Mandinka people - Knowledge (XXG)

1074: 1777: 41: 1396: 976: 2381: 2087: 940: 169: 205: 6619: 133: 639: 435:. Although widespread, the Mandinka constitute the largest ethnic group only in the countries of Mali, Guinea and The Gambia. Most Mandinka live in family-related compounds in traditional rural villages. Their traditional society has featured socially stratified castes. Mandinka communities have been fairly autonomous and self-ruled, being led by a chief and group of elders. Mandinka has been an 5523: 187: 115: 79: 874:

slave traders and lucrative income from slave ships to the slave sellers, fed the practice of groups raiding for captives, conducting manhunts, and taking slaves. The victimised ethnic group felt justified in retaliating. Slavery was already an accepted practice before the 15th century, when most enslaved people were taken on routes to North Africa and western Asia by Arab traders.

151: 97: 662:, the Arabic historian, described his visit and stated that Musa built mosques in his kingdom, established Islamic prayers and took back Maliki school of Sunni jurists with him. According to Richard Turner – a professor of African American Religious History, Musa was highly influential in attracting North African and Middle Eastern Muslims to West Africa. 1328: 866:

started in the 15th century, states Green, but the earliest evidence of a trade involving Mandinka slaves is from and after 1497 CE. In parallel with the start of the trans-Atlantic slave trade, the institution of slavery and slave-trading of West Africans into the Mediterranean region and inside Africa continued as a historic normal practice.

1491:. In the course of his research, he traveled to West Africa and heard about his people from a griot. The book was on the New York Times bestseller for many weeks and was also adapted as a popular TV mini-series. Many professional historians and at least one genealogist commented that this familial link was highly improbable (see D. Wright's 681:, many Mandinka converted to Islam. In contemporary West Africa, the Mandinka are predominantly Muslim, with a few regions where significant portions of the population are not Muslim, such as Guinea Bissau, where 35 percent of the Mandinka practice Islam, more than 20 percent are Christian, and 15 percent follow traditional beliefs. 3606: 1531:, Mr. T states: "My folks came from Africa. They were from the Mandinka tribe. They wore their hair like this. These gold chains I wear symbolize the fact that my ancestors were brought over here as slaves." In a 2006 interview, he reiterated that he modeled his hair style after photographs of Mandinka men he saw in 1244:

During this time, they learn about their adult social responsibilities and rules of behaviour. Preparation is made in the village or compound for the return of the children. A celebration marks the return of these new adults to their families. As a result of these traditional teachings, in marriage a

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Slavery grew significantly between the 16th and 19th centuries. The Portuguese considered slave sources in Guinea and Senegambia parts of Mandinka territory as belonging to them; their 16th to 18th-century slave trade-related documents refer to "our Guinea" and complain about slave traders from other

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This slave trade volume excludes the slave trade by Swahili-Arabs in East Africa and North African ethnic groups to the Middle East and elsewhere. The exports and imports do not match, because of the large number of deaths and violent retaliation by captured people on the ships involved in the slave

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traders at the ports controlled by Mandinka people. The insecure ethnic groups, states Rodney, stopped working productively and tried to withdraw for security, which made their social and economic conditions more desperate. Though less powerful, such groups also joined the retaliatory cycle of slave

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started converting to Islam as early as the 17th century, and most of Mandinka leatherworkers there converted to Islam before the 19th century. Mandinka musicians, however, were last, converting to Islam mostly in the first half of the 20th century. As in other locales, these Muslims have continued

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coasts were Mandinka people. Hawthorne suggests three causes of Mandinka people being taken captive as slaves during this era: small-scale jihads by Muslims against non-Muslim Mandinka, non-religious reasons such as the economic greed of Islamic elites who wanted imports of goods and tools from the

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between West Africa and the Middle East after the 13th century. With the arrival of Portuguese explorers in Africa as they looked for a sea route to India, the European purchase of slaves had begun. The shipment of slaves by the Portuguese, primarily from the Jolof people, along with some Mandinka,

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has been practiced among the Mandinka since pre-Islamic days. A Mandinka man is legally allowed to have up to four wives, as long as he is able to care for each of them equally. Mandinka believe the crowning glory of any woman is the ability to produce children, especially sons. The first wife has

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Scholars have offered several theories on the source of the transatlantic slave trade of Mandinka people. According to Boubacar Barry, a professor of History and African Studies, chronic violence between ethnic groups such as the Mandinka people and their neighbours, combined with weapons sold by

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are Kontron and Sanin, the founding "hunter brotherhood". Manden was famous for the large number of animals and game that it sheltered, as well as its dense vegetation, so was a very popular hunting ground. The Camara (or Kamara) are believed to be the oldest family to have lived in Manden, after

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Marriages are traditionally arranged by family members rather than by either the bride or groom. This practice is particularly prevalent in the rural areas. The suitor's family formally sends Kola nuts, a bitter nut from a tree, to the male elders of the bride-to-be. If they accept the nuts, the

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The Mandinka people of Mali converted early, but those who migrated to the west did not convert and retained their traditional religious rites. One of the legends among the Mandingo of western Africa is that the general Tiramakhan Traore led the migration, because people in Mali had converted to

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The caravan trade to North Africa and Middle East brought Islamic people into Mandinka people's original and expanded home region. The Muslim traders sought presence in the host Mandinka community, and this likely initiated proselytizing efforts to convert the Mandinka from their traditional

4158:, Quote: "The identification of Mande influence in the South , the Caribbean and Brazil, must also be conditioned with a huge reality—ethnic diversity. Slaves from hundreds of ethnic groups from all over Africa came into the South and the rest of the Americas along with the Mandinka/Mande." 903:

Walter Hawthorne (a professor of African History) states that the Barry and Rodney explanation was not universally true for all of Senegambia and Guinea, where high concentrations of Mandinka people have traditionally lived. Hawthorne says that numerous Mandinka were not exported to the

1427:". The kora with its 21 strings is made from half a calabash, covered with cow's hide fastened on by decorative tacks. The kora has sound holes in the side which are used to store coins offered to the praise singers, in appreciation of their performance. The praise singers are called 670:'s granddaughter. The Traore's marriage with a Muhammad's granddaughter, states Toby Green, is fanciful, but these conflicting oral histories suggest that Islam had arrived well before the 13th century and had a complex interaction with the Mandinka people. 1053:, who knows the protective formulas. In most cases, the people do not make important decisions without first consulting a marabout. Marabouts, who have Islamic training, write Qur'anic verses on slips of paper and sew them into leather pouches ( 1347:

Mandinka culture is rich in tradition, music, and spiritual ritual. The Mandinka continue a long oral history tradition through stories, songs, and proverbs. In rural areas, the influence of western education is minimal; the literacy rate in

635:, for example, the Almoravids had divided its capital into two parts by 1077, one part was Muslim and the other non-Muslim. The Muslim influence from North Africa had arrived in the Mandinka region before this, via Islamic trading diasporas. 1380:

made from a halved, dried, hollowed-out gourd covered with cow or goat skin. The strings are made of fishing line (these were traditionally made from a cow's tendons). It is played to accompany a griot's singing or simply on its own.

881:(the commander of Mandinka people in Kaabu) energetically hunted for slaves on a large scale. Martin Klein (a professor of African Studies) states that Kaabu was one of the early suppliers of African slaves to European merchants. 1372:. This passing down of oral history through music has made the practice of music one of the most distinctive traits of the Mandinka. They have long been known for their drumming and also for their unique musical instrument, the 689:

Slave raiding, capture and trading in the Mandinka regions may have existed in significant numbers before the European colonial era, as is evidenced in the memoirs of the 14th century Moroccan traveller and Islamic historian

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authority over any subsequent wives. The husband has complete control over his wives and is responsible for feeding and clothing them. He also helps the wives' parents when necessary. Wives are expected to live together in

1014:), tending the plants by hand. This is extremely labour-intensive and physically demanding work. Only about 50% of the rice consumption needs are met by local planting; the rest is imported from Asia and the United States. 1364:

schools for children where this is taught are quite common. Mandinka children are given their name on the eighth day after their birth. The children are almost always named after a very important person in their family.

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Islam is the predominant religion in Guinea-Bissau practiced by 35.1 percent of the population, compared to 22.1 percent of the population who adhere to the faith of Christianity and 14.9 percent who follow traditional

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European nations superseding them in the slave trade. Their slave exports from this region nearly doubled in the second half of the 18th century compared to the first, and most of these slaves disembarked in Brazil.

4590:, see Map 9; The transatlantic slave trade volume over the 350+ years involved an estimated 12.5 million Africans, almost every country that bordered the Atlantic ocean, as well as Mozambique and the Swahili coast. 1241:), in separate groups according to their sex. In years past, the children spent up to a year in the bush, but that has been reduced now to coincide with their physical healing time, between three and four weeks. 1021:

groups. While farming is the predominant profession among the Mandinka, men also work as tailors, butchers, taxi drivers, woodworkers, metalworkers, soldiers, nurses, and extension workers for aid agencies.

4790:; Quote: "Kaabu, for example, began as a Malian colony that provided sea salt and other coastal products to the Mandinka heartland, but it moved early into supplying slaves to European merchants". (p. 39) 6890: 1017:

The oldest male is the head of the family, and marriages are commonly arranged. Small mud houses with conical thatch or tin roofs make up their villages, which are organised on the basis of

6782: 6058: 4963: 3607:"Putting the History Back into Ethnicity: Enslavement, Religion, and Cultural Brokerage in the Construction of Mandinka/Jola and Ewe/Agotime Identities in West Africa, c. 1650–1930" 6488: 1272:

Among the Mandinka women of some other countries of West Africa, the FGM prevalence rates are lower, but still range between 40% and 90%. This cultural practice, locally called

1299:. In 2010, after community efforts of UNICEF and the local government bodies, several Mandinka women's organization pledged to abandon the female genital mutilation practices. 5013:" are found among the Soninke, the various Manding-speaking populations, the Wolof, Tukulor, Senufo, Minianka, Dogon, Songhay and most Fulani, Moorish and Tuareg populations". 3042:, Sierra Leonean journalist and former State House Press Secretary to president Koroma. Former Deputy Minister of Information and current Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs. 7080: 6654: 2910:, journalist and spokesman for former Sierra Leone's president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah. He is also the former Chairman of Sierra Leone National Telecommunications Commission 1487:, tracing his family connections through free and enslaved generations to an 18th-century ancestor taken captive and brought to North America, a Mandinka man known as 1179:. The Mandinka society, states Arnold Hughes, a professor of West African Studies and African Politics, has been "divided into three endogamous castes – the freeborn ( 1191:). The freeborn castes are primarily farmers. The enslaved strata included labor providers to the farmers, as well as leather workers, pottery makers, metal smiths, 608:

Another group of Mandinka people, under Faran Kamara – the son of the king of Tabou – expanded southeast of Mali, while a third group expanded with Fakoli Kourouma.

439:, where mythologies, history and knowledge are verbally transmitted from one generation to the next. Their music and literary traditions are preserved by a caste of 7319: 6221: 1233:, which marks the beginning of adulthood for their children. At an age between four and fourteen, the youngsters have their genitalia ritually cut (see articles on 6883: 3432: 2649: 5097:, Quote: "The Jakhanke, who now primarily speak Mandinka, have formed a specialized caste of Muslim clerics and educators since approximately the 13th century". 1205:

The Mandinka castes are hereditary, and marriages outside the caste was forbidden. Their caste system is similar to those of other ethnic groups of the African

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As the demand grew, states Barry, Futa Jallon, led by an Islamic military theocracy, became one of the centers of this slavery-perpetuating violence. Farim of

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are generally considered archaic and are mostly found in 19th-century and early-20th-century literature. They have been sometimes erroneously referred to as

5228: 3111:, documented captured Mandinka warrior during the last years of the Atlantic slave trade. He is Alex Haley's ancestor and the key character in Haley's book 6051: 5551: 5240: 1453: 615:

and plateau areas of West Africa. Their presence and products attracted Mandika merchants and brought trading caravans from north Africa and the eastern

5583: 6876: 6481: 2691: 2598: 2422: 1292: 1261:, the female genital mutilation prevalence rates among the Mandinka of The Gambia is the highest at over 96%, followed by FGM among the women of the 5531: 5323: 4805:

Rodney, Walter (1966). "African Slavery and other Forms of Social Oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Context of the Atlantic Slave-Trade".

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states that Mandinka and other ethnic groups already held slaves who had inherited slavery by birth, and who could be sold. The Islamic armies from

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some of their pre-Islamic religious practices as well, such as their annual rain ceremony and "sacrifice of the black bull" to their past deities.

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until the period between the mid-18th through to the 19th century. During these years, slave trade records show that nearly 33% of the slaves from

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KABBIR CHAM; CAROL MACCORMACK; ABDOULAI TOURAY; SUSAN BALDEH (1987). "Social organization and political factionalism: PHC in The Gambia".

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in the Senegambia region during the early 19th century, for example, where slaves were a part of the social strata in all these kingdoms.

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had long established the practice of slave raids and trade. Fula jihad from Futa Jallon plateau perpetuated and expanded this practice.

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Between the 16th and 19th centuries, many Muslim and non-Muslim Mandinka people, along with numerous other African ethnic groups, were

4576: 2928:, current Sierra Leone's High Commissioner to the Gambia and former High Commissioner to Nigeria, former Ambassador to Egypt and Iran. 2327: 861:

According to Toby Green, selling slaves along with gold was already a significant part of the trans-Saharan caravan trade across the

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Donald Wright (1978). "Koli Tengela in Sonko Traditions of Origin: an Example of the Process of Change in Mandinka Oral Tradition".

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Islam and he did not want to. Another legend gives a contrasting account, and states that Traore himself had converted and married

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We originated from Tumbuktu in the land of the Mandinka: the Arabs were our neighbours there... All the Mandinka came from Mali to

3000:, Sierra Leonean model; Miss University Sierra Leone 2006 winner and representative of Sierra Leone at the Miss World 2006 contest 619:, states Toby Green – a professor of African History and Culture. It also brought conflicts with other ethnic groups, such as the 537:. A very large number of families that make up the Mandinka community were born in Manden. Manding is the province from which the 7269: 6640: 5125:, Quote: "The general organization of the society into castes is shared with Sahelian peoples such as the Mandinka, Wolof, (...)" 2805: 2052: 1519:, of American television fame, once claimed that his distinctive hairstyle was modelled after a Mandinka warrior that he saw in 5991: 4193:

Fall, Mamadou (2021). "Les Terroirs Historiques et la Poussée Soninké". In Fall, Mamadou; Fall, Rokhaya; Mane, Mamadou (eds.).

3535: 3164: 1503:, a 19th-century abolitionist, military leader, politician and physician in the United States, was of partial Mandinka descent. 359: 5340: 2271: 7289: 6207: 5536: 1521: 5576: 4583: 6791: 6067: 4900:

Quinn, Charlotte A. (December 1973). "Mandingo Kingdoms of the Senegambia: Traditionalism, Islam and European Expansion".

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The conversion of the Mandinka to Islam took place over many centuries. According to Robert Wyndham Nicholls, Mandinka in

1042: 5330:, allhiphop.com, Published 9 November 2006. Mr. T gives a 1977 date, for an article with photos on the Mandinka in Mali. 7324: 6899: 3421: 1319:, at least superficially. They share work responsibilities of the compound, such as cooking, laundry, and other tasks. 1175:

The Mandinka people have traditionally been a socially stratified society, as are many West African ethnic groups with

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David Eltis and David Richardson (2015), Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 2nd Edition, Yale University Press,

2934:, Sierra Leonean businessman and former SLPP chairman for the Western Area. He is the younger brother of Kemoh Fadika 2750: 1796: 2922:, former minister of Development and Economic Planning from 2002 to 2007, former ECOWAS Commissioner of Income Tax 611:

With the migration, many gold artisans and metal working Mandinka smiths settled along the coast and in the hilly

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The Mandinka Muslim clerics and scribes have traditionally been considered a separate occupational caste called

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and self-ruled, being led by a council of upper-class elders and a chief who functions as a first among equals.

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in search of better agricultural lands and more opportunities for conquest. Nowadays, the Mandinka inhabit the

2417: 5511: 3631: 3457: 3094:, abolitionist, journalist, physician and writer (had two Mandinka grandparents brought to America as slaves) 472:

culture. The Mandinka people significantly influenced the African heritage of descended peoples now found in

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Pauls, Elizabeth Prine (February 2007). "Malinke people". In: Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, (online)

3292: 3117: 2638: 1625: 1562: 987: 694:. Slaves were part of the socially stratified Mandinka people, and several Mandinka language words, such as 385: 5261:"Architecture vernaculaire et paysage culturel mandingue du Gberedou/Hamana - UNESCO World Heritage Centre" 1081:

Most Mandinka live in family-related compounds in traditional rural villages. Mandinka villages are fairly

6663: 5765: 2428: 2380: 2283: 1658: 1458: 1445: 1238: 678: 477: 403:, who founded an empire that would go on to span a large part of West Africa. They migrated west from the 40: 5320: 3316: 6230: 5918: 408: 245: 1506: 1010:, men plant peanuts as their main cash crop. Men also grow millet. The women grow rice (traditionally, 4208:

Lange, Dierk (1994), "From Mande to Songhay: Towards a political and ethnic history of medieval Gao",

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The women among the Mandinka people, like other ethnic groups near them, have traditionally practiced

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The Jumbies' Playing Ground: Old World Influences on Afro-Creole Masquerades in the Eastern Caribbean

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The Jumbies' Playing Ground: Old World Influences on Afro-Creole Masquerades in the Eastern Caribbean

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A Mandinka religious and cultural site under consideration for World Heritage status is located in

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having left Wagadou, due to drought. They founded the first village of Manding, Kiri, then Kirina,

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among these Mandinka is quite low. But, more than half the adult population can read the local

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in 1324 CE with large amounts of gold attracted Middle Eastern Muslims and Europeans to Mali.

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Matt Schaffer (editor). "Djinns, Stars and Warriors: Mandinka Legends from Pakao, Senegal" (

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Robert W. Nicholls. "The Mocko Jumbie of the U.S. Virgin Islands; History and Antecedents".

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Pettersson, Anders; Lindberg-Wada, Gunilla; Petersson, Margareta; Helgesson, Stefan (2006).

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Mande Music: Traditional and Modern Music of the Maninka and Mandinka of Western Africa

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Accelerating the Abandonment of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) in The Gambia

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of the Mandinka people. This migration began in the later part of the 13th century.

505:, which would become the political and cultural center of the Mandinka, but also in 7232: 7210: 7205: 7185: 7180: 7175: 7125: 7032: 7017: 7012: 6992: 6960: 6935: 6868: 6852: 6749: 6734: 6724: 6684: 6605: 6593: 6588: 6568: 6563: 6303: 6188: 6178: 6163: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6103: 6078: 5997: 5962: 5893: 5870: 5794: 5727: 5722: 5699: 5674: 5618: 5337: 3219: 2942: 2925: 2907: 2845: 2811: 2782: 2745: 2702: 2616: 2479: 2388: 2348: 2337: 2316: 2241:, Côte d'Ivoire president since 2010; Prime Minister of Côte d'Ivoire, 1990 - 1993 2101: 1860: 1739: 1723: 1681: 1664: 1646: 1641: 1631: 1621: 1584: 1368:

The Mandinka have a rich oral history that is passed down through sung versions by

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region. These castes are also common across Mandinka communities such as those in

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From Africa to Brazil: Culture, Identity, and an Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1830

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From Africa to Brazil: Culture, Identity, and an Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1830

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From Africa to Brazil: Culture, Identity and an Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1830

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The Gambia and its people: Ethnic identities and cultural integration in Africa

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Eberhard, David M; Simons, Gary F; Fennig, Charles D, eds. (2021). "Mandinka".

575:. This expansion was a part of creating a region of conquest, according to the 7200: 7007: 6583: 6508: 6466: 6325: 6283: 6088: 5942: 5827: 5812: 5669: 5522: 5357: 4992: 4818: 4221: 3622: 3097: 2866: 2587: 2581:, (c. 1280 – c. 1337), the ninth, especially renowned, Mansa (emperor) of the 2578: 2369: 2303: 2057: 1960: 1913: 1697: 1608: 1478: 1336: 1210: 1082: 1038: 1007: 909: 788: 647: 534: 530: 412: 343: 138: 5148: 5107:

John Shoup (2007). "The Griot Tradition in Ḥassāniyya Music: The "Īggāwen"".

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Les nouveaux urbains dans l'espace Sahara-Sahel: un cosmopolitisme par le bas

3886: 3759: 3640: 3564:"Mandinka Tribe- 10 Interesting Details About This West African ethnic Group" 642:

A map of West Africa showing Mandinka peoples, languages and influence, 1906.

6023: 3536:"Sierra Leone 2015 Population and Housing Census National Analytical Report" 3154: 3136: 2557: 2546: 1884: 567:, these kingdoms were consolidated, and the Mandinka expanded west from the 481: 416: 7058: 6965: 5485: 3789: 3706:(1st ed.). Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: New Africa Press. pp. 43–44. 1361: 906:

various European colonies in North America, South America and the Caribbean

468:. They intermixed with slaves and workers of other ethnicities, creating a 6632: 5464: 4138: 3751: 3670: 3006:, journalist and the current president of the Sierra Leone Reporters Union 6138: 3085: 1404: 1311: 1054: 1050: 980: 896: 667: 465: 376:

in much of West Africa. Virtually all of Mandinka people are adherent to

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Architecture, Islam, and Identity in West Africa: Lessons from Larabanga

3767: 3735: 1257:(FGM), traditionally referred to as "female circumcision." According to 6970: 6143: 5938: 5910: 5804: 5028:

The Royal Kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhay: Life in Medieval Africa

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