Mass comparison - Knowledge

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mainstream linguists of spreading "the strange and widely disseminated notion that I seek to replace the comparative method with a new and strange invention of my own" (2002:2). Earlier in his career, before he fully developed mass comparison, he even stated that his methodology did not "conflict in any fashion with the traditional comparative method" (1957:44). However, Greenberg sees the comparative method as playing no role in determining relationships, significantly reducing its importance compared to traditional methods of linguistic comparison. In effect, his approach of mass comparison sidelined the comparative method with a "new and strange invention of his own".

1001:. Detractors of Altaic point out that the data collected to show by comparativism the existence of the family is scarce, wrong and non sufficient. Keep in mind that regular phonological correspondences need thousands of lexicon lists to be prepared and compared before being established, and these lists are lacking for many of the proposed families identified through mass comparison. Furthermore, other specific problems affect "comparative" lists of both proposals, like the late attestation for Altaic languages, or the comparison of not certain proto-forms. 670:. admits that "in particular and infrequent instances the question of borrowing may be doubtful" when using mass comparison, but claims that basic vocabulary is unlikely to be borrowed compared to cultural vocabulary, stating that "where a mass of resemblances is due to borrowing, they will tend to appear in cultural vocabulary and to cluster in certain semantic areas which reflect the cultural nature of the contact." Mainstream linguists accept this premise, but claim that it does not suffice for distinguishing borrowings from 88: 2428: 2420: 25: 196:, mass comparison does not require any regular or systematic correspondences between the languages compared; all that is required is an impressionistic feeling of similarity. Greenberg does not establish a clear standard for determining relatedness; he does not set a standard for what he considers a "resemblance" or how many resemblances are needed to prove relationship. 528:. Proponents of mass comparison, such as Greenberg, claim that the comparative method is unnecessary to identify genetic relationships; furthermore, they claim that it can only be used once relationships are identified using mass comparison, making mass comparison the "first step" in determining relationships (1957:44). This contrasts with mainstream 911:, for the first time, present systematic reconstructions of Indo-European proto-forms (Lehmann 1993:26). Schleicher, however, viewed these reconstructions as extremely tentative (1874:8). He never claimed that they proved the existence of the Indo-European family, which he accepted as a given from previous research—primarily that of 637:

responded to this criticism by claiming that "the method of multilateral comparison is so powerful that it will give reliable results even with the poorest data. Incorrect material should merely have a randomizing effect”. This has hardly reassured critics of the method, who are far from convincing of the method's "power".

532:, which relies on the comparative method to aid in identifying genetic relationships; specifically, it involves comparing data from two or more languages. If sets of recurrent sound correspondences are found, the languages are most likely related; if further investigation confirms the potential relationship, 703:

comparisons. Greenberg himself acknowledges the peripheral role they play in his data by saying that they are "not really necessary". Furthermore, the correlations he lists are neither exclusive to or universally found within the languages which he compares. Greenberg is correct in pointing out that

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that languages have undergone; once these are taken into account, many of the resemblances he points out vanish. Greenberg's data also contains errors of a more systematic sort: for instance, he groups unrelated languages together based on outdated classifications or because they have similar names.

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However, Greenberg did not entirely disavow the comparative method; he stated that "once we have a well-established stock I go about comparing and reconstructing just like anyone else, as can be seen in my various contributions to historical linguistics" (1990, quoted in Ruhlen 1994:285) and accused

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The proof was produced by juxtaposing words and forms of similar meanings. When one considers that in these languages the formation of the inflectional forms of the verb, noun and pronoun agrees in essentials and likewise that an extraordinary number of inflected words agree in their lexical parts,

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Greenberg also allows for a wide semantic latitude when comparing items; while widely accepted linguistic comparisons do allow for a degree of semantic latitude, what he allows for is incommensurably greater; for instance, one of his comparisons involves words for "night", "excrement", and "grass".

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shape are unknown to make words cohere better with his data. Conversely, Greenberg frequently employs affixed forms in his data, failing to recognise actual morphemic boundaries; when affixes are removed, the words often no longer bear any resemblance to his "Amerind" reconstructions. Greenberg has

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Mass comparison is done by setting up a table of basic vocabulary items and their forms in the languages to be compared for resemblances. The table can also include common morphemes. The following table was used by to illustrate the technique. It shows the forms of six items of basic vocabulary in

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The Neogrammarians did not, however, regard regular sound correspondences or comparative reconstructions as relevant to the proof of genetic relationship between languages. In fact, they made almost no statements on how languages are to be classified (Greenberg 2005:158). The only Neogrammarian to

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in the 19th century, a linguist who claims that two languages are related, whether or not there exists historical evidence, is expected to back up that claim by presenting general rules that describe the differences between their lexicons, morphologies, and grammars. The procedure is described in

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as Indo-European in 1917 (Greenberg 2005:160-161). This method consists in essentially two things: resemblances in basic vocabulary and resemblances in inflectional morphemes. If mass comparison differs from it in any obvious way, it would seem to be in the theoretization of an approach that had

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are demonstrably unrelated, despite their similar phonological shape. This means that many of the resemblances found through mass comparison are likely to be coincidental. Greenberg worsens this issue by reconstructing a common ancestor when only a small proportion of the languages he compares

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The opinion that sound correspondences or, in another version of the opinion, reconstruction of a proto-language are necessary to show relationship between languages thus dates from the 20th, not the 19th century, and was never a position of the Neogrammarians. Indo-European was recognized by

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here; few linguists advocate using sound correspondences to the exclusion of all other kinds of evidence. This additional evidence often helps separate borrowings from inherited vocabulary; for instance, Campbell mentions how "ertain sorts of patterned grammatical evidence (that which resists

512:. For Greenberg, the results achieved through mass comparison approached certainty: "The presence of fundamental vocabulary resemblances and resemblances in items with grammatical function, particularly if recurrent through a number of languages, is a sure indication of genetic relationship." 1065:

is the Latin-derived equivalent but is much less used in everyday conversations, being reserved for more formal purposes). As those sporadic changes accumulate, they will increasingly obscure the systematic ones—just as enough dirt and scratches on a photograph will eventually make the face

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neighbors various terms for basic kinship and body parts, including 'mother', 'daughter', 'sister', 'tooth', 'navel', 'neck', 'thigh', and 'fur'". Greenberg continues by stating that "erivational, inflectional, and pronominal morphemes and morph alternations are the least subject of all to

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actually display a match for any given lexical item, effectively allowing him to cherry-pick similar-looking lexical items from a wide array of languages. Though they are less susceptible to borrowing, pronouns and morphology also typically display a restricted subset of a language's

856:, etc. Many similar correspondences exist between the grammars of the two languages. Since those systematic correspondences are extremely unlikely to be random coincidences, the most likely explanation by far is that the two languages have evolved from a single ancestral tongue ( 980:

Finally, the supposition that all of the language families generally accepted by linguists today have been established by the comparative method is untrue. Some families were accepted for decades before comparative reconstructions of them were put forward, for example

576:, all meaning "I know", and many other unshakable etymologies both of root and of non-root morphemes recognized at the outset. And who will be bold enough to conjecture from what original the Indo-Europeanist one hundred years from now will derive these same forms? 767:

words from his data. Onomatopoeic words are often excluded from linguistic comparison, as similar-sounding onomatopoeic words can easily evolve in parallel. Though it is impossible to make a definite judgement as to whether a word is onomatopoeic, certain

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Besides systematic changes, languages are also subject to random mutations (such as borrowings from other languages, irregular inflections, compounding, and abbreviation) that affect one word at a time, or small subsets of words. For example, Spanish

721:) can be important testimony, independent of the issue of sound correspondences". It may not always be possible to separate borrowed and inherited material, but any method has its limits; in the vast majority of cases, the difference can discerned. 925:

of the late 19th century, distilled the work of these scholars into the famous (if often disputed) principle that "every sound change, insofar as it occurs automatically, takes place according to laws that admit of no exception" (Brugmann 1878).

620:, a specialist in Andean languages, has stated that "the number of erroneous forms probably exceeds that of the correct forms". Some forms in Greenberg's data even appear to be attributed to the wrong language. Greenberg also neglects known 772:, such as "blow" and "suck", show a cross-linguistic tendency to be onomatopoeic; making such a judgement may require deep analysis of a type that mass comparison makes difficult. Similarly, Greenberg neglected to exclude items affected by 707:

Greenberg continues by claiming that "ecurrent sound correspondences" do not suffice to detect borrowing, since "where loans are numerous, they often show such correspondences". However, Greenberg misrepresents the practices of mainstream

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as these belong to a later phase of study. The tables used in actual mass comparison involve much larger numbers of items and languages. The items included may be either lexical, such as 'hand', 'sky', and 'go', or morphological, such as

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According to him, any type of linguistic item may be borrowed "on occasion", but "fundamental vocabulary is proof against mass borrowing". However, languages can and do borrow basic vocabulary. For instance, in the words of Campbell,

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Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen. Kurzer Abriss der indogermanischen Ursprache, des Altindischen, Altiranischen, Altgriechischen, Altitalischen, Altkeltischen, Altslawischen, Litauischen und

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Furthermore, Delbrück took the position later enunciated by Greenberg on the priority of etymologies to sound laws (1884:47, quoted in Greenberg 2005:288): "obvious etymologies are the material from which sound laws are drawn."

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Greenberg claimed that he was at bottom merely continuing the simple but effective method of language classification that had resulted in the discovery of numerous language families prior to the elaboration of the

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of Sturtevant lie more than a hundred years of the intensive development of Indo-European phonological reconstruction. What has remained constant has been the validity of the etymologic relationship among Sanskrit

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forms from inherited ones, unlike comparative reconstruction, which is able to do so through regular sound correspondences. Undetected borrowings within Greenberg's data support this claim; for instance, he lists

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According to Greenberg, basic relationships can be determined without any experience in the case of languages that are fairly closely related, though knowledge of probable paths of sound change acquired through

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Some of the top-level relationships Greenberg named are now generally accepted thanks to analysis with other, more widely accepted linguistic techniques, though they had already been posited by others (e.g.

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Proponents of mass comparison often neglect to exclude classes of words that are usually considered to be unreliable for proving linguistic relationships. For instance, Greenberg made no attempt to exclude

989:. Many languages are generally accepted as belonging to a language family even though no comparative reconstruction exists, often because the languages are only attested in fragmentary form, such as the 1689:(Heavily revised version of Greenberg 1955.)(From the same publisher: second, revised edition, 1966; third edition, 1970. All three editions simultaneously published at The Hague by Mouton & Co.) 2018: 2392: 499:. Thus, according to Greenberg (2005:318), phonological considerations come into play from the very beginning, even though mass comparison does not attempt to produce reconstructions of 1341:

Heggarty, Paul (21 October 2020). "Deep time and first settlement: What, if anything, can linguistics tell us?". In Pearce, Adrian J.; Beresford-Jones, David G.; Heggarty, Paul (eds.).

940:(Greenberg 2005:158-159, 288). According to Delbrück (1904:121-122, quoted in Greenberg 2005:159), Bopp had claimed to prove the existence of Indo-European in the following way: 840:

by showing that many words of the former can be mapped to corresponding words of the latter by a relatively small set of replacement rules—such as the correspondence of initial

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According to Greenberg's critics, genetic classification arises from the identification of sound correspondences or (others state) the reconstruction of protolanguages.

2011: 2363: 1450:"A Reader in Nineteenth Century Historical Indo-European Linguistics: Preface to 'Morphological Investigations in the Sphere of the Indo-European Languages' I" 887:

The actual development of the comparative method was a more gradual process than Greenberg's detractors suppose. It has three decisive moments. The first was

2460: 2431: 2402: 2004: 612:, who see it as fatally undermining Greenberg's attempt to demonstrate the reliability of mass comparison. Campbell notes in his discussion of Greenberg's 555:

econstruction of an original sound system has the status of an explanatory theory to account for etymologies already strong on other grounds. Between the *

144:. Mass comparison has been referred to as a "methodological deception" and is rejected by most linguists, and its continued use is primarily restricted to 1074:

In spite of the apparently intractable nature of the conflict between Greenberg and his critics, a few linguists have begun to argue for its resolution.

997:(Greenberg 2005:161). Conversely, detailed comparative reconstructions exist for some language families which nonetheless remain controversial, such as 2397: 1105: 1525: 1040:

According to Greenberg, the identification of sound correspondences and the reconstruction of protolanguages arise from genetic classification.

1539:Über das Conjugationssystem der Sanskritsprache in Vergleichung mit jenem der griechischen, lateinischen, persischen und germanischen Sprache. 704:

borrowing of pronouns or morphology is rare, but it cannot be ruled out without recourse to a method more sophisticated than mass comparison.

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The idea of mass comparison method is that a group of languages is related when they show numerous resemblances in vocabulary, including

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New perspectives in language, culture, and personality: Proceedings of the Edward Sapir Centenary Conference (Ottawa, 1-3 October 1984)

1082:, attempts to stake out a position that is sympathetic to both Greenberg's approach and that of its critics, such as Lyle Campbell and 1677:

edited by Anthony F.C. Wallace, 791–94. Philadelphia|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press. (Reprinted in Greenberg 2005, 59–64.)

671: 521: 137: 1747: 1350: 1316: 1284: 1139: 69: 1500: 2455: 2338: 1906: 1095: 1011: 826: 525: 193: 2180: 1877:, translated from the third German edition by Herbert Bendall. London: Trübner and Co. (An abridgement of the German original.) 1449: 1079: 2450: 1419:. Amsterdam Studies in the History and Theory of the Language Sciences. Vol. 41. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. p. 202. 1893: 2387: 1900:

Language History, Language Change, and Language Relationship: An Introduction to Historical and Comparative Linguistics.

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proposal that "nearly every specialist finds extensive distortions and inaccuracies in Greenberg's data"; for example,

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Bloomington: Institute for the Study of Nigerian Languages and Cultures, African Studies Program, Indiana University.

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has even attempted to downplay the problems inherent in using them in linguistic comparison. The fact that many of

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On Being Right: Greenberg's African Linguistic Classification and the Methodological Principles Which Underlie It.

800:, which Greenberg sees as evidence of common ancestry, may ultimately also be linked to early speech development; 157: 2185: 2150: 2062: 1849: 1708: 729:

Cross-linguistically, chance resemblances between unrelated lexical items are common, due to the large amount of

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Leipzig: S. Hirzel. (The preface is signed Hermann Osthoff and Karl Brugmann but was written by Brugmann alone.)

2261: 1928: 692: 1920: 776:, which often distorts the original shape of lexical items, from his data. Finally, "nursery words", such as 2370: 2345: 2067: 2047: 2028: 1777:

The Significance of Word Lists: Statistical Tests for Investigating Historical Connections Between Languages

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The positions of Greenberg and his critics therefore appear to provide a starkly contrasted alternative:

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correlations when performing mass comparison, but they are peripheral and few in number compared to his

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Selected Papers of the Fifth International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, 1956,

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Furthermore, Indo-European was not the first language family to be recognized by students of language.

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lack evidential value in linguistic comparison, as they are usually thought to derive from the sounds

2155: 2129: 2072: 1780: 1415:(1986). "Sapir's Comparative Method". In Cowan, William; Foster, Michael K.; Koerner, Konrad (eds.). 931: 872: 801: 785: 718: 595: 165: 109: 51: 1719:(1993). "Observations concerning Ringe's 'Calculating the factor of chance in language comparison". 1673:

Greenberg, Joseph H. 1960. "The general classification of Central and South American languages." In

2306: 2145: 1927:, edited by Peter Foster and Colin Renfrew. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. (Also: 990: 970: 700: 548: 432: 2419: 2216: 1874:

A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European, Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin Languages

1476:, Historical Linguistics (1996), chapters 8 to 13 for an intensive lookout on language comparison. 2423: 2407: 2266: 2231: 2087: 2042: 1724: 1569:(2001). "Beyond the Comparative Method". In Blake, Barry J.; Burridge, Kate; Taylor, Jo. (eds.). 891:'s observation in 1818 of a possible regular sound change in Germanic consonants. The second was 788:. Advocates of mass comparison often avoid taking sufficient care to exclude nursery words; one, 747: 687: 509: 2321: 2311: 2241: 2190: 2140: 1743: 1428: 1346: 1312: 1280: 1199: 1135: 962: 908: 613: 604:

The presence of frequent errors in Greenberg's data has been pointed out by linguists such as

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The explicit emphasis on comparison of multiple languages rather than bilateral comparisons.

1015: 1014:(1955:1-2, 2005:75) and that had continued to do so thereafter, as in the classification of 998: 868: 837: 833: 683: 679: 662: 133: 35: 1453: 2251: 2226: 1795: 1616: 1504: 1083: 994: 974: 876: 773: 609: 551:

work, he viewed facts as of greater weight than their interpretations, stating (1957:45):

39: 904: 1696:, edited by Thomas F. Sebeok, 807–871. The Hague: Mouton. (Reprinted in Greenberg 2005.) 1573:. 15th International Conference on Historical Linguistics, Melbourne, 13–17 August 2001. 1498: 87: 2301: 2097: 1841: 1791: 1300: 1057:(dog), which does not come from Latin, cannot be rule-mapped to its Italian equivalent 896: 789: 769: 617: 500: 1487:"How to prove genetic relationships among languages: the cases of Japanese and Corean" 1019:

previously been applied in a relatively ad hoc manner and in the following additions:

2444: 2236: 2211: 1996: 1659: 1578: 1566: 1381: 1268: 1187: 1183: 922: 918: 777: 605: 145: 1619:(2003). "From Mass Comparison to Mess Comparison: Greenberg's "Eurasiatic" Theory". 958:(1786) and Franz Bopp (1816) long before the development of the comparative method. 921:, who succeeded Schleicher as the leading authority on Indo-European, and the other 2281: 2102: 1812:

Ringe, Donald. 1992. "On calculating the factor of chance in language comparison."

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The very large number of languages simultaneously compared (up to several hundred).

805: 764: 655: 633: 621: 160:). Others are accepted by many though disputed by some prominent specialists (e.g. 666: 1873: 1737: 1532:

Reconstructing Proto-Nostratic: Comparative Phonology, Morphology, and Vocabulary

977:(1856), well before the publication of Schleicher's comparative reconstructions. 863:

All pre-historical language groupings that are widely accepted today—such as the

2291: 2077: 1950:

Proceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society

900: 892: 797: 1526:"Beyond lumping and splitting: Probabilistic issues in historical linguistics." 812:

is the single most important voluntary muscular activity of a nursing infant".

1473: 1384:(November 1994). "Inside the American Indian Language Classification Debate". 912: 741: 696: 544: 1555:, 5 volumes (some multi-part, for a total of 8 volumes). Strassburg: Trübner. 1946: 1921:

Multilateral comparison and significance testing of the Indo-Uralic question

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A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages.

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Morphologische Untersuchungen auf dem Gebiete der indogermanischen Sprachen.

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Greenberg, Joseph H. 1990. "The American Indian language controversy."

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Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family

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Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family

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A prominent criticism of mass comparison is that it cannot distinguish

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Rethinking the Andes–Amazonia Divide: A cross-disciplinary exploration

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Rethinking the Andes-Amazonia divide: a cross disciplinary exploration

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The explicit preference for basic vocabulary over cultural vocabulary.

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notes that "A gesture equivalent to that used to articulate the sound

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Ringe, Donald A., Jr. 1995. "'Nostratic' and the factor of chance."

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The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue.

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Grundriß der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen

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Grundriß der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen

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Greenberg also arbitrarily deems certain portions of a word to be

192:, forming an interlocking pattern common to the group. Unlike the 1723:. Vol. 137. American Philosophical Society. pp. 79–90. 2000: 1694:

Current Trends in Linguistics, Volume 8: Linguistics in Oceania

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Adrian, Pearce; Beresford-Jones, David; Heggarty, Paul (2020).

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The introduction of typologically based paths of sound change.

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had been recognized by European scholars in the 17th century,

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Ringe, Donald A., Jr. 1996. "The mathematics of 'Amerind'."

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present across the world's languages; for instance, English

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between languages, mass comparison is an alternative to the

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Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences

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On the Origin of Languages: Studies in Linguistic Taxonomy.

1275:. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics. New York: 895:'s extension of this observation into a general principle ( 750:, making cross-linguistic chance resemblances more likely. 1692:

Greenberg, Joseph H. 1971. "The Indo-Pacific hypothesis."

1646:(Photo-offset reprint of eight articles published in the 1178: 1176: 1174: 1172: 1170: 1168: 1166: 1164: 536:

can be set up using the collated sound correspondences.

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allows one to go farther faster. For instance, the path

1991:"How likely are chance resemblances between languages?" 1819:

Ringe, Donald. 1993. "A reply to Professor Greenberg."

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The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics

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Einleitung in das Studium der indogermanischer Sprachen

903:'s resolution of an irregularity in this sound change ( 105: 47: 945:

the assumption of chance agreement must appear absurd.

164:), while others are almost universally rejected (e.g. 1947:"Indo-European Practice and Historical Methodology." 1925:

Phylogenetic Methods and the Prehistory of Languages

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Brugmann, Karl. 1878. Preface to the first issue of

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Baxter, William H. and Alexis Manaster Ramer. 1999.

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and explaining the responses to the fringe theories.

2380: 2355: 2330: 2204: 2121: 2035: 1766:Greenberg, Joseph H. (2005). Croft, William (ed.). 1742:. Vol. 1: Grammar. Stanford University Press. 1761:. Vol. 2: Lexicon. Stanford University Press. 1658: 915:, his great predecessor in Indo-European studies. 451:is much less so, enabling one to hypothesize that 1551:Brugmann, Karl and Berthold Delbrück. 1886–1893. 200:nine different languages, identified by letters. 1768:Genetic Linguistics: Essays on Theory and Method 1376: 1374: 2364:Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages 1807:Theoretical Bases of Indo-European Linguistics. 1336: 1334: 1332: 1330: 1328: 1263: 1261: 1259: 1257: 1255: 1253: 1898:Hock, Hans Henrich and Brian D. 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Cambridge: 1244: 1218: 879:families—have been established this way. 832:For instance, one could demonstrate that 713:explanation from borrowing, accident, or 70:Learn how and when to remove this message 2398:Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics 1687:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 1644:. New Haven: Compass Publishing Company. 1155: 1106:Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics 202: 1919:Kessler, Brett and A. Lehtonen. 2006. " 1583:Historical Linguistics: An Introduction 1122: 491:is much less so enables one to choose * 1608:, 1880. Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel. 1489:, 2005, "La Sapienza" University, Rome 1231: 1134:. London: UCL Press. pp. 94–102. 1048:Time limits of the comparative method 7: 1909:Time Depth in Historical Linguistics 1860:Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1648:Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 1070:Toward a resolution of the conflict? 794:indigenous languages of the Americas 443:is extremely frequent, but the path 1078:, noted for his recent proposal of 2461:Long-range comparative linguistics 1448:Lehmann, Winfred P. (2007-03-20). 1005:A continuation of earlier methods? 816:Position of Greenberg's detractors 516:Relation to the comparative method 475:. Similarly, while knowledge that 14: 934:, Brugmann's collaborator on the 883:Response of Greenberg's defenders 2427: 2426: 2418: 2339:Journal of Language Relationship 1868:, 2 volumes. Weimar: H. Boehlau. 1846:A Guide to the World's Languages 1096:Comparative method (linguistics) 758:Sound symbolism and onomatopoeia 691:borrowing"; he does incorporate 86: 23: 1929:Unofficial prepublication draft 1863:Schleicher, August. 1861–1862. 1606:Einleitung in das Sprachstudium 1595:Einleitung in das Sprachstudium 1980:New York: John Wiley and Sons. 796:have pronouns that begin with 632:when affixes of the requisite 543:Reflecting the methodological 1: 1757:Greenberg, Joseph H. (2002). 1736:Greenberg, Joseph H. (2000). 1681:Greenberg, Joseph H. (1963). 1640:Greenberg, Joseph H. (1955). 1604:, 4th and renamed edition of 534:reconstructed ancestral forms 2388:Evolution of Human Languages 1452:. Utexas.edu. Archived from 930:deal with this question was 907:) in 1875. Only in 1861 did 50:or discuss the issue on the 1796:"Linguistic shadow-boxing." 1667:University of Chicago Press 1571:Historical Linguistics 2001 1534:, 2 volumes. Leiden: Brill. 99:to comply with Knowledge's 2477: 1993:by Mark Rosenfelder (2002) 1902:Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 1871:Schleicher, August. 1874. 1805:Lehmann, Winfred P. 1993. 1770:. Oxford University Press. 1600:Delbrück, Berthold. 1904. 1593:Delbrück, Berthold. 1884. 1309:Cambridge University Press 1305:The Languages of the Andes 1196:Cambridge University Press 815: 589: 520:As a tool for identifying 136:to determine the level of 2416: 2063:Linguistic reconstruction 1850:Stanford University Press 1709:Stanford University Press 1273:American Indian Languages 899:) in 1822. The third was 882: 820:Since the development of 132:is a method developed by 2381:Institutions and schools 2262:Vladislav Illich-Svitych 1934:Matisoff, James. 1990. " 1705:Language in the Americas 1558:Caldwell, Robert. 1856. 1530:Bomhard, Allan R. 2008. 1485:Claudia A. Ciancaglini, 231: 228: 225: 222: 219: 216: 213: 210: 207: 205: 112:may contain suggestions. 97:may need to be rewritten 2456:Comparative linguistics 2371:The Languages of Africa 2068:Internal reconstruction 2048:Etymological dictionary 2029:comparative linguistics 1976:Ruhlen, Merritt. 1994. 1856:Ruhlen, Merritt. 1994. 1775:Kessler, Brett (2001). 1684:The Languages of Africa 1425:10.1075/sihols.41.09god 1277:Oxford University Press 1101:Comparative linguistics 822:comparative linguistics 784:make when beginning to 710:comparative linguistics 682:has borrowed "from its 530:comparative linguistics 483:is extremely frequent, 142:multilateral comparison 2451:Historical linguistics 1905:Kessler, Brett. 2003. 1802:by Angela Marcantonio. 1633:10.1075/dia.20.2.06geo 740: 734: 665: 600:Indo-Pacific languages 42:to the mainstream view 2272:Alexis Manaster Ramer 1964:Review of Archaeology 1892:Clifton, John. 2002. 1661:Essays in Linguistics 1503:May 18, 2008, at the 1345:. London: UCL Press. 586:Errors in application 522:genetic relationships 2113:Leipzig–Jakarta list 2073:Linguistic universal 1969:Newman, Paul. 1995. 1781:Stanford, California 1701:Greenberg, Joseph H. 1655:Greenberg, Joseph H. 672:inherited vocabulary 596:Eurasiatic languages 547:also present in his 2307:Vitaly Shevoroshkin 1936:On megalocomparison 1537:Bopp, Franz. 1816. 725:Chance resemblances 138:genetic relatedness 2424:Linguistics portal 2408:Santa Fe Institute 2267:Frederik Kortlandt 2232:Aharon Dolgopolsky 2088:Origin of language 2043:Comparative method 1311:. pp. 41–45. 1061:(the Spanish word 1012:comparative method 827:comparative method 748:phonemic inventory 526:comparative method 194:comparative method 40:appropriate weight 2438: 2437: 2322:Alfredo Trombetti 2312:Georgiy Starostin 2242:Harold C. Fleming 2122:Language families 1887:Anti-Greenbergian 1809:London: Routledge 1717:Greenberg, Joseph 1562:London: Harrison. 1434:978-90-272-4522-9 1402:, pp. 39–40) 1205:978-0-511-41381-0 1188:Poser, William J. 954:scholars such as 932:Berthold Delbrück 909:August Schleicher 860:, in this case). 786:acquire languages 778:"mama" and "papa" 592:Amerind languages 559:of Bopp and the * 428: 427: 127: 126: 101:quality standards 80: 79: 72: 38:, without giving 2468: 2430: 2429: 2422: 2317:Sergei Starostin 2297:Martine Robbeets 2257:Murray Gell-Mann 2247:Joseph Greenberg 2222:Allan R. Bomhard 2108:Dolgopolsky list 2093:Paleolinguistics 2058:Lexicostatistics 2053:Glottochronology 2021: 2014: 2007: 1998: 1853: 1788: 1771: 1762: 1753: 1732: 1712: 1688: 1670: 1664: 1645: 1636: 1617:Vovin, Alexander 1590: 1574: 1507: 1496: 1490: 1483: 1477: 1471: 1465: 1464: 1462: 1461: 1445: 1439: 1438: 1409: 1403: 1396: 1390: 1389: 1378: 1369: 1363: 1357: 1356: 1338: 1323: 1322: 1303:(10 June 2004). 1297: 1291: 1290: 1265: 1248: 1241: 1235: 1228: 1222: 1216: 1210: 1209: 1180: 1159: 1152: 1146: 1145: 1127: 1066:unrecognisable. 203: 134:Joseph Greenberg 122: 119: 113: 90: 82: 75: 68: 64: 61: 55: 27: 26: 19: 2476: 2475: 2471: 2470: 2469: 2467: 2466: 2465: 2441: 2440: 2439: 2434: 2412: 2376: 2351: 2326: 2287:Holger Pedersen 2277:Sergei Nikolaev 2252:Eugene Helimski 2227:Svetlana Burlak 2200: 2186:North Caucasian 2151:Elamo-Dravidian 2117: 2083:Mass comparison 2031: 2025: 1987: 1884: 1882:Further reading 1842:Ruhlen, Merritt 1840: 1792:Laakso, Johanna 1774: 1765: 1756: 1750: 1735: 1715: 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Stanford: 1845: 1834: 1830:12.1, 55–74. 1827: 1823:137, 91–109. 1820: 1816:82.1, 1–110. 1813: 1806: 1799: 1776: 1767: 1758: 1738: 1720: 1707:. Stanford: 1704: 1693: 1683: 1674: 1660: 1647: 1641: 1624: 1620: 1605: 1601: 1594: 1582: 1570: 1559: 1552: 1545: 1538: 1531: 1514:Bibliography 1494: 1481: 1469: 1458:. 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Chicago: 1621:Diachronica 1519:Works cited 1232:Ruhlen 1987 967:Finno-Ugric 901:Karl Verner 897:Grimm's law 893:Jacob Grimm 889:Rasmus Rask 804:specialist 798:nasal stops 549:typological 180:Methodology 158:Niger–Congo 2445:Categories 2156:Eurasiatic 1952:, 214–236. 1907:Review of 1798:Review of 1474:R.L. Trask 1460:2012-03-11 1117:References 913:Franz Bopp 873:Algonquian 802:Algonquian 719:universals 697:pronominal 590:See also: 545:empiricism 166:Eurasiatic 2205:Linguists 2146:Nostratic 1966:11, 5–14. 1587:MIT Press 993:language 991:Anatolian 971:Dravidian 829:article. 641:Borrowing 581:Criticism 572:, Gothic 510:MASCULINE 190:morphemes 110:talk page 52:talk page 2432:Category 2331:Journals 2036:Concepts 1940:Language 1931:(2004).) 1844:(1987). 1794:. 2003. 1703:(1987). 1657:(1957). 1581:(2004). 1501:Archived 1271:(1997). 1190:(2008). 1090:See also 848:, final 715:typology 688:Germanic 652:cognates 647:borrowed 568:, Greek 463: : 455: : 433:typology 186:pronouns 2191:Austric 2141:Amerind 1016:Hittite 963:Semitic 838:Italian 834:Spanish 782:infants 731:lexemes 701:lexical 680:Finnish 667:machete 663:Spanish 630:affixes 614:Amerind 561:γwoidxe 174:Amerind 170:Khoisan 46:Please 2161:Altaic 2136:Borean 1923:." 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