412:
part of our criminal justice system." A major point in dispute in reaching the majority's decision was the proposition that the 2,500 cases studied, like other cases in general, did not share common personnel or officials but each case involved a different set of jurors, frequently different judges, and different prosecutors. Thus no common mechanism was either identified or likely to explain a racially disparate impact. Without a plausible basis for inferring that a racially disparate effect was circumstantial evidence of a racially biased cause (even if a hidden cause), the
Supreme Court majority did not find racial bias or discrimination. The majority sought to distinguish between a disparate effect as evidence of a discriminatory system from a disparate effect without a discriminatory cause. Thus, the Supreme Court left open the possibility that if a racially biased influence were identified the result might be different. Without more, the majority viewed each of the 2,500 cases in the study as a separate event without any discernible linkage between them.
370:; his victim was white Atlanta Police Officer Frank Schlatt. At the sentencing hearing, the jury found two aggravating circumstances existed beyond a reasonable doubt: the murder was committed during the course of an armed robbery, and the murder was committed upon a police officer engaged in the performance of his duties. A finding of either aggravating circumstance was sufficient to impose the death penalty. Petitioner did not provide any mitigating circumstances, and the jury recommended the death penalty. The court followed the jury's recommendation and sentenced petitioner to death.
42:
396:, studied 2500 murder cases in Georgia. Baldus' study concluded that all individuals convicted of murdering whites were far more likely to receive the death penalty, thus establishing that the application of the death penalty in Georgia was linked with the race of the victim. One of his models concluded that even after taking account of 39 nonracial variables, defendants charged with killing white victims were 4.3 times as likely to receive a death sentence than defendants charged with killing black victims.
524:
of conscious intentional bias is almost impossible to come by in the absence of some kind of admission. But the U.S. Supreme Court has said that the courthouse doors are closed to claims of racial bias in the absence of that kind of evidence, which has really immunized the entire criminal justice system from judicial and to a large extent public scrutiny of the severe racial disparities and forms of racial discrimination that go on every day unchecked by our courts and our legal process.
411:
The decision said that even if Baldus' statistical data were accepted at face value, the defense failed to show evidence of conscious, deliberate bias by law officials associated with the case, and it dismissed evidence of general disparities in sentencing, such as the Baldus study, as "an inevitable
523:
McClesky versus Kemp has immunized the criminal justice system from judicial scrutiny for racial bias. It has made it virtually impossible to challenge any aspect, criminal justice process, for racial bias in the absence of proof of intentional discrimination, conscious, deliberate bias ... Evidence
309:
of Warren McCleskey for armed robbery and murder was upheld. The Court said the "racially disproportionate impact" in the
Georgia death penalty indicated by a comprehensive scientific study was not enough to mitigate a death penalty determination without showing a "racially discriminatory purpose."
535:
On the other hand, some academics have argued that the impact of McCleskey v. Kemp has largely been overstated. Even though McCleskey v. Kemp seems to dismiss statistical racial disparities as doctrinally irrelevant in equal protection claims, admissions statistics have been used in judicial
502:
by government rather than merely discriminatory effects. At the same time federal and state governments choosing to use executions continue to carry out their deadly work with full and undeniable knowledge that the practice is tainted by racial bias, similar the
457:
Stevens did not go so far as to suggest that the death penalty was inherently inappropriate under these circumstances but stated that the case should have been remanded to the Court of
Appeals for a determination of the validity of the Baldus study.
1831:
477:
can be shown. The
Supreme Court generally requires, in addition to discriminatory effect, for a discriminatory purpose to be shown as the government's motivation for creating the law in the first place (See:
1841:
1287:
564:
408:, held that the statistical study did not present substantial evidence that would require a reversal of petitioner's conviction. The Court concluded that the lower court had properly applied Georgia law.
374:
373:
On appeal to the federal courts via a habeas petition, petitioner alleged the state's capital sentencing process was administered in a racially discriminatory manner in violation of the
439:
Brennan's lengthy dissent noted at the outset the belief he shared with
Justice Marshall that "the death penalty is in all circumstances cruel and unusual punishment forbidden by the
141:
444:
288:
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852:
827:
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549:
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447:." Brennan further contended that even if capital punishment were constitutional, it could hardly be so where it was demonstrably biased against members of a particular race.
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has been used to illustrate that claims based on government denial of "equal protection of the laws" to racial minorities may fail unless something more than discriminatory
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847:
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that asserted racial disparity in application of the death penalty, aggregate evidence is insufficient to invalidate an individual defendant's death sentence.
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Warren McCleskey was convicted of two counts of armed robbery and one count of murder in the
Superior Court of Fulton County, Georgia. McCleskey was
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McCleskey has been named one of the worst
Supreme Court decisions since World War II by a Los Angeles Times poll of liberal jurists. In a
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46:
393:
1693:
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1388:
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389:(the “Baldus study”), that indicated a risk that racial consideration entered into capital sentencing determinations.
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charged that the
Supreme Court had "effectively condoned the expression of racism in a profound aspect of our law."
1461:
1335:
529:
1717:
683:
1405:
1265:
1051:
Baldus, David C.; Pulaski, Charles A.; Woodworth, George (1992). "Law and
Statistics in Conflict: Reflections on
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1166:"Race and the Death Penalty: the Tension Between Individualized Justice And Racially Neutral Standards"
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963:"Eyes Wide Open: What Social Science Can Tell Us About the Supreme Court's Use of Social Science"
940:"Eyes Wide Open: What Social Science Can Tell Us About the Supreme Court's Use of Social Science"
912:
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354:, when asked by his biographer if he wanted to change his vote in any case, replied, "Yes,
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432:. The dissenters largely agreed with and crossjoined one another's dissents, and Justice
1653:
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1229:
1074:
Graines, Steven; Wyatt, Justin (2000). "The
Rehnquist Court, Legal Process Theory, and
926:
Warren McCleskey, who died in Georgia's electric chair last week, was no saint or hero.
859:
834:
425:
329:
237:
213:
65:
Warren McCleskey v. Kemp, Superintendent, Georgia Diagnostic and Classification Center
1825:
1199:
760:"Comparative Review of Death Sentences: An Empirical Study of the Georgia Experience"
334:
302:
881:
Michelle Alexander, appearing with Bryan Stevenson and Bill Moyers (April 2, 2010).
707:
78:
201:
17:
1150:
Killing with Prejudice: Institutionalized Racism in American Capital Punishment
450:
Blackmun's dissent largely echoed Brennan's concerns regarding the evidence of
145:
94:
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1091:
1024:
90:
1007:
Amsterdam, Anthony G. (2007). "Race and the Death Penalty Before and After
1247:
1182:
661:"Roe vs. Wade? Bush vs. Gore? What are the worst Supreme Court decisions?"
122:
115:
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783:
469:
has bearing on claims broader than those involving the death penalty.
1118:
775:
1034:
Equal Justice and the Death Penalty: A Legal and Empirical Analysis
1032:
Baldus, David C.; Pulaski, Charles A.; Woodworth, George (1990).
1800:
interpreted the Impartial Jury Clause of the Sixth Amendment. **
565:
List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rehnquist Court
134:
1362:
1313:
1269:
377:. Petitioner based his claims on a study, conducted by jurists
41:
1832:
Cruel and Unusual Punishment Clause and death penalty case law
758:
Baldus, David C.; Pulaski, Charles; Woodworth, George (1983).
1135:
Race and the Death Penalty: The Legacy of McCleskey v. Kemp
729:"A Vast Racial Gap in Death Penalty Cases, New Study Finds"
528:
Warren McCleskey (March 17, 1945 – September 25, 1991) was
1842:
United States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court
270:
Blackmun, joined by Marshall, Stevens; Brennan (in part)
262:
Brennan, joined by Marshall; Blackmun, Stevens (in part)
1055:". In Kagehiro, Dorothy K.; Laufer, William S. (eds.).
490:, for further clarification of this concept). Overall,
883:"Bill Moyers Journal . Watch & Listen | PBS"
550:
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 481
1103:: Race, Capital Punishment, and the Supreme Court".
560:
Lists of United States Supreme Court cases by volume
254:
Powell, joined by Rehnquist, White, O'Connor, Scalia
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34:
848:Personnel Administrator of Massachusetts v. Feeney
487:Personnel Administrator of Massachusetts v. Feeney
314:has been described as the "most far-reaching post-
420:Three dissenting opinions were filed by Justices
1133:Keys, David P. and Maratea, R. J. eds. (2016).
1059:. New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 271–291.
599:List of people executed in Georgia (U.S. state)
1281:
8:
753:
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616:
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494:may be seen to clarify the Supreme Court's
1847:Capital punishment in Georgia (U.S. state)
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589:Capital punishment in Georgia (U.S. state)
125:1984); affirmed in part, reversed in part
31:
1857:History of racism in Georgia (U.S. state)
1181:
1036:. Boston: Northeastern University Press.
555:List of United States Supreme Court cases
507:practices made unconstitutional in 1972.
992:. University of Pennsylvania Law Review.
1384:Racial discrimination in jury selection
799:"The Supreme Court Is Allergic To Math"
764:Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology
610:
594:Capital punishment in the United States
333:comment eight days after the decision,
1662:Edmonson v. Leesville Concrete Company
708:"New Look at Death Sentences and Race"
659:Savage, David G. (October 22, 2008).
29:1987 United States Supreme Court case
7:
536:opinions, such as the now abrogated
404:The Court, in an opinion by Justice
797:Roeder, Oliver (October 17, 2017).
967:Northwestern University Law Review
944:Northwestern University Law Review
47:Supreme Court of the United States
25:
1837:United States Supreme Court cases
1225:279 (1987) is available from:
986:"Explaining Grutter v. Bollinger"
682:Lewis, Anthony (April 28, 1987).
394:University of Iowa College of Law
305:Supreme Court case, in which the
1080:American Journal of Criminal Law
1013:Columbia Human Rights Law Review
40:
1261:Discussion of the death penalty
727:Liptak, Adam (August 3, 2020).
706:Liptak, Adam (April 29, 2008).
519:, has criticized the decision:
392:Baldus, a law professor at the
1852:1987 in United States case law
1694:J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B.
1057:Handbook of Psychology and Law
1:
1570:Thiel v. Southern Pacific Co.
1389:Women in United States juries
1137:. Lynne Rienner: Boulder, CO
1099:Kennedy, Randall L. (1988). "
1555:Fair cross-section in venire
1449:Brownfield v. South Carolina
1164:Patterson, Chaka M. (1995).
871:see Keys and Maratea (2016).
644:"McCleskey v. Kemp (1987)".
452:racial bias in capital cases
436:joined two of the dissents.
301:, 481 U.S. 279 (1987), is a
166:Despite the presentation of
1862:Racism in the United States
961:Feingold, Jonathan (2018).
938:Feingold, Jonathan (2018).
278:Stevens, joined by Blackmun
1878:
1462:Franklin v. South Carolina
1398:Racial exclusion in venire
1336:United States v. Armstrong
1248:Oyez (oral argument audio)
1152:. NYU Press: New York, NY
908:"Warren McCleskey Is Dead"
1406:Strauder v. West Virginia
1372:
1358:
1322:
1309:
1170:Texas Wesleyan Law Review
648:(on-line ed.). 2004.
530:executed by electrocution
287:
179:
165:
39:
1576:Ballard v. United States
1563:Glasser v. United States
766:(Submitted manuscript).
646:New Georgia Encyclopedia
1148:Maratea, R. J. (2019).
347:decision of our time."
54:Argued October 15, 1986
1782:Flowers v. Mississippi
526:
289:U.S. Const. amend. XIV
194:William J. Brennan Jr.
97:1817; 55 U.S.L.W. 4537
56:Decided April 22, 1987
1718:Johnson v. California
1710:Miller-El v. Cockrell
1670:Hernandez v. New York
1615:Peremptory challenges
1505:Patton v. Mississippi
1425:Gibson v. Mississippi
1344:United States v. Bass
1316:Selective prosecution
1183:10.37419/TWLR.V2.I1.2
984:Devins, Neal (2003).
521:
445:Fourteenth Amendments
1632:Griffith v. Kentucky
1531:Eubanks v. Louisiana
1478:Patterson v. Alabama
1431:Smith v. Mississippi
916:. September 29, 1991
811:on October 18, 2017.
671:on October 23, 2008.
538:Grutter v. Bollinger
400:Opinion of the Court
375:Fourteenth Amendment
339:Anthony G. Amsterdam
89:107 S. Ct. 1756; 95
1742:Snyder v. Louisiana
1726:Miller-El v. Dretke
1686:Georgia v. McCollum
1598:Holland v. Illinois
1583:Taylor v. Louisiana
1443:Tarrance v. Florida
1239:Library of Congress
887:Bill Moyers Journal
823:Washington v. Davis
570:Live from Death Row
532:in September 1991.
481:Washington v. Davis
416:Dissenting opinions
385:, and statistician
230:Sandra Day O'Connor
218:Lewis F. Powell Jr.
1766:Felkner v. Jackson
1750:Rivera v. Illinois
1624:Batson v. Kentucky
1544:Vasquez v. Hillery
1537:Coleman v. Alabama
1524:Hernandez v. Texas
1364:Discrimination in
1302:criminal procedure
1106:Harvard Law Review
913:The New York Times
734:The New York Times
713:The New York Times
689:The New York Times
684:"Bowing To Racism"
511:Michelle Alexander
322:capital sentencing
190:Associate Justices
168:empirical evidence
1819:
1818:
1815:
1814:
1808:were civil cases.
1792:
1791:
1774:Foster v. Chatman
1604:Berghuis v. Smith
1591:Duren v. Missouri
1470:Norris v. Alabama
1455:Rogers v. Alabama
1413:Virginia v. Rives
1354:
1353:
1328:McCleskey v. Kemp
1256:Appeal transcript
1215:McCleskey v. Kemp
1101:McCleskey v. Kemp
1076:McCleskey v. Kemp
1066:978-0-387-97568-9
1053:McCleskey v. Kemp
1043:978-1-55553-056-3
665:Los Angeles Times
621:McCleskey v. Kemp
576:Furman v. Georgia
467:McCleskey v. Kemp
356:McCleskey v. Kemp
298:McCleskey v. Kemp
294:
293:
206:Thurgood Marshall
186:William Rehnquist
131:McCleskey v. Kemp
112:McCleskey v. Zant
35:McCleskey v. Kemp
16:(Redirected from
1869:
1758:Thaler v. Haynes
1678:Trevino v. Texas
1517:Avery v. Georgia
1511:Cassell v. Texas
1486:Hale v. Kentucky
1419:Neal v. Delaware
1374:
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1113:(7): 1388–1443.
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807:. Archived from
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667:. Archived from
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516:The New Jim Crow
496:desire to punish
387:George Woodworth
368:African American
175:Court membership
156:1019 (1986).
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18:McClesky v. Kemp
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1437:Carter v. Texas
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202:Byron White
148:. granted,
1826:Categories
740:August 31,
605:References
362:Background
344:Dred Scott
95:U.S. LEXIS
93:262; 1987
1200:256158581
1192:1081-5449
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1092:0092-2315
1025:0090-7944
1009:McCleskey
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127:sub. nom.
91:L. Ed. 2d
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1572:(1946)**
1304:case law
1213:Text of
892:July 15,
632:279, 298
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544:See also
434:Marshall
426:Blackmun
350:Justice
251:Majority
123:N.D. Ga.
116:F. Supp.
1798:Glasser
1566:(1942)*
1377:History
1127:1341399
784:1143133
430:Stevens
422:Brennan
275:Dissent
267:Dissent
259:Dissent
161:Holding
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