418:, which seals the surface, makes it hard and conductive. Its outgassing rate is considerably less than non-treated aluminium. Aluminium and its alloys have low strength at high temperatures, distort when being welded, and the copper-containing ones are poorly weldable. Aluminium wire rings can be used as cheap gaskets in demountable seals. Aluminium has high thermal conductivity, good corrosion resistance, and low solubility of hydrogen. Loss of strength at high temperatures limits its use in bakeable applications, but aluminium is advantageous for large-size systems due to its lower weight and lower cost than stainless steel. Use of aluminium is limited by difficulties in its welding and brazing. It can be used for x-ray windows.
89:
24:
563:. Care has to be taken while choosing the alloys, as some elements tend to outgas. Cadmium and zinc are the worst common offenders. Silver, a common component of brazing alloys, can be problematic at higher temperatures and lower pressures. A silver-copper eutectic, named e.g. Cusil, is recommended. A superior alternative is a copper-silver-tin alloy called Cusiltin. Copper-silver-phosphorus alloys, e.g. Sil-Fos, are also suitable.
850:
867:
also available. For mounting or joining thin metal foils, grids, or other small pieces that are not expected to undergo stress, silver or gold paste may be used as an adhesive. After fixing the material(s) with silver paste, the piece must be baked (to >200 °C) in air for >24 hours to remove volatiles prior to insertion into vacuum.
591:
or Teflon) is commonly used inside of vacuum systems. It is self-lubricating, a good electrical insulator, tolerant to fairly high temperatures, and has low out-gassing. It is not suitable for barrier between vacuum and atmosphere, as it is somewhat permeable for gases. Ceramics is a superior choice,
548:
are sometimes unavoidable for soft-soldered joints. Tin-lead solders (Sn50Pb50, Sn60Pb40, Sn63Pb37) can be conditionally used when the apparatus is not to be baked and operating temperatures aren't elevated (lead tends to outgas). A better choice for vacuum systems is the tin-silver eutectic, Sn95Ag5
870:
Faraday Wax is perhaps a cheaper alternative to Torr-Seal, but just as effective. Indeed some of its physical properties make it more favourable than epoxies. Faraday Wax is a malleable dark red solid with a low melting point. Joints can be made with
Faraday Wax via heating the two surfaces to be
866:
Torr-Seal, or its generic equivalent Hysol-1C (US brand name) or
Loctite 9492 (EU brand name), is an epoxy with resin and hardener for use in vacuum environments. It will begin to degrade at high temperatures but otherwise is very stable with very little outgassing. Other vacuum-rated epoxies are
469:
is unsuitable for high vacuum as it is difficult to outgas completely. Copper is insensitive to hydrogen and impermeable to hydrogen and helium, has low sensitivity to water vapor, but is attacked by mercury. Its strength falls sharply above 200 °C (392 °F). Its vapor pressure becomes
185:
from the surface only), and evaporation of the material itself. The former can be reduced by a bakeout, the latter is an intrinsic property of the material. Some outgassed materials can deposit on other surfaces, contaminate the vacuum system and be difficult to get rid of.
549:(Sn-Ag eutectic is actually 96.5-3.5); its melting point of 230 °C (446 °F) allows bakeout up to 200 °C (392 °F). A similar 95-5 alloy, Sn95Sb5, is unsuitable as antimony has similar vapor pressure as lead. Take care to remove
145:
glass, even if slowly (and elevated temperatures above room temperature are generally needed); this however is usually not an issue. Some materials might also expand or increase in size causing problems in delicate equipment.
288:
from soldering and brazing, and lubricants from machining making thorough cleaning imperative. Getting the outgassable residues from tight crevices can be challenging; a good mechanical design that avoids such features can
464:
is widely used. It is easily machined and has good corrosion resistance. It is unsuitable for bakeable vacuum envelopes due to its tendency to oxidize and create scales. Copper rings are used in demountable seals. Normal
837:. Tungsten disulfide used to be significantly more expensive, but molybdenum disulfide prices have risen to a comparable range. Usable from −188 to +1316 °C in vacuum, from −273 to +650 °C in normal atmosphere.
920:, thermal loads from solar radiation, radiation cooling of the vehicle in other directions, and heat produced within the spacecraft's systems. Another concern, for orbits closer to Earth, is the presence of
928:
of exposed surfaces; aluminium is an especially sensitive material. Silver, often used for surface-deposited interconnects, forms layer of silver oxide that flakes off and may erode up to a total failure.
131:
materials or from cracks and crevices. Traces of lubricants, residues from machining, can be present on the surfaces. A specific risk is outgassing of solvents absorbed in plastics after cleaning.
871:
joined, then press the wax against the heated surfaces similar to soldering. These joints are suitable down to 10 mbar and can be made between glass and metal. It was first described by
442:. It is relatively low-cost, can be spot welded, can be easily machined, has high melting point and is resistant to many corrosive fluids and atmospheres. Its potential drawback is its
651:(polyetheretherketone) has relatively low out-gassing values (0.31% total mass loss (TML), 0.00% collected volatile condensable material (CVCM), 0.06% water vapour regained (WVR)).
134:
The gases liberated from the materials not only lower the vacuum quality, but also can be reabsorbed on other surfaces, creating deposits and contaminating the chamber.
1281:
Chemical
Manipulation: Being Instructions to Students in Chemistry, on the Methods of Performing Experiments of Demonstration Or of Research, with Accuracy and Success
53:
1296:
476:
is suitable for some applications. It has good corrosion resistance. Its zinc content may cause problems; zinc outgassing can be reduced by nickel-plating.
149:
In addition to the gas-related issues, the materials have to maintain adequate strength through the entire required temperature range (sometimes reaching
488:
wire is used as a gasket in demountable seals for ultra-high vacuum, as well as an alternative to lead-tin solder for making electrical connections.
410:, as the oxide layer traps (and then outgasses) water vapor. Anodizing also makes the surface non-conducting, so that its surface will charge up in
402:
are another class of frequently used materials. They are well-machinable and have low outgassing, unless the alloys contain higher proportions of
749:
is a machinable ceramic that is an excellent alternative to alumina, as the firing process of alumina can change the dimensions and tolerances.
1086:
123:
on the material surface (therefore materials with low affinity to water have to be chosen, which eliminates many plastics). Materials may
821:, can be incorporated in plastics as fillers, as a component of sintered metals, or deposited on metal, ceramic and plastic surfaces.
783:
is an old composition of paraffin wax, vaseline and natural rubber, usable up to about 25 °C, for low vacuums to about 1 Pa.
1044:
75:
93:
702:) very low out-gassing similar to PTFE and withstands baking temperatures up to 300 °C, while chemically one of the most
739:
and therefore non-porous, are excellent insulators usable up to 1500 °C. Some ceramics can be machined. Ceramics can be
124:
158:
88:
127:
in vacuum (this includes some metals and their alloys, most notably cadmium and zinc). Or the gases can be released from
740:
617:
is very expensive, but machines well, has good electrical insulator properties and is compatible with ultra-high vacuum.
518:
is often used in high temperature applications as well as for filaments in electron/ion optics. It becomes brittle from
415:
311:
115:
temperatures. The requirements grow increasingly stringent with the desired degree of vacuum to be achieved in the
657:
is a type of polyimide film, has very low outgassing. Kapton is discouraged if a ceramic alternative can be used.
36:
392:. It has high permeability to hydrogen and tendency to rust. For use it should be thoroughly degassed in vacuum.
508:
windows. It is costly and scarce, its uses are therefore limited. Zirconium and zirconium hydride are used for
348:
46:
40:
32:
1325:
584:
578:
856:'s 4-inch cyclotron. A D-shaped cyclotron that contains glass-to-metal vacuum joints made from Faraday Wax.
721:
is often used for smaller assemblies and for viewports. It can be machined and joined well. Glasses can be
556:
170:
57:
257:, namely many plastic tapes (special attention should be paid to adhesives). Fiberglass composites, e.g.
157:
or lack of it, etc.), be machinable, and if possible not be overly expensive. Yet another concern is the
1110:
917:
369:
1236:"Applied Tungstenite: Aerospace: Tungsten Disulfide WS2 dry film Lubricant and Citric Acid Passivation"
1164:
990:
824:
411:
294:
154:
581:, are suitable for use in vacuum. They have low outgassing and are tolerant to higher temperatures.
722:
504:, so it is used as a coating of areas where reducing their production is important. It is used for
501:
334:
1330:
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957:
925:
830:
810:
794:
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718:
461:
214:, problematic for high vacuum and higher temperatures, present in some construction alloys, e.g.
789:
is a fluorether-based vacuum grease, useful from −75 to over 350 °C, not flammable even in
623:, despite its high outgassing rate, can be used in limited applications for rough vacuum lines.
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119:. The materials can produce gas by several mechanisms. Molecules of gases and water can be
1123:
945:
872:
853:
297:
from materials such as Tin or Zinc, which can cause physical issues or electrical shorts
293:
There are also additional physical issues which come with vacuum, including the growth of
197:
833:
is another dry lubricant usable in vacuum. It can be used at higher temperatures than MoS
1235:
1168:
994:
137:
Yet another problem is diffusion of gases through the materials themselves. Atmospheric
685:
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and form conductive deposits on surfaces. Any materials that have been zinc-coated by
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979:"The Diffusion of Helium and of Hydrogen Through Pyrex Chemically Resistant Glass"
978:
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systems. Not all alloys are suitable; e.g. the free-machining 303 steel contains
153:
temperatures), maintain their properties (elasticity, plasticity, electrical and
674:), commonly used for demountable vacuum seals (bakeable only up to 100 °C).
642:
479:
450:
439:
352:
a low-carbon and low-magnetic stainless steel, used in accelerator technologies.
327:
219:
849:
1256:
909:
684:) is used for demountable vacuum seals. It is better for lower pressures than
525:
377:
182:
178:
120:
104:
1152:
269:
are sometimes advised against. See below for further discussion of plastics.
885:
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is self-lubricating but has high outgassing rate and high affinity to water.
614:
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229:
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150:
944:
layer is also possible. However the coating layer is subject to erosion by
446:, which restricts applications that would be influenced by magnetic fields.
344:, a low-carbon variant of 304 steel, is used for ultra-high vacuum systems.
1212:
763:
605:
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407:
254:
243:
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112:
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is a highly chemically inert material with high cost and low outgassing.
189:
The most common sources of trouble (out-gassing) in vacuum systems are:
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429:
389:
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193:
1002:
1191:"TorrLube.com | The Unrivaled Leader in High Vacuum Lubrication"
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have sufficient vacuum properties to be employed in vacuum o-rings:
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10 kPa). Outgassing can be lowered with suitable (e.g. nickel)
1176:
522:
when mechanically deformed, or subjected to very high temperatures.
432:, which makes it suitable for sliding fits against stainless steel.
1213:"Comparison between Molybdenum Disulfide & Tungsten Disulfide"
848:
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681:
626:
473:
425:
326:, which tends to outgas. Alloys with good weldability under argon
234:
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142:
87:
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is widely used in vacuum technology, e.g. as mechanical parts in
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17:
1153:"Analysis of Hubble Space Telescope Reaction Wheel Lubricant"
932:
Corrosion-sensitive surfaces can be protected by a suitable
809:, a brand encompassing a range of lubricating oils based on
1190:
899:
A modern wax intended for high-vacuum use is
Apiezon Wax W.
758:
Lubrication of moving parts is a problem for vacuum. Many
226:
should be avoided, or they have the coating removed first.
908:
In addition to the concerns above, materials for use in
843:
is a graphite-like dry lubricant used in space vehicles.
645:
are good electrical insulators with moderate outgassing.
635:
have high outgassing rate and high affinity to water.
762:have unacceptable outgassing rates, others (e.g.
500:is corrosion-resistant. It has low production of
424:is a material that looks and machines similar to
169:Materials outgas by three mechanisms: release of
45:but its sources remain unclear because it lacks
470:significant at above 500 °C (932 °F).
1258:Faraday Wax - DIY Historic High Vacuum Sealant
600:is usable but requires thorough out-gassing.
532:are useful for high temperature applications.
96:was used to test various materials in vacuum.
8:
1297:"Vacuum Sealing, Mounting and Etching Waxes"
875:in "Chemical Manipulation" 1827. By weight:
1024:
1022:
1020:
1018:
177:from the bulk of the material), release of
1083:"TM-1615: Materials for Ultra-High Vacuum"
301:Review of materials and issues to consider
103:are materials that show very low rates of
1094:
977:Taylor, Nelson W.; Rast, William (1938).
604:can be used as a cheaper alternative for
482:is used as a gasket in demountable seals.
261:(G-10) and G-30, should be avoided. Even
250:due to outgassing at higher temperatures.
218:and some brazing alloys. Tends to poison
76:Learn how and when to remove this message
380:can be used for moderate vacuums above 1
338:is a common choice of a stainless steel.
1076:
1074:
1072:
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1068:
1066:
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111:and, where applicable, are tolerant to
1151:Carré, D. J.; Bertrand, P. A. (1999).
1119:
1108:
1087:Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory
7:
1295:Apiezon, M&I Materials Limited.
827:is a dry lubricant usable in vacuum.
458:is used primarily for x-ray windows.
279:insulation (also a source of leaks)
559:are used for joining materials by
14:
1157:Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets
692:. It is bakeable to 200 °C.
22:
983:The Journal of Chemical Physics
912:applications have to cope with
766:) lose lubricating properties.
314:are the most common choice for
196:, often present in the form of
94:Long Duration Exposure Facility
1:
1032:Vacuum Physics and Technology
159:thermal expansion coefficient
1138:"Basic Info on Tin Whiskers"
360:does not accept high polish.
1284:. W. Phillips. p. 479.
428:. It is not susceptible to
312:Austenitic stainless steels
101:Materials for use in vacuum
1347:
1081:G. Lee (August 15, 1989).
904:Materials for use in space
793:, and highly resistant to
1278:Faraday, Michael (1827).
1211:Ketan (2 December 2008).
688:and chemically much more
275:, usually in the form of
161:match of adjacent parts.
141:can diffuse even through
1238:. appliedtungstenite.com
414:. The best treatment is
406:. The parts must not be
31:This section includes a
841:Hexagonal boron nitride
585:Polytetrafluoroethylene
579:polyvinylidene fluoride
284:Various residues, e.g.
60:more precise citations.
1118:Cite journal requires
857:
97:
918:ultraviolet radiation
852:
777:with low outgassing.
735:ceramics, when fully
412:electrostatic systems
370:magnetic permeability
91:
1029:Meurant, G. (1980).
825:Molybdenum disulfide
713:Glasses and ceramics
449:Nickel alloys, e.g.
349:316L stainless steel
342:304L stainless steel
330:are usually chosen.
155:thermal conductivity
1169:1999JSpRo..36..109C
995:1938JChPh...6..612T
916:and high-intensity
811:perfluoropolyethers
706:sealing elastomers.
542:are good materials.
502:secondary electrons
368:is chosen when low
365:321 stainless steel
357:347 stainless steel
335:304 stainless steel
958:Vacuum engineering
936:, most often with
858:
831:Tungsten disulfide
795:ionizing radiation
741:joined with metals
723:joined with metals
719:Borosilicate glass
462:Oxygen-free copper
246:used in some soft
165:Materials to avoid
98:
33:list of references
1003:10.1063/1.1750133
320:ultra-high vacuum
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893:Venetian red
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598:Polyethylene
440:vacuum tubes
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220:hot cathodes
188:
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52:Please help
44:
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678:FKMs (FPMs)
643:polystyrene
480:Indium wire
451:cupronickel
416:Alochroming
328:arc welding
316:high vacuum
58:introducing
1320:Categories
1305:2024-02-27
1265:2022-06-22
1242:2015-09-08
1221:2015-09-08
1197:2015-09-08
1102:2015-09-08
1052:2015-09-08
1008:2021-08-28
964:References
910:spacecraft
760:lubricants
754:Lubricants
662:elastomers
526:Molybdenum
378:Mild steel
372:is needed.
183:desorption
105:outgassing
1331:Materials
926:corrosion
886:colophony
861:Adhesives
737:vitrified
729:Porcelain
615:polyimide
606:bell jars
553:residues.
510:gettering
498:Zirconium
456:Beryllium
396:Aluminium
230:Magnesium
202:soldering
173:gases (de
151:cryogenic
125:sublimate
952:See also
884:5 parts
807:Torrlube
764:graphite
633:Acrylics
592:however.
568:Plastics
536:Titanium
530:tantalum
516:Tungsten
492:Platinum
408:anodized
295:whiskers
255:plastics
244:antimony
179:adsorbed
175:sorption
171:absorbed
121:adsorbed
113:bake-out
66:May 2021
1165:Bibcode
991:Bibcode
934:plating
891:1 part
888:(rosin)
880:beeswax
878:1 part
803:greases
775:greases
733:alumina
602:Nalgene
577:, e.g.
561:brazing
546:Solders
540:niobium
506:neutron
430:galling
390:plating
259:Micarta
248:solders
206:brazing
194:Cadmium
181:gases (
54:improve
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787:Krytox
655:Kapton
612:Vespel
467:copper
436:Nickel
324:sulfur
306:Metals
267:Teflon
263:Kapton
235:Paints
208:alloys
139:helium
129:porous
109:vacuum
1300:(PDF)
1216:(PDF)
747:Macor
704:inert
700:FFPMs
696:FFKMs
690:inert
682:Viton
660:Some
627:Nylon
573:Some
474:Brass
426:brass
289:help.
253:Many
216:brass
143:Pyrex
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1124:help
1041:ISBN
940:; a
938:gold
773:are
731:and
668:NBRs
649:PEEK
641:and
589:PTFE
551:flux
538:and
528:and
486:Gold
404:zinc
398:and
318:and
286:flux
277:wire
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