Kilburn at the University of Manchester
39:
1309:
1053:
1019:
The function bits were only partially decoded, to save on logic elements.
624:
2073:
1267:
1203:"On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem"
620:
metal racks and "…the material of two complete Colossi" from Bletchley.
564:
Kilburn had a hard time recalling the influences on his machine design:
957:
902:
892:
698:, as most computers still do. In that representation, the value of the
675:
636:
221:
209:
173:
118:
793:
Store the number in the accumulator to the specified memory address S
2153:
Alan Mathison Turing 2004: A celebration of his life and achievements
1927:
1902:
945:, the world's first commercially available general-purpose computer.
929:
Williams and Kilburn reported on the Baby in a letter to the Journal
679:
300:
194:, the world's first commercially available general-purpose computer.
2226:
1272:
John Vincent Atanasoff and the Birth Of Electronic Digital Computing
2026:
A Radar History of World War II: Technical and Military Imperatives
823:
Skip next instruction if the accumulator contains a negative value
243:
2195:
Digital60 – Manchester Celebrating 60 Years of the Modern Computer
1789:
952:
891:
665:
632:
599:
511:
was committed to the development of a computer incorporating both
490:
371:
343:
328:
315:
266:
conceiving the idea of the first theoretical program to calculate
242:
2206:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1374:
640:
2044:
Colossus The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers
2240:
SSEM (Baby) Documentation @ Computer ◆ Conservation ◆ Society
972:
In 1998, a working replica of the Baby, now on display at the
469:
198:
1824:
1822:
1677:, Manchester Museum of Science & Industry, archived from
2201:
The Manchester Small Scale Experimental Machine – "The Baby"
1283:
1281:
1434:"The EDSAC (Electronic delay storage automatic calculator)"
1274:. JVA Initiative Committee and Iowa State University. 2011.
1212:, 2, vol. 42 (published 1936–1937), pp. 230–265,
361:(NPL) in October 1945, by which time scientists within the
1877:
1875:
1734:
1732:
1730:
1717:
1715:
1593:
1591:
190:. The Mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the
2287:
Department of Computer Science, University of Manchester
1702:
1700:
1698:
1578:
1576:
1574:
968:
in honour of the Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM)
413:
at the University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory.
2110:(2nd ed.), Swindon: The British Computer Society,
1672:"The "Baby": The World's First Stored-Program Computer"
1622:
1620:
1618:
254:
The first design for a program-controlled computer was
1965:"Photo of great grandfather of modern computers found"
472:) 0 and 1. It exploited the positive or negative
307:(ABC), which was successfully tested in 1942, and the
2092:(1st ed.), Manchester University Press Society,
1806:
Technical Introduction to Programming the Baby (v4.0)
1802:
Discussion of the historical accuracy of the emulator
1482:(4), The Computer Conservation Society, Summer 1992,
274:
published his description of what became known as a
547:1947, and remained on secondment until April 1949.
311:of 1943, but neither was a stored-program machine.
125:
113:
95:
85:
67:
57:
409:(TRE) was also approached for assistance, as was
1177:"The 'Baby' that ushered in modern computer age"
1114:
1112:
1546:
1544:
873:
566:
549:
529:
384:University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory
2126:The First Computers: History and Architectures
1210:Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society
1153:, The University of Manchester, archived from
1073:
1071:
711:The Baby's instruction format had a three-bit
27:First electronic stored-program computer, 1948
1302:"Konrad Zuse and the Stored Program Computer"
627:(1.0 t). The machine contained 550
604:Architectural schematic showing how the four
169:, and ran its first program on 21 June 1948.
8:
2017:History of Computing. Learning from the Past
974:Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester
851:. It was considered unnecessary to build an
694:The Baby represented negative numbers using
32:
1142:
1140:
18:Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine
1472:"Early computers at Manchester University"
1122:, University of Manchester, archived from
270:. A century later, in 1936, mathematician
38:
31:
2223:Oral history interview with Geoff Tootill
1926:
1881:
1849:(20), The Computer Conservation Society,
1828:
1738:
1721:
1646:
1609:
1597:
1535:
1523:
1511:
1449:
1416:
1404:
1392:
1365:
1341:
1329:
1086:(20), The Computer Conservation Society,
678:to be used, and bits 13–15 specified the
407:Telecommunications Research Establishment
1658:
1626:
1287:
1006:
1004:
721:
2062:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing
1553:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing
1042:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing
1032:
1000:
2277:Computer-related introductions in 1948
1750:
1706:
1582:
1120:"Early Electronic Computers (1946–51)"
380:Moore School of Electrical Engineering
299:("German Laboratory for Aviation") in
296:Deutsche Versuchsanstalt für Luftfahrt
1353:
1308:, Wimborne Publishing, archived from
966:Small Scale Experimental Beer Machine
7:
1764:"SSEM Programmer's Reference Manual"
1078:Enticknap, Nicholas (Summer 1998),
452:demonstrating the effectiveness of
2227:An Oral History of British Science
2207:Manchester Baby Simulator software
25:
2108:A History of Manchester Computers
1963:Highfield, Roger (17 June 2008),
1451:10.1090/s0025-5718-1950-0037589-7
651:(RAM), a second to hold a 32-bit
1798:How to operate the Baby/Emulator
346:signals had developed a form of
143:Small-Scale Experimental Machine
63:Small-Scale Experimental Machine
2128:, MIT Press, pp. 356–377,
1843:"The Original Original Program"
403:Dollis Hill Research Laboratory
2203:, archived from computer50.org
1952:. Science and Industry Museum.
1903:"Electronic Digital Computers"
1841:Tootill, Geoff (Summer 1998),
1175:Briggs, Helen (21 June 2018).
608:(shown in green) were deployed
288:was the world's first working
1:
2068:(January–March 2011): 22–37,
1250:Technische Universität Berlin
374:was under development at the
247:Artistic representation of a
239:History of computing hardware
1768:curation.cs.manchester.ac.uk
1080:"Computing's Golden Jubilee"
919:Computing Machine Laboratory
359:National Physical Laboratory
149:), was the first electronic
2046:, Oxford University Press,
1790:"Manchester Baby Simulator"
983:The Illustrated London News
587:The Baby's seven operation
46:Science and Industry Museum
44:Replica of the Baby at the
2308:
2019:, Springer, pp. 58–67
1438:Mathematics of Computation
1150:Introduction to the Mark 1
882:paper-tape reader or punch
433:
376:University of Pennsylvania
368:Automatic Computing Engine
236:
2106:Lavington, Simon (1998),
2088:Lavington, Simon (1980),
1565:10.1109/MAHC.2007.4338447
1268:"JVA – Computing History"
558:Frederic Calland Williams
537:David Anderson, historian
72:Frederic Calland Williams
37:
2161:British Computer Society
1218:10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230
717:least significant digits
424:University of Manchester
335:von Neumann architecture
305:Atanasoff–Berry computer
155:University of Manchester
2267:One-of-a-kind computers
2262:Early British computers
2236:at the British Library.
2232:6 November 2020 at the
1989:"Dead Media Beat: Baby"
1770:. A3.3 Control Switches
723:Baby's instruction set
227:instructions per second
151:stored-program computer
1432:; Renwick, W. (1950),
1201:Turing, A. M. (1936),
969:
897:
877:
863:can be computed as −(−
671:
609:
596:Development and design
578:
562:
540:
496:
487:Genesis of the project
352:J. Presper Eckert
338:
251:
153:. It was built at the
101:; 76 years ago
2282:History of Manchester
2272:Vacuum tube computers
2024:Brown, Louis (1999),
1901:(25 September 1948),
956:
895:
669:
629:valves (vacuum tubes)
603:
507:during World War II,
503:for code breaking at
499:After developing the
494:
430:Williams–Kilburn tube
332:
246:
1054:10.1109/MAHC.2005.42
700:most significant bit
649:random-access memory
614:Manchester computers
419:Frederic C. Williams
208:of 32 words (1
182:random-access memory
159:Frederic C. Williams
90:Manchester computers
2218:BBC article on Baby
2074:10.1109/MAHC.2010.2
1969:The Daily Telegraph
1919:1948Natur.162..487W
1312:on 10 December 2007
1256:on 13 February 2009
724:
399:General Post Office
262:in the 1830s, with
34:
2170:on 31 October 2008
1794:www.davidsharp.com
1753:, pp. 366–367
1157:on 26 October 2008
1147:Napper, R. B. E.,
970:
964:in Manchester the
925:Later developments
898:
731:Original notation
722:
672:
610:
497:
478:secondary emission
363:Ministry of Supply
357:Turing joined the
339:
252:
197:The Baby had a 32-
180:, the first truly
141:, also called the
2135:978-0-262-68137-7
2117:978-1-902505-01-5
2099:978-0-7190-0803-0
2053:978-0-19-957814-6
2035:978-0-7503-0659-1
1861:on 9 January 2012
1514:, pp. 13, 24
1494:on 28 August 2017
1290:, pp. 91–100
1126:on 5 January 2009
1098:on 9 January 2012
938:Manchester Mark 1
841:
840:
606:cathode-ray tubes
501:Colossus computer
454:cathode-ray tubes
442:delay-line memory
348:delay-line memory
268:Bernoulli numbers
260:Analytical Engine
187:Manchester Mark 1
135:
134:
130:Manchester Mark 1
99:21 June 1948
16:(Redirected from
2299:
2292:Serial computers
2178:
2177:
2175:
2169:
2163:, archived from
2158:
2138:
2120:
2102:
2084:
2056:
2038:
2020:
2001:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1985:
1979:
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1960:
1954:
1953:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1930:
1928:10.1038/162487a0
1891:
1885:
1882:Lavington (1998)
1879:
1870:
1869:
1868:
1866:
1857:, archived from
1838:
1832:
1831:, pp. 16–17
1829:Lavington (1998)
1826:
1817:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1786:
1780:
1779:
1777:
1775:
1760:
1754:
1748:
1742:
1739:Lavington (1998)
1736:
1725:
1722:Lavington (1998)
1719:
1710:
1704:
1693:
1692:
1691:
1689:
1683:
1676:
1668:
1662:
1656:
1650:
1647:Lavington (1998)
1644:
1638:
1635:
1629:
1624:
1613:
1610:Lavington (1998)
1607:
1601:
1598:Lavington (1998)
1595:
1586:
1580:
1569:
1568:
1548:
1539:
1538:, pp. 8, 12
1536:Lavington (1998)
1533:
1527:
1524:Lavington (1998)
1521:
1515:
1512:Lavington (1998)
1509:
1503:
1502:
1501:
1499:
1490:, archived from
1468:
1462:
1461:
1460:
1458:
1453:
1426:
1420:
1417:Lavington (1998)
1414:
1408:
1405:Lavington (1998)
1402:
1396:
1393:Lavington (1980)
1390:
1369:
1366:Lavington (1998)
1363:
1357:
1351:
1345:
1342:Lavington (1998)
1339:
1333:
1330:Lavington (1998)
1327:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1317:
1297:
1291:
1285:
1276:
1275:
1264:
1258:
1257:
1252:, archived from
1242:
1236:
1235:
1234:
1232:
1207:
1198:
1192:
1191:
1189:
1187:
1172:
1166:
1165:
1164:
1162:
1144:
1135:
1134:
1133:
1131:
1116:
1107:
1106:
1105:
1103:
1094:, archived from
1075:
1066:
1065:
1037:
1020:
1017:
1011:
1008:
940:
734:Modern mnemonic
725:
696:two's complement
584:and Max Newman.
576:
560:
538:
517:John von Neumann
324:John von Neumann
189:
109:
107:
102:
60:
42:
35:
21:
2307:
2306:
2302:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2297:
2296:
2257:1940s computers
2247:
2246:
2234:Wayback Machine
2185:
2173:
2171:
2167:
2156:
2149:
2146:
2144:Further reading
2141:
2136:
2123:
2118:
2105:
2100:
2087:
2059:
2054:
2041:
2036:
2023:
2014:
2010:
2005:
2004:
1994:
1992:
1987:
1986:
1982:
1973:
1971:
1962:
1961:
1957:
1948:
1947:
1943:
1895:Williams, F. C.
1893:
1892:
1888:
1880:
1873:
1864:
1862:
1840:
1839:
1835:
1827:
1820:
1810:
1808:
1788:
1787:
1783:
1773:
1771:
1762:
1761:
1757:
1749:
1745:
1737:
1728:
1720:
1713:
1705:
1696:
1687:
1685:
1684:on 4 March 2009
1681:
1674:
1670:
1669:
1665:
1659:Anderson (2010)
1657:
1653:
1645:
1641:
1636:
1632:
1625:
1616:
1608:
1604:
1596:
1589:
1581:
1572:
1550:
1549:
1542:
1534:
1530:
1522:
1518:
1510:
1506:
1497:
1495:
1470:
1469:
1465:
1456:
1454:
1428:
1427:
1423:
1415:
1411:
1403:
1399:
1391:
1372:
1364:
1360:
1352:
1348:
1340:
1336:
1328:
1324:
1315:
1313:
1299:
1298:
1294:
1288:Copeland (2010)
1286:
1279:
1266:
1265:
1261:
1244:
1243:
1239:
1230:
1228:
1205:
1200:
1199:
1195:
1185:
1183:
1174:
1173:
1169:
1160:
1158:
1146:
1145:
1138:
1129:
1127:
1118:
1117:
1110:
1101:
1099:
1077:
1076:
1069:
1039:
1038:
1034:
1029:
1024:
1023:
1018:
1014:
1009:
1002:
997:
992:
951:
943:Ferranti Mark 1
936:
927:
890:
876:
799:
709:
659:along with its
598:
589:instruction set
577:
572:
561:
556:
539:
536:
489:
474:electric charge
438:
432:
386:was working on
320:Turing complete
256:Charles Babbage
241:
235:
192:Ferranti Mark 1
185:
139:Manchester Baby
105:
103:
100:
78:
74:
58:
53:
33:Manchester Baby
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2305:
2303:
2295:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2259:
2249:
2248:
2243:
2242:
2237:
2220:
2215:
2209:
2204:
2198:
2192:
2184:
2183:External links
2181:
2180:
2179:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2139:
2134:
2121:
2116:
2103:
2098:
2085:
2057:
2052:
2039:
2034:
2021:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2003:
2002:
1991:. 20 June 2008
1980:
1955:
1941:
1886:
1871:
1833:
1818:
1781:
1755:
1743:
1726:
1711:
1694:
1663:
1651:
1649:, pp. 6–7
1639:
1630:
1614:
1602:
1587:
1570:
1540:
1528:
1516:
1504:
1463:
1421:
1409:
1407:, pp. 8–9
1397:
1370:
1358:
1346:
1334:
1322:
1292:
1277:
1259:
1237:
1193:
1167:
1136:
1108:
1067:
1031:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1021:
1012:
999:
998:
996:
993:
991:
988:
950:
947:
926:
923:
889:
888:First programs
886:
874:
839:
838:
835:
832:
829:
825:
824:
821:
818:
815:
811:
810:
807:
804:
801:
795:
794:
791:
788:
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777:
774:
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766:
763:
760:
757:
753:
752:
749:
746:
743:
739:
738:
735:
732:
729:
713:operation code
708:
705:
684:single operand
597:
594:
570:
554:
534:
505:Bletchley Park
488:
485:
434:Main article:
431:
428:
411:Maurice Wilkes
333:Design of the
276:Turing machine
249:Turing machine
237:Main article:
234:
231:
222:proper divisor
133:
132:
127:
123:
122:
115:
111:
110:
97:
93:
92:
87:
86:Product family
83:
82:
69:
65:
64:
61:
55:
54:
43:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2304:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2254:
2252:
2245:
2241:
2238:
2235:
2231:
2228:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2202:
2199:
2196:
2193:
2190:
2187:
2186:
2182:
2166:
2162:
2155:
2154:
2148:
2147:
2143:
2137:
2131:
2127:
2122:
2119:
2113:
2109:
2104:
2101:
2095:
2091:
2086:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2058:
2055:
2049:
2045:
2040:
2037:
2031:
2028:, CRC Press,
2027:
2022:
2018:
2013:
2012:
2007:
1990:
1984:
1981:
1970:
1966:
1959:
1956:
1951:
1945:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1913:(4117): 487,
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1890:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1876:
1872:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1837:
1834:
1830:
1825:
1823:
1819:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1785:
1782:
1769:
1765:
1759:
1756:
1752:
1751:Napper (2000)
1747:
1744:
1740:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1718:
1716:
1712:
1709:, p. 367
1708:
1707:Napper (2000)
1703:
1701:
1699:
1695:
1680:
1673:
1667:
1664:
1660:
1655:
1652:
1648:
1643:
1640:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1627:Copeland 2011
1623:
1621:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1606:
1603:
1599:
1594:
1592:
1588:
1585:, p. 366
1584:
1583:Napper (2000)
1579:
1577:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1547:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1532:
1529:
1525:
1520:
1517:
1513:
1508:
1505:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1467:
1464:
1452:
1447:
1444:(30): 61–65,
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1430:Wilkes, M. V.
1425:
1422:
1418:
1413:
1410:
1406:
1401:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1383:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1362:
1359:
1356:, p. 429
1355:
1350:
1347:
1343:
1338:
1335:
1331:
1326:
1323:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1300:Zuse, Horst,
1296:
1293:
1289:
1284:
1282:
1278:
1273:
1269:
1263:
1260:
1255:
1251:
1248:(in German),
1247:
1241:
1238:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1204:
1197:
1194:
1182:
1178:
1171:
1168:
1156:
1152:
1151:
1143:
1141:
1137:
1125:
1121:
1115:
1113:
1109:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1074:
1072:
1068:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1036:
1033:
1026:
1016:
1013:
1007:
1005:
1001:
994:
989:
987:
986:in June 1949.
985:
984:
977:
975:
967:
963:
959:
955:
948:
946:
944:
939:
934:
933:
924:
922:
920:
916:
915:long division
912:
907:
904:
903:proper factor
894:
887:
885:
883:
872:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
836:
833:
830:
827:
826:
822:
819:
816:
813:
812:
808:
805:
802:
797:
796:
792:
789:
786:
783:
782:
778:
775:
772:
769:
768:
764:
761:
758:
755:
754:
750:
747:
744:
741:
740:
736:
733:
730:
727:
726:
720:
718:
714:
706:
704:
701:
697:
692:
688:
685:
681:
677:
668:
664:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
635:and 250
634:
630:
626:
621:
619:
615:
607:
602:
595:
593:
592:implemented.
590:
585:
582:
581:Jack Copeland
575:
569:
565:
559:
553:
548:
545:
533:
528:
526:
525:Royal Society
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
493:
486:
484:
481:
479:
475:
471:
467:
464:For use in a
462:
459:
458:Williams tube
455:
451:
447:
443:
437:
436:Williams tube
429:
427:
425:
420:
414:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
395:Tommy Flowers
391:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
364:
360:
355:
353:
349:
345:
336:
331:
327:
325:
321:
317:
312:
310:
306:
302:
298:
297:
291:
287:
283:
279:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
250:
245:
240:
232:
230:
228:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
204:length and a
203:
200:
195:
193:
188:
183:
179:
178:Williams tube
175:
170:
168:
167:Geoff Tootill
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
131:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
98:
94:
91:
88:
84:
81:
80:Geoff Tootill
77:
73:
70:
66:
62:
59:Also known as
56:
51:
47:
41:
36:
30:
19:
2244:
2172:, retrieved
2165:the original
2152:
2125:
2107:
2089:
2065:
2061:
2043:
2025:
2016:
2008:Bibliography
1993:. Retrieved
1983:
1972:, retrieved
1968:
1958:
1944:
1910:
1906:
1889:
1884:, p. 17
1863:, retrieved
1859:the original
1847:Resurrection
1846:
1836:
1809:. Retrieved
1805:
1801:
1797:
1796:. Pictures,
1793:
1784:
1772:. Retrieved
1767:
1758:
1746:
1741:, p. 15
1724:, p. 14
1686:, retrieved
1679:the original
1666:
1661:, p. 61
1654:
1642:
1633:
1612:, p. 16
1605:
1600:, p. 13
1559:(3): 76–81.
1556:
1552:
1531:
1526:, p. 12
1519:
1507:
1496:, retrieved
1492:the original
1479:
1476:Resurrection
1475:
1466:
1455:, retrieved
1441:
1437:
1424:
1412:
1400:
1361:
1354:Brown (1999)
1349:
1337:
1325:
1314:, retrieved
1310:the original
1305:
1295:
1271:
1262:
1254:the original
1240:
1231:18 September
1229:, retrieved
1209:
1196:
1184:. Retrieved
1180:
1170:
1159:, retrieved
1155:the original
1149:
1128:, retrieved
1124:the original
1100:, retrieved
1096:the original
1084:Resurrection
1083:
1048:(3): 44–60.
1045:
1041:
1035:
1015:
981:
978:
971:
965:
962:microbrewery
960:named their
930:
928:
908:
899:
878:
868:
864:
860:
856:
842:
728:Binary code
710:
693:
689:
673:
622:
611:
586:
579:
567:
563:
550:
541:
530:
498:
482:
463:
439:
415:
392:
356:
340:
313:
295:
290:programmable
280:
264:Ada Lovelace
253:
196:
171:
146:
142:
138:
136:
121:(1,024 bits)
96:Release date
52:, Manchester
29:
2174:16 November
1950:"Meet Baby"
1899:Kilburn, T.
1688:15 November
1419:, p. 5
1395:, chapter 5
1368:, p. 9
1344:, p. 1
1332:, p. 7
1316:16 November
1130:16 November
845:subtraction
707:Programming
657:instruction
653:accumulator
574:Tom Kilburn
544:Tom Kilburn
513:Alan Turing
282:Konrad Zuse
272:Alan Turing
214:subtraction
163:Tom Kilburn
76:Tom Kilburn
50:Castlefield
2251:Categories
1306:EPE Online
1161:4 November
990:References
896:Output CRT
759:Add S, Cl
737:Operation
631:—300
509:Max Newman
382:, and the
233:Background
106:1948-06-21
1855:0958-7403
1488:0958-7403
1092:0958-7403
1027:Citations
680:operation
521:Jack Good
450:Bell Labs
401:'s (GPO)
126:Successor
68:Developer
2230:Archived
2212:BabyRace
1865:19 April
1498:19 April
1102:19 April
849:negation
637:pentodes
625:long ton
571:—
555:—
535:—
309:Colossus
218:negation
176:for the
2082:9522437
1995:21 June
1974:20 June
1937:4110351
1915:Bibcode
1457:21 June
1186:21 June
1062:1852170
958:BrewDog
676:operand
661:address
446:mercury
397:at the
210:kilobit
174:testbed
119:kilobit
104: (
2132:
2114:
2096:
2080:
2050:
2032:
1935:
1907:Nature
1853:
1811:17 May
1774:17 May
1486:
1224:
1090:
1060:
949:Legacy
932:Nature
911:reader
806:SUB S
803:SUB S
798:001 or
790:STO S
776:LDN S
773:-S, C
762:JRP S
748:JMP S
745:S, Cl
633:diodes
466:binary
337:(1947)
301:Berlin
206:memory
165:, and
114:Memory
2168:(PDF)
2157:(PDF)
2078:S2CID
1933:S2CID
1682:(PDF)
1675:(PDF)
1226:73712
1222:S2CID
1206:(PDF)
1058:S2CID
995:Notes
853:adder
837:Stop
831:Stop
817:Test
787:c, S
645:words
388:EDSAC
372:EDVAC
344:radar
316:ENIAC
2176:2008
2130:ISBN
2112:ISBN
2094:ISBN
2048:ISBN
2030:ISBN
1997:2017
1976:2008
1867:2008
1851:ISSN
1813:2018
1776:2018
1690:2008
1500:2008
1484:ISSN
1459:2015
1318:2008
1233:2010
1188:2018
1163:2008
1132:2008
1104:2008
1088:ISSN
847:and
834:STP
828:111
820:CMP
814:011
800:101
784:110
770:010
756:100
742:000
641:EF50
552:us."
470:bits
314:The
294:the
216:and
202:word
147:SSEM
137:The
2070:doi
1923:doi
1911:162
1561:doi
1446:doi
1214:doi
1181:BBC
1050:doi
647:of
618:GPO
378:'s
284:'s
258:'s
229:).
199:bit
157:by
48:in
2253::
2159:,
2076:,
2066:33
2064:,
1967:,
1931:,
1921:,
1909:,
1905:,
1897:;
1874:^
1845:,
1821:^
1804:,
1800:,
1792:.
1766:.
1729:^
1714:^
1697:^
1617:^
1590:^
1573:^
1557:29
1555:.
1543:^
1478:,
1474:,
1440:,
1436:,
1373:^
1304:,
1280:^
1270:.
1220:,
1208:,
1179:.
1139:^
1111:^
1082:,
1070:^
1056:.
1046:27
1044:.
1003:^
884:.
527:.
390:.
286:Z3
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117:1
2072::
1999:.
1925::
1917::
1815:.
1778:.
1567:.
1563::
1480:1
1448::
1442:4
1216::
1190:.
1064:.
1052::
869:y
867:−
865:x
861:y
859:+
857:x
145:(
108:)
20:)
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