Cooling tower - Knowledge

2867: 2599:— Side-stream filtration, although popular and effective, does not provide complete protection. With side-stream filtration, a portion of the water is filtered continuously. This method works on the principle that continuous particle removal will keep the system clean. Manufacturers typically package side-stream filters on a skid, complete with a pump and controls. For high flow systems, this method is cost-effective. Properly sizing a side-stream filtration system is critical to obtain satisfactory filter performance, but there is some debate over how to properly size the side-stream system. Many engineers size the system to continuously filter the cooling tower basin water at a rate equivalent to 10% of the total circulation flow rate. For example, if the total flow of a system is 1,200 gal/min (a 400-ton system), a 120 gal/min side-stream system is specified. 2658: 243: 288:, the indirect dew point evaporative cooling Maisotsenko Cycle (M-Cycle) is a theoretically sound method of reducing a fluid to dew point temperature which is lower than its wet bulb temperature. The M-cycle utilizes the psychrometric energy (or the potential energy) available from the latent heat of water evaporating into the air. While its current manifestation is as the M-Cycle HMX for air conditioning, through engineering design this cycle could be applied as a heat and moisture recovery device for combustion devices, cooling towers, condensers, and other processes involving humid gas streams. 480: 991: 2425: 48: 1034: 1023: 64: 200: 488: 384: 76: 2245: 473: 2466:— The stream of saturated exhaust air leaving the cooling tower. The plume is visible when water vapor it contains condenses in contact with cooler ambient air, like the saturated air in one's breath fogs on a cold day. Under certain conditions, a cooling tower plume may present fogging or icing hazards to its surroundings. Note that the water evaporated in the cooling process is "pure" water, in contrast to the very small percentage of drift droplets or water blown out of the air inlets. 2753: 370: 897:). As ambient air is drawn past a flow of water, a small portion of the water evaporates, and the energy required to evaporate that portion of the water is taken from the remaining mass of water, thus reducing its temperature. Approximately 2,300 kilojoules per kilogram (970 BTU/lb) of heat energy is absorbed for the evaporated water. Evaporation results in saturated air conditions, lowering the temperature of the water processed by the tower to a value close to 2761: 673: 2619:— A structural material for cooling towers which was largely abandoned in the early 2000s. It is still used occasionally due to its low initial costs, in spite of its short life expectancy. The life of treated timber varies a lot, depending on the operating conditions of the tower, such as frequency of shutdowns, treatment of the circulating water, etc. Under proper working conditions, the estimated life of treated timber structural members is about 10 years. 1232: 589: 392: 689: 2589:— Full-flow filtration continuously strains particulates out of the entire system flow. For example, in a 100-ton system, the flow rate would be roughly 300 gal/min. A filter would be selected to accommodate the entire 300 gal/min flow rate. In this case, the filter typically is installed after the cooling tower on the discharge side of the pump. While this is the ideal method of filtration, for higher flow systems it may be cost-prohibitive. 40: 2446:— Water droplets that are carried out of the cooling tower with the exhaust air. Drift droplets have the same concentration of impurities as the water entering the tower. The drift rate is typically reduced by employing baffle-like devices, called drift eliminators, through which the air must travel after leaving the fill and spray zones of the tower. Drift can also be reduced by using warmer entering cooling tower temperatures. 2266: 2100: 1318: 1303: 1240: 681: 4549: 1311: 7064: 5128: 1225: 544:. A large amount of water would have to be continuously returned to the ocean, lake or river from which it was obtained and continuously re-supplied to the plant. Furthermore, discharging large amounts of hot water may raise the temperature of the receiving river or lake to an unacceptable level for the local ecosystem. Elevated water temperatures can kill fish and other aquatic organisms (see 2806: 2372: 1389: 1159: 938: 741: 607: 312: 460:. By contrast, when the heat pumps are working in heating mode, the condensers draw heat out of the loop water and reject it into the space to be heated. When the water loop is being used primarily to supply heat to the building, the cooling tower is normally shut down (and may be drained or winterized to prevent freeze damage), and heat is supplied by other means, usually from separate 2545:(twb). Since the cooling towers are based on the principles of evaporative cooling, the maximum cooling tower efficiency depends on the wet bulb temperature of the air. The wet-bulb temperature is a type of temperature measurement that reflects the physical properties of a system with a mixture of a gas and a vapor, usually air and water vapor 2484:(TDS) and other impurities at an acceptably low level. Higher TDS concentration in solution may result from greater cooling tower efficiency. However the higher the TDS concentration, the greater the risk of scale, biological growth, and corrosion. The amount of blow-down is primarily regulated by measuring by the 3576: 239:

much shortened vertically (20 to 40 ft. high) and very much enlarged laterally. At the top is a set of distributing troughs, to which the water from the condenser must be pumped; from these it trickles down over "mats" made of wooden slats or woven wire screens, which fill the space within the tower".

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This phenomenon can be prevented by decreasing the relative humidity of the saturated discharge air. For that purpose, in hybrid towers, saturated discharge air is mixed with heated low relative humidity air. Some air enters the tower above drift eliminator level, passing through heat exchangers. The

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Among the issues that cause the most damage and strain to a water tower's systems is scaling. When an unwanted material or contaminant in the water builds up in a certain area, it can create deposits that grow over time. This can cause issues ranging from the narrowing of pipes to total blockages and

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spray water into the incoming air or onto a cardboard pad to cool the air before it passes over an air-cooled heat exchanger. Adiabatic cooling towers use less water than other cooling towers but do not cool the fluid as close to the wet bulb temperature. Most adiabatic cooling towers are also hybrid

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Facilities such as power plants, steel processing plants, petroleum refineries, or petrochemical plants usually install field erected type cooling towers due to their greater capacity for heat rejection. Field erected towers are usually much larger in size compared to the package type cooling towers.

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These early towers were positioned either on the rooftops of buildings or as free-standing structures, supplied with air by fans or relying on natural airflow. An American engineering textbook from 1911 described one design as "a circular or rectangular shell of light plate—in effect, a chimney stack

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Sometimes, natural draft cooling towers are constructed with structural steel in place of concrete (RCC) when the construction time of natural draft cooling tower is exceeding the construction time of the rest of the plant or the local soil is of poor strength to bear the heavy weight of RCC cooling

2945:. Three out of the original eight cooling towers were destroyed, and the remaining five were severely damaged. The towers were later rebuilt and all eight cooling towers were strengthened to tolerate adverse weather conditions. Building codes were changed to include improved structural support, and 2694:

indicated significant dynamic influences of the condensation trails on the surrounding atmosphere, manifested in temperature and humidity disturbances. The mechanism of these influences seemed to be associated either with the airflow over the trail as an obstacle or with vertical waves generated by

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Drift (or windage) is the term for water droplets of the process flow allowed to escape in the cooling tower discharge. Drift eliminators are used in order to hold drift rates typically to 0.001–0.005% of the circulating flow rate. A typical drift eliminator provides multiple directional changes of

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in an industrial facility. The cool water absorbs heat from the hot process streams which need to be cooled or condensed, and the absorbed heat warms the circulating water (C). The warm water returns to the top of the cooling tower and trickles downward over the fill material inside the tower. As

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In a counterflow design, the air flow is directly opposite to the water flow (see diagram at left). Air flow first enters an open area beneath the fill media, and is then drawn up vertically. The water is sprayed through pressurized nozzles near the top of the tower, and then flows downward through

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During the winter, other sites continuously operate cooling towers with 4 °C (39 °F) water leaving the tower. Basin heaters, tower draindown, and other freeze protection methods are often employed in cold climates. Operational cooling towers with malfunctions can freeze during very cold

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behind in the bulk of the water which has not been evaporated, thus raising the salt concentration in the circulating cooling water. To prevent the salt concentration of the water from becoming too high, a portion of the water is drawn off or blown down (D) for disposal. Fresh water make-up (M) is

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air into the tower, creating high entering and low exiting air velocities. The low exiting velocity is much more susceptible to recirculation. With the fan on the air intake, the fan is more susceptible to complications due to freezing conditions. Another disadvantage is that a forced draft design

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effectiveness. In areas with a hot climate, large office buildings, hospitals, and schools typically use one or more cooling towers as part of their air conditioning systems. Generally, industrial cooling towers are much larger than HVAC towers. HVAC use of a cooling tower pairs the cooling tower

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Crossflow is a design in which the airflow is directed perpendicular to the water flow (see diagram at left). Airflow enters one or more vertical faces of the cooling tower to meet the fill material. Water flows (perpendicular to the air) through the fill by gravity. The air continues through the

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These types of cooling towers are factory preassembled, and can be simply transported on trucks, as they are compact machines. The capacity of package type towers is limited and, for that reason, they are usually preferred by facilities with low heat rejection requirements such as food processing

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Algaecides, as their name might suggest, is intended to kill algae and other related plant-like microbes in the water. Biocides can reduce other living matter that remains, improving the system and keeping clean and efficient water usage in a cooling tower. One of the most common options when it

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When wet cooling towers with seawater make-up are installed in various industries located in or near coastal areas, the drift of fine droplets emitted from the cooling towers contain nearly 6% sodium chloride which deposits on the nearby land areas. This deposition of sodium salts on the nearby

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of the circulating water. Biological growth, scaling, and corrosion can be prevented by chemicals (respectively, biocide, sulfuric acid, corrosion inhibitor). On the other hand, the only practical way to decrease the electrical conductivity is by increasing the amount of blow-down discharge and

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are closed circuit cooling towers that can switch between wet or adiabatic and dry operation. This helps balance water and energy savings across a variety of weather conditions. Some hybrid cooling towers can switch between dry, wet, and adiabatic modes. Thermal efficiencies up to 92% have been

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By the turn of the 20th century, several evaporative methods of recycling cooling water were in use in areas lacking an established water supply, as well as in urban locations where municipal water mains may not be of sufficient supply; reliable in times of demand; or otherwise adequate to meet

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Under certain ambient conditions, plumes of water vapor can be seen rising out of the discharge from a cooling tower, and can be mistaken as smoke from a fire. If the outdoor air is at or near saturation, and the tower adds more water to the air, saturated air with liquid water droplets can be

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based chemicals. A normal industrial practice is to use two biocides, such as oxidizing and non-oxidizing types to complement each other's strengths and weaknesses, and to ensure a broader spectrum of attack. In most cases, a continual low level oxidizing biocide is used, then alternating to a

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A cooling tower serves to dissipate the heat into the atmosphere instead, so that wind and air diffusion spreads the heat over a much larger area than hot water can distribute heat in a body of water. Evaporative cooling water cannot be used for subsequent purposes (other than rain somewhere),

2531:— Sound energy emitted by a cooling tower and heard (recorded) at a given distance and direction. The sound is generated by the impact of falling water, by the movement of air by fans, the fan blades moving in the structure, vibration of the structure, and the motors, gearboxes or drive belts. 2925:. Fires can propagate internally within the tower structure when the cell is not in operation (such as for maintenance or construction), and even while the tower is in operation, especially those of the induced-draft type, because of the existence of relatively dry areas within the towers. 2735:), tend to penetrate into the gas exchange regions of the lung, and very small particles (less than 100 nanometers) may pass through the lungs to affect other organs. Though the total particulate emissions from wet cooling towers with fresh water make-up is much less, they contain more PM 223:, which in turn reduces the steam consumption, and thus the fuel consumption, while at the same time increasing power and recycling boiler-water. However the condensers require an ample supply of cooling water, without which they are impractical. While water usage is not an issue with 2941:, when three of the cooling towers collapsed owing to vibrations in 85 mph (137 km/h) winds. Although the structures had been built to withstand higher wind speeds, the shape of the cooling towers caused westerly winds to be funneled into the towers themselves, creating a 456:. In this type of system, the water circulating inside the water loop removes heat from the condenser of the heat pumps whenever the heat pumps are working in the cooling mode, then the externally mounted cooling tower is used to remove heat from the water loop and reject it to the 2456:— Water droplets blown out of the cooling tower by wind, generally at the air inlet openings. Water may also be lost, in the absence of wind, through splashing or misting. Devices such as wind screens, louvers, splash deflectors and water diverters are used to limit these losses. 2235:

The water consumption of the cooling tower comes from Drift, Bleed-off, Evaporation loss, The water that is immediately replenished into the cooling tower due to loss is called Make-up Water. The function of make-up water is to make machinery and equipment run safely and stably.

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Petroleum refineries may also have very large cooling tower systems. A typical large refinery processing 40,000 metric tonnes of crude oil per day (300,000 barrels (48,000 m) per day) circulates about 80,000 cubic metres of water per hour through its cooling tower system.

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The chemistry of the make-up water, including the amount of dissolved minerals, can vary widely. Make-up waters low in dissolved minerals such as those from surface water supplies (lakes, rivers etc.) tend to be aggressive to metals (corrosive). Make-up waters from

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Do not operate the tower without a heat load. Basin heaters may be used to keep the water in the tower pan at an above-freezing temperature. Heat trace ("heating tape") is a resistive heating element that is installed along water pipes to prevent freezing in cold

2565:— Inside the tower, fills are added to increase contact surface as well as contact time between air and water, to provide better heat transfer. The efficiency of the tower depends on the selection and amount of fill. There are two types of fills that may be used: 524:

with a cooling tower amounts to about 71,600 cubic metres an hour (315,000 US gallons per minute) and the circulating water requires a supply water make-up rate of perhaps 5 percent (i.e., 3,600 cubic metres an hour, equivalent to one cubic metre every second).

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is defined as the heat rejection in cooling 3 US gallons per minute (11 litres per minute) or 1,500 pounds per hour (680 kg/h) of water by 10 °F (5.6 °C), which amounts to 15,000 British thermal units per hour (4.4 kW), assuming a chiller

2342:, but does not recommend regularly-scheduled microbiologic assays for the bacteria. However, scheduled monitoring of potable water within a hospital might be considered in certain settings where persons are highly susceptible to illness and mortality from 1457:

it trickles down, it contacts ambient air rising up through the tower either by natural draft or by forced draft using large fans in the tower. That contact causes a small amount of the water to be lost as windage or drift (W) and some of the water (E) to

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weather. Typically, freezing starts at the corners of a cooling tower with a reduced or absent heat load. Severe freezing conditions can create growing volumes of ice, resulting in increased structural loads which can cause structural damage or collapse.

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of ground and surface water. The salt deposition problem from such cooling towers aggravates where national pollution control standards are not imposed or not implemented to minimize the drift emissions from wet cooling towers using seawater make-up.

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that can be up to 200 metres (660 ft) tall and 100 metres (330 ft) in diameter, or rectangular structures that can be over 40 metres (130 ft) tall and 80 metres (260 ft) long. Hyperboloid cooling towers are often associated with

846:, upon which clean water is sprayed and a fan-induced draft applied. The resulting heat transfer performance is close to that of a wet cooling tower, with the advantage of protecting the working fluid from environmental exposure and contamination. 516:

processing plants, food processing plants, semi-conductor plants, and for other industrial facilities such as in condensers of distillation columns, for cooling liquid in crystallization, etc. The circulation rate of cooling water in a typical 700

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Concentration cycles in the majority of cooling towers usually range from 3 to 7. In the United States, many water supplies use well water which has significant levels of dissolved solids. On the other hand, one of the largest water supplies, for

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discharged, which is seen as fog. This phenomenon typically occurs on cool, humid days, but is rare in many climates. Fog and clouds associated with cooling towers can be described as homogenitus, as with other clouds of man-made origin, such as

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transplantation units, or solid organ transplant units). Also, after an outbreak of legionellosis, health officials agree that monitoring is necessary to identify the source and to evaluate the efficacy of biocides or other prevention measures.

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bacteria travelled up to 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) through the air from a large contaminated cooling tower at a petrochemical plant in Pas-de-Calais, France. That outbreak killed 21 of the 86 people who had a laboratory-confirmed infection.

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The use of water modulating by-pass systems is not recommended during freezing weather. In such situations, the control flexibility of variable speed motors, two-speed motors, and/or two-speed motors multi-cell towers should be considered a

2727:(μm) in size, can be present in the drift from cooling towers. Larger particles above 10 μm in size are generally filtered out in the nose and throat via cilia and mucus but particulate matter smaller than 10 μm, referred to as PM 2305:

include cooling towers used in open recirculating evaporative cooling water systems, domestic hot water systems, fountains, and similar disseminators that tap into a public water supply. Natural sources include freshwater ponds and creeks.

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of the towers, and fires can be further intensified by natural convection or fan-assisted draft. The resulting damage can be sufficiently severe to require the replacement of the entire cell or tower structure. For this reason, some

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Windage (or drift) losses (W) is the amount of total tower water flow that is entrained in the flow of air to the atmosphere. From large-scale industrial cooling towers, in the absence of manufacturer's data, it may be assumed to be:

1461:. The heat required to evaporate the water is derived from the water itself, which cools the water back to the original basin water temperature and the water is then ready to recirculate. The evaporated water leaves its dissolved 2866: 495:

Industrial cooling towers can be used to remove heat from various sources such as machinery or heated process material. The primary use of large, industrial cooling towers is to remove the heat absorbed in the circulating

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consultant will evaluate the make-up water and the operating conditions of the cooling tower and recommend an appropriate range for the cycles of concentration. The use of water treatment chemicals, pretreatment such as

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than the total emissions from wet cooling towers with sea water make-up. This is due to lesser salt content in fresh water drift (below 2,000 ppm) compared to the salt content of sea water drift (60,000 ppm).

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is what necessitates the cooling tower. Although these large towers are very prominent, the vast majority of cooling towers are much smaller, including many units installed on or near buildings to discharge heat from

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remains controversial because its presence is not necessarily evidence of a potential for causing disease. The CDC recommends aggressive disinfection measures for cleaning and maintaining devices known to transmit

1133:) cooling towers have become the design standard for all natural-draft cooling towers because of their structural strength and minimum usage of material. The hyperboloid shape also aids in accelerating the upward 2689:

Issues related to applied meteorology of cooling towers, including the assessment of the impact of cooling towers on cloud enhancement were considered in a series of models and experiments. One of the results by

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efforts may focus on increasing cycles of concentration. Highly treated recycled water may be an effective means of reducing cooling tower consumption of potable water, in regions where potable water is scarce.

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of micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae can grow very rapidly in the cooling water, and can reduce the heat transfer efficiency of the cooling tower. Biofilm can be reduced or prevented by using

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Cycle of concentration represents the accumulation of dissolved minerals in the recirculating cooling water. Discharge of draw-off (or blowdown) is used principally to control the buildup of these minerals.

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technology, and has become the most common structural material for small cooling towers. It offers lower costs and requires less maintenance compared to reinforced concrete, which is still in use for large

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on the cooling tower side actually rejects about 15,000 British thermal units per hour (4.4 kW) due to the additional waste heat-equivalent of the energy needed to drive the chiller's compressor. This

2784:(industrial chimney), thus saving the cost of a separate chimney structure. At plants without flue gas purification, problems with corrosion may occur, due to reactions of raw flue gas with water to form 870:

through a heat exchanger that separates the working coolant from ambient air, such as in a radiator, utilizing convective heat transfer. They do not use evaporation and are air-cooled heat exchangers.

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relative humidity of the dry air is even more decreased instantly as being heated while entering the tower. The discharged mixture has a relatively lower relative humidity and the fog is invisible.

2096:(deposit minerals). Increasing the amount of minerals present in the water by cycling can make water less aggressive to piping; however, excessive levels of minerals can cause scaling problems. 1763: 1969: 1774: 3492: 2123:. The temperatures of the recirculating water, piping and heat exchange surfaces determine if and where minerals will precipitate from the recirculating water. Often a professional 294:

In 2021, researchers presented a method for steam recapture. The steam is charged using an ion beam, and then captured in a wire mesh of opposite charge. The water's purity exceeded

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van Vliet, Michelle T. H.; Wiberg, David; Leduc, Sylvain; Riahi, Keywan (2016). "Power-generation system vulnerability and adaptation to changes in climate and water resources".

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or water treatment chemical exposure. Also, about every six months, inspect the conditions of the drift eliminators making sure there are no gaps to allow the free flow of dirt.

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is what necessitates the cooling tower. Conversely, not all nuclear power plants have cooling towers, and some instead cool their working fluid with lake, river or ocean water.

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A multitude of microscopic organisms such as bacterial colonies, fungi, and algae can easily thrive within the moderately high temperatures present inside a cooling tower.

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The consumption of cooling water by inland processing and power plants is estimated to reduce power availability for the majority of thermal power plants by 2040–2069.

1141:. However, this association is misleading, as the same kind of cooling towers are often used at large coal-fired power plants and some geothermal plants as well. The 2036: 924:) upon which the water flows. Both methods create increased surface area and time of contact between the fluid (water) and the gas (air), to improve heat transfer. 4149: 2912:

Cooling towers constructed in whole or in part of combustible materials can support internal fire propagation. Such fires can become very intense, due to the high

4400: 3049: 2521:— The water that must be added to the circulating water system in order to compensate for water losses such as evaporation, drift loss, blow-out, blow-down, etc. 570:

areas do make use of once-through ocean water. But even there, the offshore discharge water outlet requires very careful design to avoid environmental problems.

285: 6431: 2326: 2144:, has a surface rainwater source quite low in minerals; thus cooling towers in that city are often allowed to concentrate to 7 or more cycles of concentration. 5073: 6587: 1079:

typically requires more motor horsepower than an equivalent induced draft design. The benefit of the forced draft design is its ability to work with high

5924: 5173: 2609:— Maximum allowed multiplier for the amount of miscellaneous substances in circulating water compared to the amount of those substances in make-up water. 3373: 3574:, van Iterson, F. K. T. & Kuypers, G, "Improved Construction of Cooling Towers of Reinforced Concrete", published 11 April 1918 6953: 3474: 4188: 6426: 6358: 2878:

Some cooling towers (such as smaller building air conditioning systems) are shut down seasonally, drained, and winterized to prevent freeze damage.

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Haman, Krzysztof E.; Malinowski, Szymon P. (1989). "Observations of cooling tower and stack plumes and their comparison with plume model "ALINA"".

3878:"Developing a Water Management Program to Reduce Legionella Growth & Spread in Buildings: A Practical Guide to Implementing Industry Standards" 7104: 2318:

airflow to prevent the escape of water droplets. A well-designed and well-fitted drift eliminator can greatly reduce water loss and potential for

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in its bottom is located near the top of a crossflow tower. Gravity distributes the water through the nozzles uniformly across the fill material.

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Due to their frequent use in or near residential areas, sound level control is a relatively more important issue for package type cooling towers.

4075:"Cooling Tower Institute, July 2008. Page 5 of 12, column 1, paragraph 3. Most professional and government agencies do not recommend testing for 4357: 4254: 6662: 6231: 4172: 4119: 3929: 150:

systems for cooling buildings. The classification is based on the type of air induction into the tower: the main types of cooling towers are

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Being very large structures, cooling towers are susceptible to wind damage, and several spectacular failures have occurred in the past. At

219:. Condensers use relatively cool water, via various means, to condense the steam coming out of the cylinders or turbines. This reduces the 4970: 3629: 1441:

Quantitatively, the material balance around a wet, evaporative cooling tower system is governed by the operational variables of make-up

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should be taken as the presence of other organisms can support legionella by producing the organic nutrients that it needs to thrive.

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A typical evaporative, forced draft open-loop cooling tower rejecting heat from the condenser water loop of an industrial chiller unit

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The Steam Engine: A Practical Guide to the Construction, Operation, and care of Steam Engines, Steam Turbines, and Their Accessories

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A "collection basin" or "cold water basin" is used to collect and contain the cooled water after its interaction with the air flow.

170:, although they are also used in many coal-fired plants and to some extent in some large chemical and other industrial plants. The 3448: 1083:. Such setups can be installed in more-confined spaces and even in some indoor situations. This fan/fin geometry is also known as 5325: 2773: 2163:

Disinfectant and other chemical levels in cooling towers and hot tubs should be continuously maintained and regularly monitored.

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is less dense than drier air at the same pressure. This moist air buoyancy produces an upwards current of air through the tower.

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and open sides rather than a fan; water to be cooled was sprayed from the top onto the radial pattern of vertical wire-mesh mats.

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plants, textile plants, some chemical processing plants, or buildings like hospitals, hotels, malls, automotive factories, etc.

6908: 6878: 6848: 6647: 6406: 6220: 5600: 4861: 4786: 4657: 2480:— The portion of the circulating water flow that is removed (usually discharged to a drain) in order to maintain the amount of 479: 4362: 6667: 5164: 2959: 2831: 2827: 2393: 2389: 2070:= about 0.0005 percent of C (or less) if the cooling tower has windage drift eliminators and uses sea water as make-up water. 1410: 1406: 1184: 1180: 959: 955: 766: 762: 632: 628: 333: 329: 4038: 2629:— The loss of wood preservative chemicals by the washing action of the water flowing through a wood structure cooling tower. 1466:

supplied to the tower basin to compensate for the loss of evaporated water, the windage loss water and the draw-off water.

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hot moist air out the discharge. This produces low entering and high exiting air velocities, reducing the possibility of

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towers or cement prices are higher at a site to opt for cheaper natural draft cooling towers made of structural steel.

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In the adjacent diagram, water pumped from the tower basin is the cooling water routed through the process coolers and

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fill and thus past the water flow into an open plenum volume. Lastly, a fan forces the air out into the atmosphere.

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water, it would require about 100,000 cubic metres an hour A large cooling water intake typically kills millions of

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A 1902 engraving of "Barnard's fanless self-cooling tower", an early large evaporative cooling tower that relied on

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or harmful fumes by the general public, when in reality the emissions from those towers mostly do not contribute to

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in the Netherlands on August 16, 1916. The first hyperboloid reinforced concrete cooling towers were built by the

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Besides treating the circulating cooling water in large industrial cooling tower systems to minimize scaling and

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The interactions of the air and water flow allow a partial equalization of temperature, and evaporation of water.

403:(heating, ventilating, and air conditioning) cooling tower is used to dispose of ("reject") unwanted heat from a 212: 3821: 1033: 67:

Forced draft wet cooling towers (height: 34 meters) and natural draft wet cooling tower (height: 122 meters) in

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Clean visible dirt & debris from the cold water basin and surfaces with any visible biofilm (i.e., slime).

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Do not operate the tower unattended. Remote sensors and alarms may be installed to monitor tower conditions.

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Typically noisier, due to the greater water fall height from the bottom of the fill into the cold water basin

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Both crossflow and counterflow designs can be used in natural draft and in mechanical draft cooling towers.

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to prevent growths that could interfere with the continuous flow of the water. Under certain conditions, a

487: 6780: 6775: 6740: 6506: 6468: 6348: 6059: 5490: 4918: 4781: 4564: 4453: 3029: 3004: 2691: 2541:— The approach is the difference in temperature between the cooled-water temperature and the entering-air 2481: 578: 521: 383: 281:, England. On both locations they were built to cool water used at a coal-fired electrical power station. 6526: 6204: 6163: 5879: 5550: 5370: 5053: 4821: 4816: 4796: 2999: 2922: 2777: 2705: 1130: 1126: 254: 162: 143: 139: 75: 52: 3447:

Thomas J. Feeley, III, Lindsay Green, James T. Murphy, Jeffrey Hoffmann, and Barbara A. Carney (2005).

472: 2752: 885:

In a wet cooling tower (or open circuit cooling tower), the warm water can be cooled to a temperature

6989: 6800: 6328: 6318: 6262: 6199: 6094: 5674: 5623: 5189: 4647: 4409: 4251: 4223: 3571: 3330: 2913: 2542: 2108: 1442: 1105: 902: 898: 416: 412: 258: 246: 116: 108: 56: 1293:

More prone to dirt buildup in the fill than counterflow designs, especially in dusty or sandy areas.

408: 262: 6903: 6888: 6843: 6642: 6545: 6194: 6184: 6158: 5944: 5606: 5515: 5485: 5385: 5355: 5249: 5209: 5018: 4851: 4751: 4726: 4679: 4488: 4478: 4443: 3637: 3438:

EPA Workshop on Cooling Water Intake Technologies, John Maulbetsch, Maulbetsch Consulting, May 2003

3009: 2984: 2918: 2289: 1267: 1138: 1111: 1064:

in which discharged air flows back into the air intake. This fan/fin arrangement is also known as

821: 563: 369: 224: 167: 3546: 2244: 7029: 6994: 6938: 6858: 6833: 6602: 6582: 6457: 6401: 6338: 6115: 5994: 5989: 5779: 5590: 5575: 5157: 4892: 4503: 4296: 4274: 3982: 3697: 2979: 2938: 2148: 1539: 921: 151: 3107: 2760: 994:

Access stairs at the base of a massive hyperboloid cooling tower give a sense of its scale (UK).

672: 3435: 2643:(FRP) is known for its high corrosion-resistance capabilities. Pultruded FRP is produced using 2273:

Another very important reason for using biocides in cooling towers is to prevent the growth of

2119:

out as mineral solids and cause fouling and heat exchange problems in the cooling tower or the

7068: 6853: 6750: 6597: 6029: 5984: 5739: 5734: 5664: 5560: 5396: 5199: 5043: 4923: 4528: 4168: 4143: 4115: 4039:"How do you Prevent Legionnaires' Disease in Cooling Towers? | Delta Cooling Towers, Inc" 3974: 3925: 3781: 3527: 3449:"Department of Energy/Office of Fossil Energy's Power Plant Water Management R&D Program." 3400: 3346: 3303: 3295: 2058:= 0.1 to 0.3 percent of C for an induced draft cooling tower without windage drift eliminators 1231: 912:

is used to increase the surface area and the time of contact between the air and water flows.

588: 546: 391: 155: 5142: 4056: 3641: 2555:— The range is the temperature difference between the warm water inlet and cooled water exit. 2297:

species are the cause of Legionnaires' disease in humans and transmission is via exposure to

2136:

adjustment, and other techniques can affect the acceptable range of cycles of concentration.

2052:= 0.3 to 1.0 percent of C for a natural draft cooling tower without windage drift eliminators 1095:— A hybrid type that appears like a natural draft setup, though airflow is assisted by a fan. 6984: 6943: 6928: 6828: 6808: 6496: 6251: 6246: 5829: 5535: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5340: 4992: 4933: 4637: 4632: 4609: 4518: 4458: 4231: 3966: 3338: 2021: 1462: 1012: 688: 577:

The world's tallest cooling tower is the 210 metres (690 ft) tall cooling tower of the

407:. Liquid-cooled chillers are normally more energy efficient than air-cooled chillers due to 184: 176: 4138:, Institute of Industrial Engineers/American Institute of Industrial Engineers, p. 101 2107:

As the cycles of concentration increase, the water may not be able to hold the minerals in

39: 7019: 6893: 6682: 6607: 6491: 6463: 6105: 6019: 6014: 5959: 5949: 5939: 5869: 5809: 5724: 5709: 5530: 5525: 5500: 5495: 5365: 5289: 5023: 4982: 4960: 4841: 4811: 4776: 4736: 4538: 4345: 4305: 4283: 4258: 3455: 3269: 2429: 2206: 2129: 2120: 1349:

Difficult to use variable water flow, as spray characteristics may be negatively affected.

1120: 1080: 1003: 266: 103:

stream, usually a water stream, to a lower temperature. Cooling towers may either use the

3227: 3157: 3140: 1368:

The air, now saturated with water vapor, is discharged from the top of the cooling tower.

395:

Cell of a cross-flow type cooling tower with fill material, and circulating water visible

4227: 3667: 3334: 2265: 2099: 1317: 1302: 1239: 998:

With respect to drawing air through the tower, there are three types of cooling towers:

680: 373:

Two HVAC cooling towers on the rooftop of a shopping center (Darmstadt, Hessen, Germany)

7044: 7024: 7014: 7009: 6999: 6979: 6918: 6813: 6745: 6687: 6672: 6617: 6241: 6138: 5914: 5894: 5859: 5794: 5714: 5555: 5545: 5454: 5304: 5274: 5229: 5224: 5048: 5038: 4836: 4448: 3944: 3877: 2781: 2189: 2064:= about 0.005 percent of C (or less) if the cooling tower has windage drift eliminators 894: 839: 235:; in areas with limited land, such as in cities, they took the form of cooling towers. 135: 127: 27:

Device which rejects waste heat to the atmosphere through the cooling of a water stream

3970: 3806:

Milton R. Beychok (October 1952). "How To Calculate Cooling Tower Control Variables".

2921:

and standards recommend that combustible cooling towers be provided with an automatic

1632:

Since the evaporated water (E) has no salts, a chloride balance around the system is:

550:), or can also cause an increase in undesirable organisms such as invasive species of 431:

is defined as the removal of 12,000 British thermal units per hour (3.5 kW). The

7083: 6702: 6627: 6323: 6174: 6069: 6034: 5804: 5799: 5754: 5595: 5570: 5565: 5540: 5510: 5380: 5279: 5259: 5239: 5150: 5068: 4856: 4741: 4652: 4642: 4599: 4483: 4438: 4338: 4318: 4235: 3179: 3024: 3014: 2280: 2256: 1142: 1116: 867: 802: 509: 497: 425: 220: 204: 171: 131: 3986: 1137:

air flow, improving cooling efficiency. These designs are popularly associated with

1011:

rises due to the density differential compared to the dry, cooler outside air. Warm

7049: 6933: 6883: 6755: 6712: 6652: 6501: 6179: 6079: 6054: 6049: 6044: 5974: 5909: 5789: 5759: 5699: 5694: 5669: 5580: 5459: 5375: 5299: 5284: 5269: 5088: 5063: 4928: 4897: 4711: 4513: 4371: 3720: 2964: 2709: 2432:

cooling tower (Estonia). Tower is shut down, revealing numerous water spray heads.

2085: 1310: 551: 505: 501: 420: 232: 216: 4000: 1115:. The patent was filed on 9 August 1917, and published on 11 April 1918. In 1918, 4365:

by Reginald Van de Velde, Lonely Planet, 15 February 2017 (see also excerpt from

3199: 2166:

Regular checks of water quality (specifically the aerobic bacteria levels) using

7039: 7034: 6958: 6913: 6873: 6770: 6677: 6511: 6153: 6110: 6084: 6024: 6004: 5999: 5874: 5834: 5819: 5764: 5689: 5659: 5654: 5470: 5335: 5254: 4913: 4881: 4674: 4662: 4582: 4508: 4498: 4428: 3112: 2946: 2903:

Manipulate or reduce airflow to maintain water temperature above freezing point.

2871: 2805: 2371: 2298: 2116: 1458: 1446: 1388: 1346:

Typically higher initial and long-term cost, primarily due to pump requirements.

1224: 1158: 937: 740: 606: 541: 513: 445:(COP) of 4.0. This COP is equivalent to an energy efficiency ratio (EER) of 14. 311: 188: 104: 31: 17: 4351: 7004: 6868: 6568: 6267: 6189: 6120: 6089: 5964: 5934: 5864: 5814: 5784: 5769: 5744: 5649: 5449: 5345: 5264: 5204: 4876: 4871: 4684: 4667: 4523: 3080:"Myth of cooling towers is symptomatic of global warming information shortage" 3019: 2874:

cooling towers made of structural steel for a power plant in Kharkiv (Ukraine)

2724: 2674: 2644: 2275: 2260: 2112: 2103:

Relationship between cycles of concentration and flow rates in a cooling tower

2089: 1134: 713: 457: 449: 96: 92: 68: 3531: 3350: 3307: 3145:. Scranton, Pa.: International Textbook Co. 33–34 of Section 29:"Condensers". 1276:

Gravity water distribution allows smaller pumps and maintenance while in use.

1247:

Typically lower initial and long-term cost, mostly due to pump requirements.

889:

than the ambient air dry-bulb temperature, if the air is relatively dry (see

448:

Cooling towers are also used in HVAC systems that have multiple water source

6838: 6785: 6637: 6226: 5904: 5899: 5849: 5824: 5679: 5475: 4592: 4587: 4473: 4433: 3957:

Cunha, BA; Burillo, A; Bouza, E (23 January 2016). "Legionnaires' disease".

2329:(CDC) does not recommend that health-care facilities regularly test for the 2301:—the inhalation of mist droplets containing the bacteria. Common sources of 2197: 2167: 2093: 890: 850: 724: 278: 4085: 3978: 916:

consists of material placed to interrupt the water flow causing splashing.

4043:

Manufacturers of Cooling Towers & Systems by Delta Cooling Towers, Inc

3516:"Optimizing the performance of Hybrid: Induced-Forced Draft Cooling Tower" 3245:"GB108863A Improved Construction of Cooling Towers of Reinforced Concrete" 1469: 231:

cooling needs. In areas with available land, the systems took the form of

6765: 6657: 6592: 6209: 6143: 5644: 5444: 5244: 5219: 5194: 4706: 3945:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – Emerging Infectious Diseases

3342: 2670: 2210: 1558: 1074:— A mechanical draft tower with a blower type fan at the intake. The fan 843: 211:

Cooling towers originated in the 19th century through the development of

120: 4001:"Legionella (Legionnaires' Disease and Pontiac Fever) About the Disease" 2577:(breaks up falling stream of water and interrupts its vertical progress) 905:, the difference determined by the initial humidity of the ambient air. 828:(usually water) is the evaporated fluid, and is exposed to the elements. 6692: 5719: 5391: 4627: 4617: 4378: 3493:"Pingshan II: the largest Cooling Tower in the world designed by Hamon" 2396: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2201: 2193: 2185: 1413: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1050:— Uses power-driven fan motors to force or draw air through the tower. 962: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 825: 582: 567: 562:

whereas surface-only cooling water can be re-used. Some coal-fired and

404: 336: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 270: 100: 80: 4358:

Wet cooling tower guidance for particulate matter, Environment Canada.

2511:

from the system by enabling the water to hold more solids in solution.

6707: 6697: 6396: 6148: 5954: 5704: 4622: 4252:

Wet Cooling Tower Guidance For Particulate Matter, Environment Canada

2942: 2005:= water temperature difference from tower top to tower bottom, in °C 537: 461: 3475:"Fire Prompts Renewed Calls to Close the Indian Point Nuclear Plant" 1235:

Mechanical draft crossflow cooling tower used in an HVAC application

161:

Cooling towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very large

3654:

Submitted as coursework for PH241, Stanford University, Winter 2015

3471:

cooling system kills over a billion fish eggs and larvae annually.

3366:"MIT steam collector captures pure water for reuse in power plants" 2949:

tests were introduced to check tower structures and configuration.

2147:

Since higher cycles of concentration represent less make-up water,

6612: 6411: 5844: 3181:

The Steam Engine and Turbine: A Text-Book for Engineering Colleges

2865: 2759: 2751: 2656: 2508: 2504: 2423: 2264: 2243: 2098: 1468: 1316: 1309: 1301: 1238: 1230: 1223: 989: 687: 679: 671: 587: 555: 486: 478: 471: 390: 382: 368: 241: 198: 180: 126:

Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in

74: 62: 46: 38: 1449:

and windage losses, draw-off rate, and the concentration cycles.

227:, it forms a significant limitation for many land-based systems. 5919: 5839: 4577: 3785: 2994: 2785: 2764:

Flue gas stack connection into a natural draft wet cooling tower

2503:, is a process for significantly reducing the need for bleeding 533: 400: 378: 147: 6541: 5146: 4382: 3849:"Technical Information for Cooling Towers Using Recycled Water" 1574:= Concentration of chlorides in circulating water (C), in ppmw 1334:

Spray water distribution makes the tower more freeze-resistant.

1119:

built the first hyperboloid natural-draft cooling tower at the

107:

of water to remove heat and cool the working fluid to near the

4319:"Ferrybridge C Power Station officially closes after 50 years" 2799: 2365: 1382: 1152: 931: 908:

To achieve better performance (more cooling), a medium called

734: 600: 305: 295: 6537: 4189:"Cloud Atlas leaps into 21st century with 12 new cloud types" 3422:

Profile of the Fossil Fuel Electric Power Generation Industry

3232:. Chicago: American School of Correspondence. pp. 43–46. 1337:

Breakup of water in spray makes heat transfer more efficient.

273:. The first ones in the United Kingdom were built in 1924 at 3693:"The inside of a cooling tower looks like no place on earth" 1477:

Using these flow rates and concentration dimensional units:

6760: 3204:

The Engineer (With Which is Incorporated Steam Engineering)

2639:— A common structural material for smaller cooling towers, 2133: 424:

with a liquid-cooled chiller or liquid-cooled condenser. A

115:, rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the 3721:"Cooling Towers Explained: How does a cooling tower work?" 2489:

subsequently increasing the amount of clean make-up water.

3592:"analysis and design of a hyperbolic (sic) cooling tower" 1910:

From a simplified heat balance around the cooling tower:

1007:— Utilizes buoyancy via a tall chimney. Warm, moist air 4057:"Guidelines Library | Infection Control | CDC" 2937:

on 1 November 1965, the station was the site of a major

2885:

To prevent freezing, the following procedures are used:

1542:(of any completely soluble salts ... usually chlorides) 6622: 3520:

Journal of the Pakistan Institute of Chemical Engineers

2756:

Flue gas stack inside a natural draft wet cooling tower

4363:

Striking pictures of Europe's abandoned cooling towers

3777:

Aqueous Wastes from Petroleum and Petrochemical Plants

2695:

the trail, often at a considerable altitude above it.

1993:= latent heat of vaporization of water = 2260 kJ / kg 540:

annually, as the organisms are impinged on the intake

415:. Air-cooled chillers must reject heat at the higher 30:

For the historical Iranian architectural element, see

2024: 1919: 1777: 1681: 866:) are closed circuit cooling towers which operate by 3547:"Falling giants: Britain's vanishing cooling towers" 3108:"What you need to know about nuclear cooling towers" 2900:

Maintain design water flow rate over the tower fill.

2712:

depending on the nature of the soil and enhance the

1321:

Forced-draft counter-flow package-type cooling tower

6972: 6799: 6721: 6575: 6484: 6450: 6377: 6281: 6129: 5632: 5318: 5180: 5097: 5007: 4944: 4906: 4760: 4697: 4608: 4563: 4556: 4416: 3822:"Best Management Practice Cooling Tower Management" 3420:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (1997). 3193: 3191: 2704:agriculture/vegetative lands can convert them into 2030: 1963: 1899: 1757: 1608:A water balance around the entire system is then: 257:cooling tower was patented by the Dutch engineers 4026:Airborne Legionella May Travel Several Kilometres 2333:bacteria. Scheduled microbiologic monitoring for 2092:) are usually higher in minerals, and tend to be 528:If that same plant had no cooling tower and used 4134:Institute of Industrial Engineers 1981– (1982), 3302:. Hearst Magazines. February 1930. p. 201. 3296:"Power Plant Cooling Tower Like Big Milk Bottle" 1287:More prone to freezing than counterflow designs. 920:is composed of thin sheets of material (usually 365:Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) 179:. Cooling towers are also often thought to emit 2214:periodic shock dose of non-oxidizing biocides. 2192:to remove particulates, and also be dosed with 1758:{\displaystyle MX_{M}=DX_{C}+WX_{C}=X_{C}(D+W)} 1279:Non-pressurized spray simplifies variable flow. 1039:Inside views from a natural draft cooling tower 4247: 4245: 3847:San Diego County Water Authority (July 2009). 3184:. New York: D. Van Nostrand. pp. 569–570. 3050:"Identifying Nuclear Reactors in Google Earth" 2115:of these minerals have been exceeded they can 1964:{\displaystyle E={C\Delta Tc_{p} \over H_{V}}} 491:Industrial cooling towers for fruit processing 6553: 5158: 4394: 3139:International Correspondence Schools (1902). 2327:US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2223:comes to biocides for your water is bromine. 1473:Fan-induced draft, counter-flow cooling tower 8: 2768:At some modern power stations equipped with 1290:Variable flow is useless in some conditions. 712:A typical field erected cooling tower has a 4148:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 3801: 3799: 3797: 3795: 3221: 3219: 3217: 3210:(1). Chicago: Taylor Publishing Co.: 69–72. 3173: 3171: 3169: 2834:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1973: 1479: 1187:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1110:Improved Construction of Cooling Towers of 838:) pass the working coolant through a large 769:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 635:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 483:Industrial cooling towers for a power plant 7100:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning 6560: 6546: 6538: 5925:High efficiency glandless circulating pump 5174:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning 5165: 5151: 5143: 4560: 4401: 4387: 4379: 3899:"Cooling Tower Chemicals – Robinson India" 3769: 3767: 3162:. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 283–286. 3134: 3132: 2018:= specific heat of water = 4.184 kJ / (kg 3883:. CDC. 5 June 2017. p. 13 {17 of 32. 3397:Handbook of Chemical Processing Equipment 2995:Heating, ventilating and air conditioning 2854:Learn how and when to remove this message 2571:(causes water to spread into a thin film) 2412:Learn how and when to remove this message 2023: 1953: 1942: 1926: 1918: 1873: 1840: 1813: 1805: 1794: 1784: 1778: 1776: 1734: 1721: 1705: 1689: 1680: 1429:Learn how and when to remove this message 1342:Disadvantages of the counterflow design: 1207:Learn how and when to remove this message 978:Learn how and when to remove this message 789:Learn how and when to remove this message 655:Learn how and when to remove this message 352:Learn how and when to remove this message 6359:Mold growth, assessment, and remediation 4114:, McGraw-Hill Professional, p. 66, 3054:CleanEnergy Footprints (cleanenergy.org) 805:mechanism employed, the main types are: 419:, and thus have a lower average reverse- 3893: 3891: 3747:"Cooling tower design and construction" 3041: 2721:Respirable suspended particulate matter 2283:or Legionnaires' disease, most notably 1283:Disadvantages of the crossflow design: 1262:consisting of a deep pan with holes or 387:FRP cooling tower installed on roof top 4141: 2780:, the cooling tower is also used as a 1330:Advantages of the counterflow design: 6232:Programmable communicating thermostat 3828:. Department of Energy. 30 April 2005 3780:(1st ed.). John Wiley and Sons. 3634:PH241: Introduction to Nuclear Energy 3458:U.S. Department of Energy, July 2005. 3426:Document No. EPA/310-R-97-007. p. 79. 3399:. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 69. 3178:Heck, Robert Culbertson Hays (1911). 1108:took out the UK patent (108,863) for 286:Gas Technology Institute (GTI) report 7: 6354:Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing 4352:"Cooling Towers" – includes diagrams 4271:National Fire Protection Association 4165:Chemical treatment for cooling water 4112:Retrofitting for energy conservation 3920:Ryan, K.J.; Ray, C.G., eds. (2004). 3628:Anderson, Kevin (26 February 2015). 3159:Steam-Engine Principles and Practice 2832:adding citations to reliable sources 2394:adding citations to reliable sources 1411:adding citations to reliable sources 1326:the fill, opposite to the air flow. 1272:Advantages of the crossflow design: 1185:adding citations to reliable sources 960:adding citations to reliable sources 767:adding citations to reliable sources 633:adding citations to reliable sources 334:adding citations to reliable sources 4187:Sutherland, Scott (23 March 2017). 4028:(access requires free registration) 3270:"Koeltorens van de Staatsmijn Emma" 3200:"Power plant and allied industries" 1149:Categorization by air-to-water flow 79:Natural draft wet cooling tower in 6949:Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation 6215:Minimum efficiency reporting value 5079:Renewable energy commercialization 3858:. San Diego County Water Authority 3376:from the original on 4 August 2021 3056:. 31 December 2012. Archived from 1932: 1379:Wet cooling tower material balance 901:, which is lower than the ambient 881:observed in hybrid cooling towers. 25: 6819:Agricultural wastewater treatment 6257:Standard temperature and pressure 5970:Packaged terminal air conditioner 5506:Passive daytime radiative cooling 5235:Heat pump and refrigeration cycle 4298:Standard on Water-Cooling Towers. 3545:Collins, Michael (31 July 2020). 3473:McGeehan, Patrick (12 May 2015). 3364:Irving, Michael (4 August 2021). 2501:zero blow-down for cooling towers 2428:Fill plates at the bottom of the 2358:in 40% to 60% of cooling towers. 7063: 7062: 5326:Absorption-compression heat pump 5127: 5126: 4547: 4276:Standard on Water-Cooling Towers 3668:"How Does a Cooling Tower Work?" 3395:Cheremisinoff, Nicholas (2000). 2804: 2370: 1387: 1361:Common aspects of both designs: 1157: 1129:(sometimes incorrectly known as 1032: 1021: 936: 739: 605: 310: 6879:Industrial wastewater treatment 6849:Decentralized wastewater system 6221:Normal temperature and pressure 5601:Vapor-compression refrigeration 3142:A Textbook on Steam Engineering 2381:needs additional citations for 2279:, including species that cause 1528:= Windage loss of water in m/h 1398:needs additional citations for 1243:Package crossflow cooling tower 947:needs additional citations for 321:needs additional citations for 7105:Nuclear power plant components 4348:– Cooling Technology Institute 4167:, Fairmont Press, p. 86, 2960:List of tallest cooling towers 2309:French researchers found that 1891: 1879: 1858: 1846: 1831: 1819: 1752: 1740: 1602:= parts per million by weight 1561:in make-up water (M), in ppmw 1: 6899:Rotating biological contactor 6369:Testing, adjusting, balancing 6313:Building information modeling 6308:Building services engineering 5885:Ground-coupled heat exchanger 5413:Demand controlled ventilation 5361:Building insulation materials 5074:Renewable Energy Certificates 5034:Cost of electricity by source 4956:Arc-fault circuit interrupter 4832:High-voltage shore connection 3971:10.1016/s0140-6736(15)60078-2 3924:(4th ed.). McGraw Hill. 3436:Cooling System Retrofit Costs 2796:Operation in freezing weather 2774:Großkrotzenburg Power Station 2497:Zero bleed for cooling towers 1584:= Cycles of concentration = X 832:Closed circuit cooling towers 5930:High-pressure cut-off switch 5481:Ice storage air conditioning 5402:Dedicated outdoor air system 5089:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread 4887:Transmission system operator 4847:Mains electricity by country 4424:Automatic generation control 4236:10.1016/0004-6981(89)90149-2 4079:bacteria on a routine basis" 3922:Sherris Medical Microbiology 3666:Lee, Kevin (24 April 2017). 3156:Croft, Terrell, ed. (1922). 3115:| Nuclear Information Center 1306:Showers inside cooling tower 820:operate on the principle of 676:Field-erected cooling towers 6273:Thermostatic radiator valve 6075:Thermostatic radiator valve 5586:Underfloor air distribution 5521:Radiant heating and cooling 5439:Energy recovery ventilation 5351:Automobile air conditioning 5215:Domestic energy consumption 5114:List of electricity sectors 5109:Electric energy consumption 4827:High-voltage direct current 4802:Electric power transmission 4792:Electric power distribution 4469:Energy return on investment 3774:Beychok, Milton R. (1967). 2009: 1997: 1984: 1976: 1596: 1578: 1565: 1546: 1532: 1522: 1512: 1502: 1498:= Circulating water in m/h 1492: 1482: 1268:Cross Flow V/s Counter Flow 928:Air flow generation methods 592:Field erected cooling tower 452:that share a common piping 267:Dutch State Mine (DSM) Emma 7126: 6964:Wastewater treatment plant 6731:Adsorbable organic halides 6422:Institute of Refrigeration 6303:Architectural technologist 5775:Electrostatic precipitator 5029:Carbon offsets and credits 4747:Three-phase electric power 4222:(6). Elsevier: 1223–1234. 3469:Indian Point Energy Center 3242:NL/GB Patent No. 108,863: 3198:Watson, Egbert P. (1906). 3085:Royal Society of Chemistry 2254: 2180:Industrial water treatment 2177: 2017: 2004: 1992: 1601: 1583: 1573: 1556: 1537: 1527: 1518:= Evaporated water in m/h 1517: 1507: 1497: 1487: 1093:Fan assisted natural draft 818:evaporative cooling towers 814:open-circuit Cooling Tower 727:, and a drift eliminator. 443:coefficient of performance 411:to tower water at or near 376: 275:Lister Drive power station 51:Natural draft wet cooling 29: 7058: 6736:Biochemical oxygen demand 6475:Volatile organic compound 6334:Environmental engineering 6298:Architectural engineering 6100:Ultra-low particulate air 5685:Automatic balancing valve 5613:Variable refrigerant flow 5465:Heat recovery ventilation 5408:Deep water source cooling 5122: 5084:Renewable Energy Payments 4573:Fossil fuel power station 4545: 4354:– Virtual Nuclear Tourist 4261:, Retrieved on 2013-01-29 4163:Mathie, Alton J. (1998), 3600:K-State Research Exchange 3454:27 September 2007 at the 2970:Architectural engineering 2935:Ferrybridge power station 1100:Hyperboloid cooling tower 585:, Anhui Province, China. 579:Pingshan II Power Station 468:Industrial cooling towers 99:through the cooling of a 91:is a device that rejects 6522:Template:Home automation 6344:Kitchen exhaust cleaning 6040:Solar-assisted heat pump 5640:Air conditioner inverter 5419:Displacement ventilation 5310:Vapour pressure of water 5295:Thermal destratification 4867:Single-wire earth return 4807:Electrical busbar system 4464:Energy demand management 4375:, BBC, 21 November 2016) 4339:What is a cooling tower? 4136:Proceedings, Volume 1982 4110:William H Clark (1997), 3751:designingbuildings.co.uk 3630:"Nuclear Cooling Towers" 3514:Gul, S. (18 June 2015). 3424:(Report). United States. 3249:Espacenet, Patent search 3226:Snow, Walter B. (1908). 2663:Eggborough power station 2641:fibre-reinforced plastic 1508:= Draw-off water in m/h 723:, a mechanical unit for 717:fiber-reinforced plastic 684:Brotep-Eco cooling tower 187:, and consist solely of 117:dry-bulb air temperature 109:wet-bulb air temperature 6924:Sewage sludge treatment 6864:Fecal sludge management 6824:API oil–water separator 6791:Wastewater surveillance 6517:World Refrigeration Day 6364:Refrigerant reclamation 6293:Architectural acoustics 6237:Programmable thermostat 6169:Clean air delivery rate 6065:Thermal expansion valve 5980:Pressurisation ductwork 5890:Ground source heat pump 5331:Absorption refrigerator 4998:Residual-current device 4988:Power system protection 4978:Generator interlock kit 4216:Atmospheric Environment 3605:Kansas State University 2990:Fossil fuel power plant 2975:Deep lake water cooling 2748:Use as a flue-gas stack 2699:Salt emission pollution 2486:electrical conductivity 2348:hematopoietic stem cell 2218:Algaecides and biocides 2075:Cycles of concentration 1807:Cycles of concentration 1488:= Make-up water in m/h 597:Classification by build 6781:Total suspended solids 6776:Total dissolved solids 6741:Chemical oxygen demand 6507:Glossary of HVAC terms 6469:Sick building syndrome 6349:Mechanical engineering 6060:Smoke exhaust ductwork 5491:Mixed-mode ventilation 4782:Distributed generation 4454:Electric power quality 3030:Willow Island disaster 3005:Mechanical engineering 2875: 2765: 2757: 2665: 2607:Cycle of concentration 2597:Side-stream filtration 2482:Total Dissolved Solids 2433: 2331:Legionella pneumophila 2270: 2252: 2251:(5000 × magnification) 2249:Legionella pneumophila 2239: 2188:, the water should be 2104: 2032: 2031:{\displaystyle \cdot } 1965: 1901: 1759: 1474: 1322: 1314: 1307: 1244: 1236: 1228: 995: 878:wet-dry cooling towers 693: 685: 677: 593: 522:coal-fired power plant 492: 484: 476: 396: 388: 374: 298:potability standards. 250: 208: 163:hyperboloid structures 144:nuclear power stations 140:thermal power stations 84: 72: 60: 44: 6648:Industrial wastewater 6527:Template:Solar energy 6205:Intelligent buildings 6164:Carbon dioxide sensor 5551:Room air distribution 5371:Central solar heating 5054:Fossil fuel phase-out 4822:Electricity retailing 4817:Electrical substation 4797:Electric power system 3572:GB Expired 108863 3323:Nature Climate Change 3000:Hyperboloid structure 2923:fire sprinkler system 2869: 2778:Rostock Power Station 2770:flue gas purification 2763: 2755: 2660: 2427: 2268: 2255:Further information: 2247: 2240:Legionnaires' disease 2102: 2033: 1966: 1902: 1760: 1472: 1320: 1313: 1305: 1242: 1234: 1227: 993: 874:Hybrid cooling towers 731:Heat transfer methods 719:(FRP) structure, FRP 692:Package cooling tower 691: 683: 675: 591: 490: 482: 475: 413:wet-bulb temperatures 394: 386: 372: 302:Classification by use 245: 202: 78: 66: 50: 42: 7095:Building engineering 6990:Groundwater recharge 6329:Duct leakage testing 6319:Deep energy retrofit 6263:Thermographic camera 6200:Infrared thermometer 5675:Air source heat pump 5624:Water heat recycling 5190:Air changes per hour 4410:Electricity delivery 4304:17 June 2010 at the 4282:17 June 2010 at the 4257:3 April 2015 at the 3808:Petroleum Processing 3343:10.1038/nclimate2903 2929:Structural stability 2914:surface-volume ratio 2828:improve this section 2710:sodic alkaline soils 2587:Full-flow filtration 2543:wet bulb temperature 2390:improve this article 2232:equipment failures. 2022: 1917: 1775: 1679: 1443:volumetric flow rate 1407:improve this article 1181:improve this section 1139:nuclear power plants 1106:Frederik van Iterson 956:improve this article 903:dry-bulb temperature 899:wet-bulb temperature 801:With respect to the 763:improve this section 629:improve this section 564:nuclear power plants 530:once-through cooling 506:petroleum refineries 417:dry-bulb temperature 330:improve this article 259:Frederik van Iterson 168:nuclear power plants 57:Didcot Power Station 6904:Secondary treatment 6889:Membrane bioreactor 6844:Constructed wetland 6643:Infiltration/Inflow 6195:HVAC control system 6185:Home energy monitor 6159:Building automation 5945:Inverter compressor 5607:Variable air volume 5516:Passive ventilation 5486:Kitchen ventilation 5386:Constant air volume 5356:Autonomous building 5019:Availability factor 4971:Sulfur hexafluoride 4852:Overhead power line 4752:Virtual power plant 4727:Induction generator 4680:Sustainable biofuel 4489:Home energy storage 4479:Grid energy storage 4444:Droop speed control 4228:1989AtmEn..23.1223H 4193:The Weather Network 4063:. 9 September 2020. 3727:. 13 September 2018 3638:Stanford University 3335:2016NatCC...6..375V 3010:Nuclear power plant 2985:Evaporative cooling 2354:Studies have found 2290:Mycobacterium avium 1557:= Concentration of 1538:= Concentration in 1112:Reinforced Concrete 1104:On 16 August 1916, 822:evaporative cooling 429:of air-conditioning 249:cooling tower, 1918 111:or, in the case of 7110:Cooling technology 7069:Category: Sewerage 7030:Septic drain field 6995:Infiltration basin 6939:Stabilization pond 6859:Facultative lagoon 6723:Quality indicators 6603:Blackwater (waste) 6583:Acid mine drainage 6458:Indoor air quality 6402:ASTM International 6339:Hydronic balancing 6116:Wood-burning stove 5995:Radiator reflector 5780:Evaporative cooler 5591:Underfloor heating 5576:Thermal insulation 4893:Transmission tower 4504:Nameplate capacity 4344:7 May 2010 at the 4273:(NFPA). NFPA 214, 3701:. 29 November 2018 3698:Drax Power Station 3088:. 15 February 2007 3060:on 23 October 2014 2980:Evaporative cooler 2939:structural failure 2876: 2766: 2758: 2723:, of less than 10 2666: 2434: 2271: 2253: 2149:water conservation 2105: 2088:supplies (such as 2028: 1961: 1897: 1755: 1475: 1323: 1315: 1308: 1245: 1237: 1229: 996: 860:Dry cooling towers 810:Wet cooling towers 704:Field erected type 694: 686: 678: 594: 493: 485: 477: 397: 389: 375: 251: 209: 113:dry cooling towers 85: 73: 61: 53:hyperboloid towers 45: 7077: 7076: 6854:Extended aeration 6801:Treatment options 6751:Oxygen saturation 6598:Blackwater (coal) 6576:Sources and types 6535: 6534: 6451:Health and safety 6030:Scroll compressor 5985:Process duct work 5740:Convection heater 5735:Condensing boiler 5665:Air-mixing plenum 5561:Solar combisystem 5397:Cross ventilation 5200:Building envelope 5140: 5139: 5044:Environmental tax 4924:Cascading failure 4693: 4692: 4529:Utility frequency 4174:978-0-88173-253-5 4121:978-0-07-011920-8 4007:. 26 January 2016 3965:(10016): 376–85. 3931:978-0-8385-8529-0 3725:EngineeringClicks 3590:Chen, HB (1976). 3300:Popular Mechanics 2864: 2863: 2856: 2422: 2421: 2414: 2042: 2041: 1959: 1895: 1862: 1835: 1808: 1800: 1606: 1605: 1439: 1438: 1431: 1217: 1216: 1209: 1123:, to his design. 988: 987: 980: 799: 798: 791: 665: 664: 657: 547:thermal pollution 362: 361: 354: 215:for use with the 16:(Redirected from 7117: 7066: 7065: 6985:Evaporation pond 6973:Disposal options 6944:Trickling filter 6929:Sewage treatment 6829:Carbon filtering 6809:Activated sludge 6562: 6555: 6548: 6539: 6497:Building science 6252:Smart thermostat 6247:Room temperature 5830:Fireplace insert 5536:Radon mitigation 5434:Electric heating 5429:District heating 5424:District cooling 5341:Air conditioning 5167: 5160: 5153: 5144: 5130: 5129: 5039:Energy subsidies 4993:Protective relay 4934:Rolling blackout 4561: 4551: 4519:Power-flow study 4459:Electrical fault 4403: 4396: 4389: 4380: 4327: 4326: 4325:. 31 March 2016. 4315: 4309: 4293: 4287: 4268: 4262: 4249: 4240: 4239: 4211: 4205: 4204: 4202: 4200: 4195:. Pelmorex Media 4184: 4178: 4177: 4160: 4154: 4153: 4147: 4139: 4131: 4125: 4124: 4107: 4101: 4100: 4098: 4096: 4090: 4084:. Archived from 4083: 4071: 4065: 4064: 4053: 4047: 4046: 4035: 4029: 4023: 4017: 4016: 4014: 4012: 3997: 3991: 3990: 3954: 3948: 3942: 3936: 3935: 3917: 3911: 3910: 3908: 3906: 3895: 3886: 3884: 3882: 3874: 3868: 3867: 3865: 3863: 3853: 3844: 3838: 3837: 3835: 3833: 3818: 3812: 3811: 3803: 3790: 3789: 3771: 3762: 3761: 3759: 3757: 3743: 3737: 3736: 3734: 3732: 3717: 3711: 3710: 3708: 3706: 3689: 3683: 3682: 3680: 3678: 3663: 3657: 3656: 3651: 3649: 3640:. Archived from 3625: 3619: 3618: 3613: 3611: 3596: 3587: 3581: 3580: 3579: 3575: 3568: 3562: 3561: 3559: 3557: 3542: 3536: 3535: 3511: 3505: 3504: 3502: 3500: 3489: 3483: 3482: 3465: 3459: 3445: 3439: 3433: 3427: 3425: 3417: 3411: 3410: 3392: 3386: 3385: 3383: 3381: 3361: 3355: 3354: 3318: 3312: 3311: 3292: 3286: 3285: 3283: 3281: 3266: 3260: 3259: 3257: 3255: 3240: 3234: 3233: 3223: 3212: 3211: 3195: 3186: 3185: 3175: 3164: 3163: 3153: 3147: 3146: 3136: 3127: 3126: 3124: 3122: 3104: 3098: 3097: 3095: 3093: 3076: 3070: 3069: 3067: 3065: 3046: 2859: 2852: 2848: 2845: 2839: 2808: 2800: 2661:Fog produced by 2575:Splash type fill 2417: 2410: 2406: 2403: 2397: 2374: 2366: 2346:infection (e.g. 2227:Scale inhibitors 2037: 2035: 2034: 2029: 2001: 1974: 1970: 1968: 1967: 1962: 1960: 1958: 1957: 1948: 1947: 1946: 1927: 1906: 1904: 1903: 1898: 1896: 1894: 1874: 1863: 1861: 1841: 1836: 1834: 1814: 1809: 1806: 1801: 1799: 1798: 1789: 1788: 1779: 1768:and, therefore: 1764: 1762: 1761: 1756: 1739: 1738: 1726: 1725: 1710: 1709: 1694: 1693: 1673: 1628: 1592:(dimensionless) 1553: 1480: 1434: 1427: 1423: 1420: 1414: 1391: 1383: 1212: 1205: 1201: 1198: 1192: 1161: 1153: 1048:Mechanical draft 1036: 1025: 983: 976: 972: 969: 963: 940: 932: 794: 787: 783: 780: 774: 743: 735: 660: 653: 649: 646: 640: 609: 601: 500:systems used in 357: 350: 346: 343: 337: 314: 306: 185:carbon footprint 177:air conditioning 158:cooling towers. 21: 18:Mechanical Draft 7125: 7124: 7120: 7119: 7118: 7116: 7115: 7114: 7080: 7079: 7078: 7073: 7054: 7020:Reclaimed water 6968: 6894:Reverse osmosis 6795: 6717: 6683:Reverse osmosis 6608:Boiler blowdown 6571: 6566: 6536: 6531: 6492:ASHRAE Handbook 6480: 6464:Passive smoking 6446: 6379: 6373: 6285: 6283: 6277: 6131: 6125: 6106:Whole-house fan 6020:Run-around coil 6015:Reversing valve 5960:Mechanical room 5950:Kerosene heater 5940:Infrared heater 5870:Gasoline heater 5810:Fan filter unit 5725:Condensate pump 5710:Centrifugal fan 5628: 5531:Radiant heating 5526:Radiant cooling 5501:Passive cooling 5496:Microgeneration 5366:Central heating 5314: 5290:Thermal comfort 5182: 5176: 5171: 5141: 5136: 5118: 5102: 5100: 5093: 5024:Capacity factor 5012: 5010: 5003: 4983:Numerical relay 4961:Circuit breaker 4949: 4947: 4940: 4902: 4842:Load management 4812:Electrical grid 4777:Demand response 4770: 4765: 4756: 4737:Microgeneration 4689: 4604: 4552: 4543: 4539:Vehicle-to-grid 4412: 4407: 4367:radio interview 4346:Wayback Machine 4335: 4330: 4317: 4316: 4312: 4306:Wayback Machine 4294: 4290: 4284:Wayback Machine 4269: 4265: 4259:Wayback Machine 4250: 4243: 4213: 4212: 4208: 4198: 4196: 4186: 4185: 4181: 4175: 4162: 4161: 4157: 4140: 4133: 4132: 4128: 4122: 4109: 4108: 4104: 4094: 4092: 4088: 4081: 4073: 4072: 4068: 4055: 4054: 4050: 4037: 4036: 4032: 4024: 4020: 4010: 4008: 3999: 3998: 3994: 3956: 3955: 3951: 3943: 3939: 3932: 3919: 3918: 3914: 3904: 3902: 3897: 3896: 3889: 3880: 3876: 3875: 3871: 3861: 3859: 3851: 3846: 3845: 3841: 3831: 3829: 3820: 3819: 3815: 3805: 3804: 3793: 3773: 3772: 3765: 3755: 3753: 3745: 3744: 3740: 3730: 3728: 3719: 3718: 3714: 3704: 3702: 3691: 3690: 3686: 3676: 3674: 3665: 3664: 3660: 3647: 3645: 3627: 3626: 3622: 3616:Master's Degree 3609: 3607: 3594: 3589: 3588: 3584: 3577: 3570: 3569: 3565: 3555: 3553: 3551:Financial Times 3544: 3543: 3539: 3513: 3512: 3508: 3498: 3496: 3491: 3490: 3486: 3472: 3466: 3462: 3456:Wayback Machine 3446: 3442: 3434: 3430: 3419: 3418: 3414: 3407: 3394: 3393: 3389: 3379: 3377: 3363: 3362: 3358: 3320: 3319: 3315: 3294: 3293: 3289: 3279: 3277: 3268: 3267: 3263: 3253: 3251: 3243: 3241: 3237: 3225: 3224: 3215: 3197: 3196: 3189: 3177: 3176: 3167: 3155: 3154: 3150: 3138: 3137: 3130: 3120: 3118: 3106: 3105: 3101: 3091: 3089: 3078: 3077: 3073: 3063: 3061: 3048: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3034: 2955: 2931: 2910: 2860: 2849: 2843: 2840: 2825: 2809: 2798: 2750: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2701: 2687: 2685:Cloud formation 2655: 2430:Iru Power Plant 2418: 2407: 2401: 2398: 2387: 2375: 2364: 2263: 2242: 2229: 2220: 2207:sodium chlorite 2182: 2176: 2174:Water treatment 2158: 2130:water softening 2125:water treatment 2121:heat exchangers 2077: 2020: 2019: 2014: 1999: 1989: 1949: 1938: 1928: 1915: 1914: 1878: 1845: 1818: 1790: 1780: 1773: 1772: 1730: 1717: 1701: 1685: 1677: 1676: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1662: 1656: 1655: 1649: 1648: 1642: 1641: 1636: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1612: 1591: 1587: 1570: 1552: 1548: 1435: 1424: 1418: 1415: 1404: 1392: 1381: 1359: 1341: 1329: 1300: 1260:hot water basin 1222: 1213: 1202: 1196: 1193: 1178: 1162: 1151: 1121:Staatsmijn Emma 1102: 1081:static pressure 1044: 1043: 1042: 1041: 1040: 1037: 1028: 1027: 1026: 984: 973: 967: 964: 953: 941: 930: 856:cooling towers. 824:. The working 795: 784: 778: 775: 760: 744: 733: 706: 670: 661: 650: 644: 641: 626: 610: 599: 520: 470: 381: 367: 358: 347: 341: 338: 327: 315: 304: 197: 136:chemical plants 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7123: 7121: 7113: 7112: 7107: 7102: 7097: 7092: 7090:Cooling towers 7082: 7081: 7075: 7074: 7072: 7071: 7059: 7056: 7055: 7053: 7052: 7047: 7045:Surface runoff 7042: 7037: 7032: 7027: 7025:Sanitary sewer 7022: 7017: 7015:Marine outfall 7012: 7010:Marine dumping 7007: 7002: 7000:Injection well 6997: 6992: 6987: 6982: 6980:Combined sewer 6976: 6974: 6970: 6969: 6967: 6966: 6961: 6956: 6951: 6946: 6941: 6936: 6931: 6926: 6921: 6919:Settling basin 6916: 6911: 6906: 6901: 6896: 6891: 6886: 6881: 6876: 6871: 6866: 6861: 6856: 6851: 6846: 6841: 6836: 6831: 6826: 6821: 6816: 6814:Aerated lagoon 6811: 6805: 6803: 6797: 6796: 6794: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6778: 6773: 6768: 6763: 6758: 6753: 6748: 6746:Coliform index 6743: 6738: 6733: 6727: 6725: 6719: 6718: 6716: 6715: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6688:Sanitary sewer 6685: 6680: 6675: 6673:Produced water 6670: 6665: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6620: 6618:Combined sewer 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6585: 6579: 6577: 6573: 6572: 6567: 6565: 6564: 6557: 6550: 6542: 6533: 6532: 6530: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6514: 6509: 6504: 6499: 6494: 6488: 6486: 6482: 6481: 6479: 6478: 6472: 6466: 6461: 6454: 6452: 6448: 6447: 6445: 6444: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6404: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6383: 6381: 6375: 6374: 6372: 6371: 6366: 6361: 6356: 6351: 6346: 6341: 6336: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6310: 6305: 6300: 6295: 6289: 6287: 6279: 6278: 6276: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6254: 6249: 6244: 6242:Psychrometrics 6239: 6234: 6229: 6224: 6218: 6212: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6172: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6139:Air flow meter 6135: 6133: 6127: 6126: 6124: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6012: 6007: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5942: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5915:Heating system 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5895:Heat exchanger 5892: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5860:Gas compressor 5857: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5797: 5795:Expansion tank 5792: 5787: 5782: 5777: 5772: 5767: 5762: 5757: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5717: 5715:Ceramic heater 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5636: 5634: 5630: 5629: 5627: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5610: 5604: 5598: 5593: 5588: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5568: 5563: 5558: 5556:Solar air heat 5553: 5548: 5546:Renewable heat 5543: 5538: 5533: 5528: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5462: 5457: 5455:Forced-air gas 5452: 5447: 5442: 5436: 5431: 5426: 5421: 5416: 5410: 5405: 5399: 5394: 5389: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5322: 5320: 5316: 5315: 5313: 5312: 5307: 5305:Thermodynamics 5302: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5275:Psychrometrics 5272: 5267: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5230:Gas compressor 5227: 5225:Fluid dynamics 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5186: 5184: 5178: 5177: 5172: 5170: 5169: 5162: 5155: 5147: 5138: 5137: 5135: 5134: 5123: 5120: 5119: 5117: 5116: 5111: 5105: 5103: 5099:Statistics and 5098: 5095: 5094: 5092: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5049:Feed-in tariff 5046: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5015: 5013: 5008: 5005: 5004: 5002: 5001: 4995: 4990: 4985: 4980: 4975: 4974: 4973: 4968: 4958: 4952: 4950: 4945: 4942: 4941: 4939: 4938: 4937: 4936: 4926: 4921: 4916: 4910: 4908: 4904: 4903: 4901: 4900: 4895: 4890: 4884: 4879: 4874: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4837:Interconnector 4834: 4829: 4824: 4819: 4814: 4809: 4804: 4799: 4794: 4789: 4787:Dynamic demand 4784: 4779: 4773: 4771: 4761: 4758: 4757: 4755: 4754: 4749: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4717:Combined cycle 4714: 4709: 4703: 4701: 4695: 4694: 4691: 4690: 4688: 4687: 4682: 4677: 4672: 4671: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4614: 4612: 4606: 4605: 4603: 4602: 4597: 4596: 4595: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4569: 4567: 4558: 4554: 4553: 4546: 4544: 4542: 4541: 4536: 4531: 4526: 4521: 4516: 4511: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4494:Load-following 4491: 4486: 4481: 4476: 4471: 4466: 4461: 4456: 4451: 4449:Electric power 4446: 4441: 4436: 4431: 4426: 4420: 4418: 4414: 4413: 4408: 4406: 4405: 4398: 4391: 4383: 4377: 4376: 4360: 4355: 4349: 4334: 4333:External links 4331: 4329: 4328: 4310: 4288: 4263: 4241: 4206: 4179: 4173: 4155: 4126: 4120: 4102: 4091:on 13 May 2021 4066: 4048: 4045:. 4 June 2017. 4030: 4018: 3992: 3949: 3937: 3930: 3912: 3901:. 23 July 2021 3887: 3869: 3839: 3813: 3791: 3763: 3738: 3712: 3684: 3658: 3620: 3582: 3563: 3537: 3506: 3484: 3479:New York Times 3460: 3440: 3428: 3412: 3405: 3387: 3356: 3329:(4): 375–380. 3313: 3287: 3261: 3235: 3213: 3187: 3165: 3148: 3128: 3117:. 24 July 2017 3099: 3071: 3040: 3038: 3035: 3033: 3032: 3027: 3022: 3017: 3012: 3007: 3002: 2997: 2992: 2987: 2982: 2977: 2972: 2967: 2962: 2956: 2954: 2951: 2930: 2927: 2909: 2906: 2905: 2904: 2901: 2898: 2894: 2891: 2862: 2861: 2812: 2810: 2803: 2797: 2794: 2782:flue-gas stack 2772:, such as the 2749: 2746: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2700: 2697: 2686: 2683: 2654: 2653:Fog production 2651: 2650: 2649: 2631: 2630: 2621: 2620: 2617:Treated timber 2611: 2610: 2601: 2600: 2591: 2590: 2581: 2580: 2579: 2578: 2572: 2569:Film type fill 2557: 2556: 2547: 2546: 2533: 2532: 2523: 2522: 2513: 2512: 2507:with residual 2499:, also called 2491: 2490: 2468: 2467: 2458: 2457: 2448: 2447: 2420: 2419: 2378: 2376: 2369: 2363: 2360: 2293:. The various 2285:L. pneumophila 2241: 2238: 2228: 2225: 2219: 2216: 2175: 2172: 2157: 2154: 2076: 2073: 2072: 2071: 2065: 2059: 2053: 2040: 2039: 2027: 2016: 2012: 2007: 2006: 2003: 1995: 1994: 1991: 1987: 1982: 1981: 1978: 1972: 1971: 1956: 1952: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1934: 1931: 1925: 1922: 1908: 1907: 1893: 1890: 1887: 1884: 1881: 1877: 1872: 1869: 1866: 1860: 1857: 1854: 1851: 1848: 1844: 1839: 1833: 1830: 1827: 1824: 1821: 1817: 1812: 1804: 1797: 1793: 1787: 1783: 1766: 1765: 1754: 1751: 1748: 1745: 1742: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1713: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1697: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1674: 1669: 1665: 1660: 1658: 1653: 1651: 1646: 1644: 1639: 1637: 1630: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1604: 1603: 1600: 1594: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1582: 1576: 1575: 1572: 1568: 1563: 1562: 1555: 1550: 1544: 1543: 1536: 1530: 1529: 1526: 1520: 1519: 1516: 1510: 1509: 1506: 1500: 1499: 1496: 1490: 1489: 1486: 1437: 1436: 1395: 1393: 1386: 1380: 1377: 1373: 1372: 1369: 1366: 1358: 1357:Common aspects 1355: 1354: 1353: 1350: 1347: 1339: 1338: 1335: 1299: 1296: 1295: 1294: 1291: 1288: 1281: 1280: 1277: 1221: 1218: 1215: 1214: 1165: 1163: 1156: 1150: 1147: 1101: 1098: 1097: 1096: 1090: 1089: 1088: 1069: 1045: 1038: 1031: 1030: 1029: 1020: 1019: 1018: 1017: 1016: 986: 985: 944: 942: 935: 929: 926: 895:psychrometrics 883: 882: 871: 857: 853:cooling towers 847: 840:heat exchanger 829: 797: 796: 747: 745: 738: 732: 729: 705: 702: 669: 666: 663: 662: 613: 611: 604: 598: 595: 518: 469: 466: 438:equivalent ton 433:equivalent ton 409:heat rejection 377:Main article: 366: 363: 360: 359: 318: 316: 309: 303: 300: 263:Gerard Kuypers 225:marine engines 196: 193: 128:oil refineries 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7122: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7098: 7096: 7093: 7091: 7088: 7087: 7085: 7070: 7061: 7060: 7057: 7051: 7048: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7023: 7021: 7018: 7016: 7013: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6977: 6975: 6971: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6910: 6909:Sedimentation 6907: 6905: 6902: 6900: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6860: 6857: 6855: 6852: 6850: 6847: 6845: 6842: 6840: 6837: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6827: 6825: 6822: 6820: 6817: 6815: 6812: 6810: 6807: 6806: 6804: 6802: 6798: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6779: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6767: 6764: 6762: 6759: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6747: 6744: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6728: 6726: 6724: 6720: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6703:Sewage sludge 6701: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6628:Cooling water 6626: 6624: 6623:Cooling tower 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6588:Ballast water 6586: 6584: 6581: 6580: 6578: 6574: 6570: 6563: 6558: 6556: 6551: 6549: 6544: 6543: 6540: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6489: 6487: 6483: 6476: 6473: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6459: 6456: 6455: 6453: 6449: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6384: 6382: 6380:organizations 6376: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6355: 6352: 6350: 6347: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6324:Duct cleaning 6322: 6320: 6317: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6296: 6294: 6291: 6290: 6288: 6280: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6225: 6222: 6219: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6175:Control valve 6173: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6136: 6134: 6128: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6095:Turning vanes 6093: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6070:Thermal wheel 6068: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6035:Solar chimney 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5963: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5805:Fan coil unit 5803: 5801: 5798: 5796: 5793: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5773: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5753: 5751: 5750:Cooling tower 5748: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5641: 5638: 5637: 5635: 5631: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5614: 5611: 5608: 5605: 5602: 5599: 5597: 5596:Vapor barrier 5594: 5592: 5589: 5587: 5584: 5582: 5579: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5571:Solar heating 5569: 5567: 5566:Solar cooling 5564: 5562: 5559: 5557: 5554: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5541:Refrigeration 5539: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5511:Passive house 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5427: 5425: 5422: 5420: 5417: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5381:Chilled water 5379: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5323: 5321: 5317: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5280:Sensible heat 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5260:Noise control 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5240:Heat transfer 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5187: 5185: 5179: 5175: 5168: 5163: 5161: 5156: 5154: 5149: 5148: 5145: 5133: 5125: 5124: 5121: 5115: 5112: 5110: 5107: 5106: 5104: 5096: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5069:Pigouvian tax 5067: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5016: 5014: 5006: 4999: 4996: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4966:Earth-leakage 4964: 4963: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4953: 4951: 4943: 4935: 4932: 4931: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4915: 4912: 4911: 4909: 4907:Failure modes 4905: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4857:Power station 4855: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4833: 4830: 4828: 4825: 4823: 4820: 4818: 4815: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4805: 4803: 4800: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4783: 4780: 4778: 4775: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4764: 4759: 4753: 4750: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4742:Rankine cycle 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4722:Cooling tower 4720: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4704: 4702: 4700: 4696: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4659: 4656: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4646: 4645: 4644: 4641: 4639: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4629: 4626: 4624: 4621: 4619: 4616: 4615: 4613: 4611: 4607: 4601: 4598: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4575: 4574: 4571: 4570: 4568: 4566: 4565:Non-renewable 4562: 4559: 4555: 4550: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4522: 4520: 4517: 4515: 4512: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4484:Grid strength 4482: 4480: 4477: 4475: 4472: 4470: 4467: 4465: 4462: 4460: 4457: 4455: 4452: 4450: 4447: 4445: 4442: 4440: 4439:Demand factor 4437: 4435: 4432: 4430: 4427: 4425: 4422: 4421: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4404: 4399: 4397: 4392: 4390: 4385: 4384: 4381: 4374: 4373: 4368: 4364: 4361: 4359: 4356: 4353: 4350: 4347: 4343: 4340: 4337: 4336: 4332: 4324: 4320: 4314: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4300: 4299: 4292: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4278: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4253: 4248: 4246: 4242: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4210: 4207: 4194: 4190: 4183: 4180: 4176: 4170: 4166: 4159: 4156: 4151: 4145: 4137: 4130: 4127: 4123: 4117: 4113: 4106: 4103: 4087: 4080: 4078: 4070: 4067: 4062: 4058: 4052: 4049: 4044: 4040: 4034: 4031: 4027: 4022: 4019: 4006: 4002: 3996: 3993: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3953: 3950: 3946: 3941: 3938: 3933: 3927: 3923: 3916: 3913: 3900: 3894: 3892: 3888: 3879: 3873: 3870: 3857: 3856:www.sdcwa.org 3850: 3843: 3840: 3827: 3823: 3817: 3814: 3809: 3802: 3800: 3798: 3796: 3792: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3778: 3770: 3768: 3764: 3752: 3748: 3742: 3739: 3726: 3722: 3716: 3713: 3700: 3699: 3694: 3688: 3685: 3673: 3669: 3662: 3659: 3655: 3644:on 3 May 2017 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3624: 3621: 3617: 3606: 3602: 3601: 3593: 3586: 3583: 3573: 3567: 3564: 3552: 3548: 3541: 3538: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3510: 3507: 3494: 3488: 3485: 3480: 3476: 3470: 3464: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3450: 3444: 3441: 3437: 3432: 3429: 3423: 3416: 3413: 3408: 3406:9780080523828 3402: 3398: 3391: 3388: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3360: 3357: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3317: 3314: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3291: 3288: 3275: 3271: 3265: 3262: 3250: 3246: 3239: 3236: 3231: 3230: 3222: 3220: 3218: 3214: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3194: 3192: 3188: 3183: 3182: 3174: 3172: 3170: 3166: 3161: 3160: 3152: 3149: 3144: 3143: 3135: 3133: 3129: 3116: 3114: 3109: 3103: 3100: 3087: 3086: 3081: 3075: 3072: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3045: 3042: 3036: 3031: 3028: 3026: 3025:Water cooling 3023: 3021: 3018: 3016: 3015:Power station 3013: 3011: 3008: 3006: 3003: 3001: 2998: 2996: 2993: 2991: 2988: 2986: 2983: 2981: 2978: 2976: 2973: 2971: 2968: 2966: 2963: 2961: 2958: 2957: 2952: 2950: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2928: 2926: 2924: 2920: 2915: 2907: 2902: 2899: 2895: 2892: 2888: 2887: 2886: 2883: 2879: 2873: 2868: 2858: 2855: 2847: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2823: 2822: 2818: 2813:This section 2811: 2807: 2802: 2801: 2795: 2793: 2789: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2762: 2754: 2747: 2745: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2698: 2696: 2693: 2692:Haman's group 2684: 2682: 2678: 2676: 2672: 2664: 2659: 2652: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2637:Pultruded FRP 2635: 2634: 2633: 2628: 2625: 2624: 2623: 2618: 2615: 2614: 2613: 2608: 2605: 2604: 2603: 2598: 2595: 2594: 2593: 2588: 2585: 2584: 2583: 2576: 2573: 2570: 2567: 2566: 2564: 2561: 2560: 2559: 2554: 2551: 2550: 2549: 2544: 2540: 2537: 2536: 2535: 2530: 2527: 2526: 2525: 2520: 2517: 2516: 2515: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2495: 2494: 2493: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2472: 2471: 2470: 2465: 2462: 2461: 2460: 2455: 2452: 2451: 2450: 2445: 2441: 2438: 2437: 2436: 2431: 2426: 2416: 2413: 2405: 2395: 2391: 2385: 2384: 2379:This section 2377: 2373: 2368: 2367: 2361: 2359: 2357: 2352: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2323: 2321: 2315: 2312: 2307: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2291: 2286: 2282: 2281:legionellosis 2278: 2277: 2267: 2262: 2258: 2257:Legionellosis 2250: 2246: 2237: 2233: 2226: 2224: 2217: 2215: 2212: 2208: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2181: 2173: 2171: 2169: 2164: 2161: 2155: 2153: 2150: 2145: 2143: 2142:New York City 2137: 2135: 2131: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2101: 2097: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2081: 2074: 2069: 2066: 2063: 2060: 2057: 2054: 2051: 2048: 2047: 2046: 2025: 2015: 2008: 2002: 1996: 1990: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1954: 1950: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1929: 1923: 1920: 1913: 1912: 1911: 1888: 1885: 1882: 1875: 1870: 1867: 1864: 1855: 1852: 1849: 1842: 1837: 1828: 1825: 1822: 1815: 1810: 1802: 1795: 1791: 1785: 1781: 1771: 1770: 1769: 1749: 1746: 1743: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1711: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1695: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1675: 1635: 1634: 1633: 1611: 1610: 1609: 1599: 1595: 1581: 1577: 1571: 1564: 1560: 1554: 1545: 1541: 1535: 1531: 1525: 1521: 1515: 1511: 1505: 1501: 1495: 1491: 1485: 1481: 1478: 1471: 1467: 1464: 1460: 1455: 1450: 1448: 1444: 1433: 1430: 1422: 1412: 1408: 1402: 1401: 1396:This section 1394: 1390: 1385: 1384: 1378: 1376: 1370: 1367: 1364: 1363: 1362: 1356: 1351: 1348: 1345: 1344: 1343: 1336: 1333: 1332: 1331: 1327: 1319: 1312: 1304: 1297: 1292: 1289: 1286: 1285: 1284: 1278: 1275: 1274: 1273: 1270: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1252: 1248: 1241: 1233: 1226: 1219: 1211: 1208: 1200: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1176: 1175: 1171: 1166:This section 1164: 1160: 1155: 1154: 1148: 1146: 1144: 1143:steam turbine 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1113: 1107: 1099: 1094: 1091: 1086: 1082: 1077: 1073: 1070: 1067: 1063: 1062:recirculation 1059: 1055: 1054:Induced draft 1052: 1051: 1049: 1046: 1035: 1024: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1005: 1004:Natural draft 1001: 1000: 999: 992: 982: 979: 971: 961: 957: 951: 950: 945:This section 943: 939: 934: 933: 927: 925: 923: 919: 915: 911: 906: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 879: 875: 872: 869: 868:heat transfer 865: 861: 858: 854: 852: 848: 845: 841: 837: 836:fluid coolers 834:(also called 833: 830: 827: 823: 819: 815: 811: 808: 807: 806: 804: 803:heat transfer 793: 790: 782: 772: 768: 764: 758: 757: 753: 748:This section 746: 742: 737: 736: 730: 728: 726: 722: 718: 715: 710: 703: 701: 698: 690: 682: 674: 667: 659: 656: 648: 638: 634: 630: 624: 623: 619: 614:This section 612: 608: 603: 602: 596: 590: 586: 584: 580: 575: 571: 569: 565: 559: 557: 553: 552:zebra mussels 549: 548: 543: 539: 535: 531: 526: 523: 515: 511: 510:petrochemical 507: 503: 499: 498:cooling water 489: 481: 474: 467: 465: 463: 459: 455: 451: 446: 444: 439: 434: 430: 428: 422: 418: 414: 410: 406: 402: 393: 385: 380: 371: 364: 356: 353: 345: 335: 331: 325: 324: 319:This section 317: 313: 308: 307: 301: 299: 297: 292: 289: 287: 284:According to 282: 280: 276: 272: 268: 264: 260: 256: 248: 244: 240: 236: 234: 233:cooling ponds 228: 226: 222: 221:back pressure 218: 214: 206: 205:natural draft 201: 194: 192: 190: 186: 182: 178: 173: 172:steam turbine 169: 164: 159: 157: 156:induced draft 153: 152:natural draft 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 132:petrochemical 129: 124: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 102: 98: 94: 90: 89:cooling tower 82: 77: 70: 65: 58: 54: 49: 41: 37: 33: 19: 7050:Vacuum sewer 6934:Sewer mining 6884:Ion exchange 6834:Chlorination 6756:Heavy metals 6713:Urban runoff 6653:Ion exchange 6633:Fecal sludge 6502:Fireproofing 6286:and services 6282:Professions, 6180:Gas detector 6080:Trickle vent 6055:Smoke damper 6050:Smoke canopy 6045:Space heater 5975:Plenum space 5910:Heating film 5790:Exhaust hood 5760:Dehumidifier 5749: 5700:Blast damper 5695:Barrier pipe 5670:Air purifier 5581:Thermosiphon 5460:Free cooling 5376:Chilled beam 5300:Thermal mass 5285:Stack effect 5270:Particulates 5250:Infiltration 5181:Fundamental 5064:Net metering 5011:and policies 4929:Power outage 4898:Utility pole 4862:Pumped hydro 4768:distribution 4763:Transmission 4721: 4712:Cogeneration 4514:Power factor 4372:World Update 4370: 4322: 4313: 4308:Section A1.1 4297: 4291: 4275: 4266: 4219: 4215: 4209: 4197:. 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