Marine fungi - Knowledge

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palatability, as a result of host aggregation (reduced edibility) or mechanistic fragmentation of cells or filaments (increased palatability). First, chytrid parasites extract and repack nutrients and energy from their hosts in form of readily edible zoospores. Second, infected and fragmented hosts including attached sporangia can also be ingested by grazers (i.e. concomitant predation).

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diatoms, thereby controlling algal blooms and recycling carbon back into the microbial food web. Arctic blooms also provide conducive environments for other parasitic fungi. Light levels and seasonal factors, such as temperature and salinity, also control chytrid activity independently of phytoplankton populations. During periods of low temperatures and phytoplankton levels,

5040: 841: 5028: 1006:. Discovery of these fossils suggest that marine fungi developed symbiotic partnerships with photoautotrophs long before the evolution of vascular plants. However a 2019 study concluded through age estimations obtained by time calibrated phylogenies, and absence of unambiguous fossil data that the origins of lichens postdate the evolution of vascular plants. 4407: 4375: 4314: 4228: 2167: 2104: 280:

To date, a relatively small percentage of described species are associated with marine environments, with ~1,100 species retrieved exclusively from the marine environment. Nevertheless, fungi have been found in nearly every marine habitat explored, from the surface of the ocean to kilometers below ocean sediments. Fungi are hypothesized to contribute to

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Chytrid parasites of marine diatoms. (A) Chytrid sporangia on Pleurosigma sp. The white arrow indicates the operculate discharge pore. (B) Rhizoids (white arrow) extending into diatom host. (C) Chlorophyll aggregates localized to infection sites (white arrows). (D and E) Single hosts bearing multiple

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Contrary to previous beliefs, deep subsurface marine fungi actively grow and germinate, with some studies showing increased growth rates under high hydrostatic pressures. Though the methods by which marine fungi are able to survive the extreme conditions of the seafloor and below is largely unknown,

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are susceptible to fungal diseases but these have been little researched in the field. Mortalities from fungal disease have been reported in captive killer whales; it is thought that stress due to captive conditions may have been predisposing. Transmission among animals in the open sea may naturally

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Terrestrial fungi play critical roles in nutrient cycling and food webs and can shape macroorganism communities as parasites and mutualists. Although estimates for the number of fungal species on the planet range from 1.5 to over 5 million, likely fewer than 10% of fungi have been identified so far.

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Wainwright, B.J.; Bauman, A.G.; Zahn, G.L.; Todd, P.A.; Huang, D. Characterization of fungal biodiversity and communities associated with the reef macroalga Sargassum ilicifolium reveals fungal community differentiation according to geographic locality and algal structure. Mar. Biodivers. 2019, 49,

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Marine fungi have been observed as far north as the Arctic Ocean. Chytridiomycota, the dominant parasitic fungal organism in Arctic waters, take advantage of phytoplankton blooms in brine channels caused by warming temperatures and increased light penetration through the ice. These fungi parasitize

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ranging in depth from 0 to 1740 meters beneath the ocean floor. One study analyzed subsurface samples of marine sediment between these depths and isolated all observable fungi. Isolates showed that most subsurface fungal diversity was found between depths of 0 to 25 meters below the sea floor with

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supports a different community. When a fungal propagule lands on a suitable piece of wood, it will grow if no other fungi are present. If the wood is already colonised by another fungal species, growth will depend on whether that fungus produces antifungal chemicals and whether the new arrival can

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grew, and so it required a lesser degree of adaptation for the fungi to flourish there. Some of these species were closely related to fungi on terrestrial palms. Other studies have shown that driftwood hosts more species of fungus than do exposed test blocks of wood of a similar kind. The mangrove

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analyses suggest that the flagellum was lost early in the evolutionary history of the fungi, and consequently, the majority of fungal species lack a flagellum. Evidence from DNA analysis suggests that all fungi are descended from one common ancestor, at least 600 million years ago. It is probable

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and it is likely a large number of species have yet to be discovered. In fact, it is thought that less than 1% of all marine fungal species have been described, due to difficulty in targeting marine fungal DNA and difficulties that arise in attempting to grow cultures of marine fungi. It is

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Chytrid‐mediated trophic links between phytoplankton and zooplankton (mycoloop). While small phytoplankton species can be grazed upon by zooplankton, large phytoplankton species constitute poorly edible or even inedible prey. Chytrid infections on large phytoplankton can induce changes in

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Various deep-sea marine fungi species have recently been shown to produce anti-cancer metabolites. One study uncovered 199 novel cytotoxic compounds with anticancer potential. In addition to cytotoxic metabolites, these compounds have structures capable of disrupting cancer-activated

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marine fungi. Obligate marine fungi are adapted to reproduce in the aquatic environment, while facultative marine fungi can grow in aquatic as well as terrestrial environments. Marine fungi are called marine-derived fungi when their facultative or obligate state is not certain.

3218: 690:, a plant often associated with mangroves. Each material was found to have its own characteristic fungi, the greatest diversity being among those growing on the mangrove palm. It was surmised that this was because the salinity was lower in the estuaries and creeks where 4391:

Barranco, V.S., Van der Meer, M.T., Kagami, M., Van den Wyngaert, S., Van de Waal, D.B., Van Donk, E. and Gsell, A.S. (2020( "Trophic position, elemental ratios and nitrogen transfer in a planktonic host–parasite–consumer food chain including a fungal parasite".

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Some marine fungi which have ventured into the sea from terrestrial habitats include species that burrow into sand grains, living in the pores. Others live inside stony corals, and may become pathogenic if the coral is stressed by rising sea temperatures.

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Spribille, Toby; Tuovinen, Veera; Resl, Philipp; Vanderpool, Dan; Wolinski, Heimo; Aime, M. Catherine; Schneider, Kevin; Stabentheiner, Edith; Toome-Heller, Merje; Thor, Göran; Mayrhofer, Helmut; Johannesson, Hanna; McCutcheon, John P. (29 July 2016).

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Frenken, T., Alacid, E., Berger, S.A., Bourne, E.C., Gerphagnon, M., Grossart, H.P., Gsell, A.S., Ibelings, B.W., Kagami, M., Küpper, F.C. and Letcher, P.M. (2017) "Integrating chytrid fungal parasites into plankton ecology: research gaps and needs".

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The antiviral properties of marine fungi were realized in 1988 after their compounds were used to successfully treat the H1N1 flu virus. In addition to H1N1, antiviral compounds isolated from marine fungi have been shown to have virucidal effects on

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and dinitrogen. Still others process organic matter including carbohydrate, proteins, and lipids. Ocean crust fungi, like those found around hydrothermal vents, decompose organic matter, and play various roles in manganese and arsenic cycling.

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Paz, Z.; Komon-Zelazowska, M.; Druzhinina, I. S.; Aveskamp, M. M.; Shnaiderman, A.; Aluma, Y.; Carmeli, S.; Ilan, M.; Yarden, O. (30 January 2010). "Diversity and potential antifungal properties of fungi associated with a Mediterranean sponge".

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of marine animals (e.g., corals and sponges), plants, and algae. Despite their varied roles, remarkably little is known about the diversity of this major branch of eukaryotic life in marine ecosystems or their ecological functions.

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Zuccaro, A.; Summerbell, R.C.; Gams, W.; Schroers, H.-J.; Mitchell, J.I. A new Acremonium species associated with Fucus spp., and its affinity with a phylogenetically distinct marine Emericellopsis clade. Stud. Mycol. 2004, 50,

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Zuccaro, A.; Schoch, C.L.; Spatafora, J.W.; Kohlmeyer, J.; Draeger, S.; Mitchell, J.I. Detection and identification of fungi intimately associated with the brown seaweed Fucus serratus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2008, 74,

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being the most prominent. Overall, the ascomycota are the dominant subsurface phylum. Almost all fungal species recovered have also been observed in terrestrial sediments with spore-sourcing indicating terrestrial origin.

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Jones, E.B.G.; Suetrong, S.; Sakayaroj, J.; Bahkali, A.H.; Abdel-Wahab, M.A.; Boekhout, T.; Pang, K.-L. Classification of marine Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Blastocladiomycota and Chytridiomycota. Fungal Divers. 2015, 73,

1013:, similar to lichens in being a symbiosis of an algae and a fungus, in mycophycobiosis the algae forms the external, multicellular structure housing the fungus. The reproduction of both partners is always disjoint. 1033:

Marine fungi associated with algae are largely unexplored, despite their ecological role and potential industrial applications. For example, it has been shown that fungi associated with algae produce many bioactive

450:, in which hyphal branches recombine. Other recent studies (2009) estimate the arrival of fungal organisms at about 760–1060 Ma on the basis of comparisons of the rate of evolution in closely related groups. 3746:

Gnavi, G.; Garzoli, L.; Poli, A.; Prigione, V.; Burgaud, G.; Varese, G.C. The culturable mycobiota of Flabellia petiolata: First survey of marine fungi associated to a Mediterranean green alga. PLoS ONE 2017, 12,

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causes an infection in which growth of hyphae in the kidneys causes swelling of the abdomen. A cellular response by the fish aims to isolate the fungus by walling it off. Fish are also susceptible to fungus-like

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Mouton, Marnel; Postma, Ferdinand; Wilsenach, Jac; Botha, Alfred (August 2012). "Diversity and Characterization of Culturable Fungi from Marine Sediment Collected from St. Helena Bay, South Africa".

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Raghukumar, S. The marine environment and the role of fungi. In Fungi in Coastal and Oceanic Marine Ecosystems: Marine Fungi; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2017; pp. 17–38.

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resist them. The chemical properties of colonizing fungi also affect the animal communities that graze on them: in one study, when hyphae from five different species of marine fungi were fed to

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in the coastal sea marshes where it lives, which enables spores of intertidal ascomycetous fungi to colonise the plant. The snail eats the fungal growth in preference to the grass itself. This

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Marine fungi produce antiviral and antibacterial compounds as metabolites with upwards of 1,000 having realized and potential uses as anticancer, anti-diabetic, and anti-inflammatory drugs.

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Molecular Genetics of Host-Specific Toxins in Plant Disease: Proceedings of the 3rd Tottori International Symposium on Host-Specific Toxins, Daisen, Tottori, Japan, August 24–29, 1997

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zoosporangia at different stages of development. The white arrow in panel E highlights branching rhizoids. (F) Endobiotic chytrid-like sporangia within diatom frustule. Bars = 10 μm.

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Lee, S.; Park, M.S.; Lee, H.; Kim, J.J.; Eimes, J.A.; Lim, Y.W. Fungal diversity and enzyme activity associated with the macroalgae, Agarum clathratum. Mycobiology 2019, 47, 50–58.

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leaf litter also supported a large fungal community which was different from that on the wood and living material. However, few of these were multicellular, higher marine fungi.

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Balabanova, L.; Slepchenko, L.; Son, O.; Tekutyeva, L. Biotechnology potential of marine fungi degrading plant and algae polymeric substrates. Front. Microbiol. 2018, 9, 15–27.

1246:, incubates its eggs beneath its tail segments. Here they are exposed to water-borne micro-organisms including fungi during their long period of development. The lobster has a 3495: 3719:

Overy, D.P.; Bayman, P.; Kerr, R.G.; Bills, G.F. An assessment of natural product discovery from marine (sensu stricto) and marine-derived fungi. Mycology 2014, 5, 145–167.

420:, they do not readily enter the fossil record. Fungal fossils are difficult to distinguish from those of other microbes, and are most easily identified when they resemble 929:, where the algae are the dominant components. The fungi is thought to help the rockweeds to resist desiccation when exposed to air. In addition, lichens can also use 3737:

Miao, F.; Zuo, J.; Liu, X.; Ji, N. Algicidal activities of secondary metabolites of marine macroalgal-derived endophytic fungi. J. Oceanol. Limnol. 2019, 37, 112–121.

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Patyshakuliyeva, A., Falkoski, D.L., Wiebenga, A., Timmermans, K. and De Vries, R.P. (2020) "Macroalgae derived fungi have high abilities to degrade algal polymers".

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Flewelling, A.J.; Currie, J.; Gray, C.A.; Johnson, J.A. Endophytes from marine macroalgae: Promising sources of novel natural products. Curr. Sci. 2015, 109, 88–111.

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while wholly or sporadically submerged in sea water. Facultative marine fungi normally occupy terrestrial or freshwater habitats, but are capable of living or even

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The evolutionary adaptation from an aquatic to a terrestrial lifestyle necessitated a diversification of ecological strategies for obtaining nutrients, including

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Retallack, G.J.; Krull, E.S.; Thackray, G.D.; Parkinson, D. (2013). "Problematic urn-shaped fossils from a Paleoproterozoic (2.2 Ga) paleosol in South Africa".

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Detection of fungi in wood may involve incubation at a suitable temperature in a suitable water medium for a period of six months to upward of eighteen months.

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on or in solid substrates or as single cells in aquatic environments is adapted for the efficient extraction of nutrients, because these growth forms have high

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Gutierrez MH, Jara AM, Pantoja S (2016) "Fungal parasites infect marine diatoms in the upwelling ecosystem of the Humboldt current system off central Chile".

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Amend, A., Burgaud, G., Cunliffe, M., Edgcomb, V.P., Ettinger, C.L., Gutiérrez, M.H., Heitman, J., Hom, E.F., Ianiri, G., Jones, A.C. and Kagami, M. (2019)

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Bengtson, Stefan; Rasmussen, Birger; Ivarsson, Magnus; Muhling, Janet; Broman, Curt; Marone, Federica; Stampanoni, Marco; Bekker, Andrey (24 April 2017).

2495:"Loss of the flagellum happened only once in the fungal lineage: phylogenetic structure of Kingdom Fungi inferred from RNA polymerase II subunit genes" 1792:. High competition between organisms within mangrove niches lead to increases in antibacterial substances produced by these fungi as defensive agents. 1973: 1467:

shines some light onto adaptations that make it possible. This fungus strengthens its outer membrane in order to endure higher hydrostatic pressures.

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Almost one-third of all known marine fungal species are associated with algae. The most commonly described fungi associated with algae belong to the

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Osterhage C.; R. Kaminsky; G. König & A. D. Wright (2000). "Ascosalipyrrolidinone A, an Antimicrobial Alkaloid, from the Obligate Marine Fungus

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Fungi represent a large and diverse group of microorganisms in microbiological communities in the marine environment and have an important role in

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Different marine habitats support very different fungal communities. Fungi can be found in niches ranging from ocean depths and coastal waters to

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Richards, Thomas A.; Jones, Meredith D.M.; Leonard, Guy; Bass, David (15 January 2012). "Marine Fungi: Their Ecology and Molecular Diversity".

2544: 2808: 2672: 2306: 4704: 1511: 2620:"The Ascomycota tree of life: A phylum-wide phylogeny clarifies the origin and evolution of fundamental reproductive and ecological traits" 2120:

Tisthammer, K.H.; Cobian, G.M.; Amend, A.S. Global biogeography of marine fungi is shaped by the environment. Fungal Ecol. 2016, 19, 39–46.

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Many marine fungi are very specific as to which species of floating and submerged wood they colonise. A range of species of fungi colonise

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Holmquist, G. U.; H. W. Walker & Stahr H. M. (1983). "Influence of Temperature, pH, Water Activity and Antifungal Agents on Growth of

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Debbab, A.; Aly, A.H.; Proksch, P. Mangrove derived fungal endophytes–a chemical and biological perception. Fungal Divers. 2013, 61, 1–27.

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Retallack, G.J.; Dunn, K.L.; Saxby, J. (2015). "Problematic Mesoproterozoic fossil Horodyskia from Glacier National Park, Montana, USA".

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until the mid-20th century. By the middle of the 20th century Fungi were considered a distinct kingdom, and the newly recognized kingdom

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for colonization, the presence of propagules in the water, interspecific competition, pollution and the oxygen content of the water.

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Rédou, Vanessa; Navarri, Marion; Meslet-Cladière, Laurence; Barbier, Georges; Burgaud, Gaëtan (2015-05-15). Brakhage, A. A. (ed.).

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Stanley, S.J. Observations on the seasonal occurrence of marine endophytic and parasitic fungi. Can. J. Bot. 1992, 70, 2089–2096.

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that has anti-fungal properties. This bacterium grows over the eggs and protects them from infection by the pathogenic fungus-like

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Stanley, S.J. Observations on the seasonal occurrence of marine endophytic and parasitic fungi. Can. J. Bot. 1992, 70, 2089–2096.

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between the snail and the fungus is considered to be the first example of husbandry among invertebrate animals outside the class

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impracticable to culture many of these fungi, but their nature can be investigated by examining seawater samples and undertaking

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Selosse, Marc-André; Le Tacon, François (2001). "Les stratégies symbiotiques de conquête du milieu terrestre par les végétaux".

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Factors that influence whether or not marine fungi are present in any particular location include the water temperature, its

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species, among others, can degrade high-molecular-weight hydrocarbons as well as assist hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria.

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Kohlmeyer, J.; Volkmann-Kohlmeyer, B. Illustrated key to the filamentous higher marine fungi. Bot. Mar. 1991, 34, 1–61.

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Mangrove-associated fungi have prominent antibacterial effects on several common pathogenic human bacteria including,

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in a marine habitat. About 444 species of marine fungi have been described, including seven genera and ten species of

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Phylogenetic and symbiogenetic tree of living organisms, showing a view of the origins of eukaryotes and prokaryotes

2664: 1624: 1575: 482:. Fungi moved to land at about the same time as plants, about 460 million years ago, at least. Although fungi are 5001: 2935: 1376: 114: 1586: 3138:

Sanders, W. B.; Moe, R. L.; Ascaso, C. (2004). "The intertidal marine lichen formed by the pyrenomycete fungus

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that evolved to puncture plant tissues. The pressure generated by the appressorium, directed against the plant

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Kilias, Estelle S.; Junges, Leandro; Šupraha, Luka; Leonard, Guy; Metfies, Katja; Richards, Thomas A. (2020).

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are excellent food for zooplankton in terms of size (2–5 μm in diameter), shape, nutritional quality (rich in

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that must survive in open water, a low nutrient environment, until a new host is encountered. Another fungus,

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Era (542–251 Ma), the fungi appear to have been aquatic and consisted of organisms similar to the extant

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are denitrifiers both in marine and terrestrial environments. Some are co-denitrifying, fixing nitrogen into

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Nelsen, Matthew P.; Lücking, Robert; Boyce, C. Kevin; Lumbsch, H. Thorsten; Ree, Richard H. (January 2020).

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Kohlmeyer, J.; Kohlmeyer, E. Marine Mycology: The Higher Fungi; Elsevier: Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 2013.

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Money NP (1998). "Mechanics of invasive fungal growth and the significance of turgor in plant infection".

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James TY; et al. (2006). "Reconstructing the early evolution of Fungi using a six-gene phylogeny".

1782: 1412: 1318: 1024: 74: 1044: 1661: 4986: 4735: 4254: 4079: 4015: 3686: 3600: 3561: 3526: 3428: 3383: 3096: 3028: 2890: 2753: 2451: 2335: 2247: 2008: 1885: 1738: 1687: 1394: 1340: 1330: 1035: 955: 898: 829:, one species supported less than half the number of nematodes per mg of hyphae than did the others. 686: 670: 664: 104: 1557: 4996: 4427:

Moghadamtousi, Soheil; Nikzad, Sonia; Kadir, Habsah; Abubakar, Sazaly; Zandi, Keivan (2015-07-22).

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farmed in cages in marine environments may be affected by a number of different fungal infections.

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Hassett, B. T.; Gradinger, R. (2016). "Chytrids dominate arctic marine fungal communities".

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and lichenization. Recent (2009) studies suggest that the ancestral ecological state of the

486:—a grouping of evolutionarily related organisms broadly characterized by a single posterior 453: 428: 305: 4550:"A study on biological activity of marine fungi from different habitats in coastal regions" 3975: 4728: 3982: 3320: 2942: 1955: 1777:. These metabolites inhibit the virus's ability to replicate, thereby slowing infections. 1552: 1523: 1476: 1442: 1010: 971: 385:

but also some filamentous and multicellular fungi. The majority of the species found were

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Xu, Lijian; Meng, Wei; Cao, Cong; Wang, Jian; Shan, Wenjun; Wang, Qinggui (2015-06-02).

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Kagami, M., Miki, T. and Takimoto, G. (2014) "Mycoloop: chytrids in aquatic food webs".

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Hassett, BT; Gradinger, R (2016). "Chytrids dominate arctic marine fungal communities".

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limit the spread of fungal diseases. Infectious fungi known from killer whales include

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Sediment-bound marine fungi played a major role in breaking down oil spilled from the

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A Review of Potential Infectious Disease Threats to Southern Resident Killer Whales (

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species are the largest producers of antibacterial compounds among the marine fungi.

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gen. & sp. nov.(Helotiales, Cordieritidaceae) from South Australian mangroves".

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in southern China. These fossils are thought to be 551 to 635 million years old or

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and tissues. They can exert large penetrative mechanical forces; for example, many

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The secondary metabolites produced by marine fungi have high potential for use in

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Zhou, Songlin; Wang, Min; Feng, Qi; Lin, Yingying; Zhao, Huange (December 2016).

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Yuan X, Xiao S, Taylor TN (2005). "Lichen-like symbiosis 600 million years ago".

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can transfer material from large inedible phytoplankton to zooplankton. Chytrids

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Several sediment-dwelling marine fungi are involved in biogeochemical processes.

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wasting disease. The primary cause of this seems to be pathogenic strains of the

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sequences. Thirty six new marine lineages were found, the majority of which were

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group, but share a common habitat. Obligate marine fungi grow exclusively in the

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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Gaydos, Joseph K.; Balcomb, Kenneth C.; Osborne, Richard W.; Dierauf, Leslie.

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enzyme from continuing to aid in the repair and replication of cancer cells.

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in estuaries. It obtains nutrients from the host alga and produces swimming

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Morphological diversity of fungi collected from a marine sponge species,

2463: 4807: 4720: 4625: 4445: 4406: 4374: 4313: 4227: 3918: 3448: 3270:"Congruence of chloroplast – BMC Evolutionary Biology – BioMed Central" 3168: 3146:(Phaeophyceae): thallus organization and symbiont interaction – NCBI". 2324:"Fungus-like mycelial fossils in 2.4-billion-year-old vesicular basalt" 2166: 2103: 2083:"Fungi in the marine environment: Open questions and unsolved problems" 1995:

Gladfelter, Amy S.; James, Timothy Y.; Amend, Anthony S. (March 2019).

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