841:
512:
1313:
complex states of the settled peoples. Moreover, the armies of the nomads were based upon large numbers of horses, generally three or four for each warrior. Maintaining these forces required large stretches of grazing land, not present outside the steppe. Any extended time away from the homeland would thus cause the steppe armies to gradually disintegrate. To govern settled peoples the steppe peoples were forced to rely on the local bureaucracy, a factor that would lead to the rapid assimilation of the nomads into the culture of those they had conquered. Another important limit was that the armies, for the most part, were unable to penetrate the forested regions to the north; thus, such states as
1134:
992:
2034:
supplying the food and shelter necessary for evacuees. Upon arrival, many evacuees died of illness or starvation in extreme poverty in
Central Asia. Uzbek officials set up aid stations at Tashkent, which were mirrored at other railway stations to help combat the poverty, but they could only do so much as little could be spared economically for the war effort. Despite these troubles, the ability of Central Asia to absorb Soviet industry and population to the extent that it did and in the harried manner that it did was impressive. The Germans certainly didn't foresee the preparedness of Soviet Central Asia, and in the end they paid dearly for it.
175:
1047:
2018:
fashion before the German onslaught. A number of factors led to this lack of organisation. For one, the Soviet evacuation plans were thrown together fairly hurriedly, and a lot of the logistical planning was done on the fly as the German advance was already sweeping through the Soviet border zone. The German invasion also hampered the effectiveness of the Soviet response by shattering their communications in the war's early stages; many Soviet leaders were unable to gather reliable information about the positions of German forces until it was too late to effect an orderly evacuation.
201:
821:
1458:
2030:
addition, the factories that were successfully evacuated to the
Central Asian rear would help provide the productive capacity the Soviets needed to eventually win the war, as well as preventing the Germans from acquiring additional industrial resources. By providing a safe haven from the German advance for Soviet citizens, Central Asia played a critical role in securing Allied victory. The evacuation itself was only part of the difficulty, however, as evacuees arriving in Central Asia faced many trials and tribulations.
1265:
544:
237:
1198:
555:
1210:
1997:
heritage, though they were mainly sent to remote areas in the northern rear, such as
Siberia, rather than Central Asia. A large portion of the German deportees, however, were sent to Kazakhstan. The remobilisation of relocated human resources into the labour force was pivotal to Soviet wartime production policy, and to that end many able-bodied deportees were conscripted into a “labour army” with military style discipline.
1435:, which paid tribute to Beijing. Outer Mongolia and Xinjiang did not become provinces of the Chinese empire, but rather were directly administered by the Qing dynasty. The fact that there was no provincial governor meant that the local rulers retained most of their powers and this special status also prevented emigration from the rest of China into the region. Persia also began to expand north, especially under the rule of
1359:
496:
2206:. This has affected Xinjiang and other parts of western China that have seen infrastructure programs building new links and also new military facilities. Chinese Central Asia has been far from the centre of that country's economic boom and the area has remained considerably poorer than the coast. China also sees a threat in the potential of the new states to support separatist movements among its own Turkic minorities.
192:
1382:-based weapons. The gunpowder revolution allowed settled peoples to defeat the steppe horsemen in open battle for the first time. Construction of these weapons required the infrastructure and economies of large societies and were thus impractical for nomadic peoples to produce. The domain of the nomads began to shrink as, beginning in the 15th century, the settled powers gradually began to conquer Central Asia.
1248:, the steppe people gradually became the most powerful military force in the world. From a young age, almost the entire male population was trained in riding and archery, both of which were necessary skills for survival on the steppe. By adulthood, these activities were second nature. These mounted archers were more mobile than any other force at the time, being able to travel forty miles per day with ease.
1518:
30:
1984:
state control over wartime relocations to maintain order. Soviet wartime population policy consisted of two distinct operations: deportation and evacuation. Deportation aimed to clear regions near the front of potentially insidious anti-Soviet elements that could hamper the war effort, while evacuation policy aimed to move Soviet industry and intelligentsia to the rear, where they would be safe.
297:, these cultures are described as Neolithic even though farming is absent). It is characterized by its distinctive type of pottery, with point or knob base and flared rims, manufactured by methods not used by the Neolithic farmers. The earliest manifestation of this type of pottery may be in the region around Lake Baikal in Siberia. It appears in the Elshan or Yelshanka or
2213:. During the Soviet era, it was decided that the traditional crops of melons and vegetables would be replaced by water-intensive growing of cotton for Soviet textile mills. Massive irrigation efforts were launched that diverted a considerable percentage of the annual inflow to the sea, causing it to shrink steadily. Furthermore, vast tracts of Kazakhstan were used for
2022:
couldn't be moved in time. As a result of the delay in evacuations, they were often carried out under German aerial bombardment, which led to additional confusion among the frightened citizenry. Historian
Rebecca Manley describes these early evacuations as being charactered by “three phenomena: the 'flight' of officials, the flight of the population, and 'panic'”.
2005:
their supposed fraternisation with occupying German forces. These groups were sent mostly to
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan for their infidelity. These punitive deportations were also conducted to keep “anti-Soviet elements” far from the border – where the Soviet offensive against Germany was progressing – for fear of spying or sabotage.
2493:
2483:
2478:
2473:
1115:, which the Tibetans then occupied along with the territory of Central Asia. Hostilities between the Tang and Tibet continued until they signed a formal peace treaty in 821. The terms of this treaty, including the fixed borders between the two countries, are recorded in a bilingual inscription on a stone pillar outside the
764:, was of Central Asian origin, but adopted Persian-Greek cultural traditions. This is an early example of a recurring theme of Central Asian history: occasionally nomads of Central Asian origin would conquer the kingdoms and empires surrounding the region, but quickly merge into the culture of the conquered peoples.
2000:
By early 1942 as many as 20,800 ethnic
Germans had been organised into battalions in this labour army, though this number would grow to as much as 222,000 by early 1944 as conscription criteria were broadened. The NKVD employed about 101,000 members of the labour army at construction sites to develop
1915:
several million refugees and hundreds of factories were moved to the relative security of
Central Asia; and the region permanently became an important part of the Soviet industrial complex. Several important military facilities were also located in the region, including nuclear testing facilities and
928:
After this military victory, Emperor
Taizong won the title of Great Khan amongst the various Turks in the region who pledged their allegiance to him and the Chinese empire (with several thousand Turks traveling into China to live at Chang'an). On June 11, 631, Emperor Taizong also sent envoys to the
2151:
and
Turkmenistan refused however to recognise the validity of these bilateral agreements; Iran is rejecting any bilateral agreement to divide the Caspian. On the other hand, US' choices in the region (within the framework of the so-called "pipeline diplomacy"), such as the strong support of the Baku
2004:
As the tide turned in the war, and the
Soviets began to reclaim the territories they lost to the initial German advance, they began a new wave of deportations of unfavoured ethnic groups. Karachais, Kalmyks, Chechens, Ingushetians, Kabardians, and Crimean Tatars were all deported to Central Asia for
868:
nomads, who were becoming the most dominant ethnic group in Central Asia. To handle and avoid any threats posed by the Turks, the Sui government repaired fortifications and received their trade and tribute missions. They sent royal princesses off to marry Turkic clan leaders, a total of four of them
273:
slowly replaced and assimilated the previous Iranian-speaking locals, turning the population of Central Asia from largely Iranian, into primarily of East Asian descent. Modern Central Asians are characterized by both West-Eurasian and East-Eurasian ancestry, with the majority being of primarily East
1975:
The Second World War sparked the widespread migration of Soviet citizens to the rear of the USSR. Much of this movement was directed to Soviet Central Asia. These migrations included official, state-organised evacuations and deportations as well as the non-sanctioned, panicked flight from the front
1958:
Political turmoil has led to major demographic shifts in the region: During the Qing dynasty there were 60% Turkic and 30% Han Chinese in the region, after the Muslim revolts the percentage of Han Chinese dropped to as low as 7%, and by the year 2000 some 40% of the population of Xinjiang were Han.
1324:
In the 14th century, much of Central Asia, and many areas beyond it, were conquered by Timur (1336–1405) who is known in the west as Tamerlane. It was during Timur's reign that the nomadic steppe culture of Central Asia fused with the settled culture of Iran. One of its consequences was an entirely
64:
were marked by conflict. The nomadic lifestyle was well suited to warfare, and the steppe horse riders became some of the most militarily potent people in the world, due to the devastating techniques and ability of their horse archers. Periodically, tribal leaders or changing conditions would cause
1983:
began on June 22, 1941. A decree from the Presidium of the executive committee on the same day forbade the entry or exit from the USSR's border regions, which were under a state of martial law. Such mandates demonstrated the Soviets' fear of spreading panic and their commitment to asserting direct
1493:
after 1865 and the consequent securing of the frontier, the Russians gradually expropriated large parts of the steppe and gave these lands to Russian farmers, who began to arrive in large numbers. This process was initially limited to the northern fringes of the steppe and it was only in the 1890s
1349:
The lifestyle that had existed largely unchanged since 500 BCE began to disappear after 1500. Important changes to the world economy in the 14th and 15th century reflected the impact of the development of nautical technology. Ocean trade routes were pioneered by the Europeans, who had been cut off
1312:
Even harder than keeping a steppe empire together was governing conquered lands outside the region. While the steppe peoples of Central Asia found conquest of these areas easy, they found governing almost impossible. The diffuse political structure of the steppe confederacies was maladapted to the
2081:
Independence largely resulted from the efforts of the small groups of nationalistic, mostly local intellectuals, and from little interest in Moscow for retaining the expensive region. While never a part of the Soviet Union, Mongolia followed a somewhat similar path. Often acting as the unofficial
2013:
Many Soviet citizens ended up in Central Asia during World War II, not as a result of deportation, but evacuation. The evacuation focused on the movement of critical wartime industry and the factory workers responsible for overseeing such production. Whole factories and their employees were moved
1488:
By the 1800s, the locals could do little to resist the Russian advance, although the Kazakhs of the Great Horde under Kenesary Kasimov rose in rebellion from 1837 to 1846. Until the 1870s, for the most part, Russian interference was minimal, leaving native ways of life intact and local government
1251:
The steppe peoples quickly came to dominate Central Asia, forcing the scattered city states and kingdoms to pay them tribute or face annihilation. The martial ability of the steppe peoples was limited, however, by the lack of political structure within the tribes. Confederations of various groups
2046:
pressured the local Communist parties to open up. What Svat Soucek calls the "Central Asian Spring" was very short-lived as soon after independence, former Communist Party officials recast themselves as local strongmen. Political stability in the region has mostly been maintained, with the major
2029:
Despite these setbacks in the implementation of evacuation policy early in the war, around 12 million Soviet citizens successfully evacuated in 1941, even if a number of these were the result of disorganised, “spontaneous self-evacuation,” and another 4.5 million evacuated the following year. In
2085:
The economic performance of the region since independence has been mixed. It contains some of the largest reserves of natural resources in the world, but there are important difficulties in transporting them. Since it lies farther from the ocean than anywhere else in the world, and its southern
2025:
The early flight of Soviet officials who were supposed to manage the evacuation was roundly condemned by Soviet leaders, but often their retreat resulted from a realisation that evacuation procedures had started too late, and that there was no way to effectively execute it. Additionally, Soviet
2017:
The initial attempts at evacuation while the war was still in its early stages through early 1942 were a far cry from the organised affair that the Soviet central bureaucracy envisaged. Throughout the summer and fall of 1941, numerous Soviet frontier cities evacuated in a haphazard and panicked
1996:
in border regions were targeted for deportation to the rear where Soviet authorities had no need to worry of their conspiring with the enemy. Such dubious ethnically derived logic was not reserved for Germans. Many Finns were also forcibly relocated in the first year of the war simply for their
1354:
by the Muslim states that controlled its western termini. The long-distance trade linking East Asia and India to Western Europe increasingly began to move over the seas and not through Central Asia. However, the emergence of Russia as a world power enabled Central Asia to continue its role as a
2033:
Due to the haphazard nature of evacuation, many labourers did not arrive with their factory, and had to find labour on their own, though jobs were hard to come by. Additionally, cities like Tashkent became overwhelmed at the sheer volume of people arriving at its gates and had great difficulty
2021:
There was also a desire on the part of Soviet officials to forestall any evacuations until it was absolutely necessary, the marching orders were often to continue factory production until the eve of occupation before hurriedly dismantling and transporting factory equipment, and destroying what
433:
and grew wealthy from this trade. The steppe nomads were dependent on these settled people for a wide array of goods that were impossible for transient populations to produce. The nomads traded for these when they could, but because they generally did not produce goods of interest to sedentary
1805:'s holdings in Central Asia. Republic of China's control of the region was relegated to southern Xinjiang and there was a dual threat from Islamic separatists and communists. Eventually the region became largely independent under the control of the provincial governor. Rather than invade, the
3159:
pp. 4–5. "These results suggest that Turkic cultural customs were imposed by an East Asian minority elite onto central steppe nomad populations... The wide distribution of the Turkic languages from Northwest China, Mongolia and Siberia in the east to Turkey and Bulgaria in the west implies
1694:
Russian rule still remained distant from the local populace, mostly concerning itself with the small minority of Russian inhabitants of the region. The local Muslims were not considered full Russian citizens. They did not have the full privileges of Russians, but nor did they have the same
1325:
new visual language that glorified Timur and subsequent Timurid rulers. This visual language was also used to articulate their commitment to Islam. Timur's large empire collapsed soon after his death, however. The region then became divided among a series of smaller khanates, including the
360:, thus being made more maneuverable, and dominated the battlefields. The growing use of the horse, combined with the failure, roughly around 2000 BC, of the always precarious irrigation systems that had allowed for extensive agriculture in the region, gave rise and dominance of pastoral
2105:) as a major actor may complicate Moscow's chances of making a decisive break with its past economic mistakes and geopolitical excesses in Central Asia. They also regard as a myth the assertion that Caspian oil and gas will be a cheaper and more secure alternative to supplies from the
635:
When faced by a stronger force, the nomads could simply retreat deep into the steppe and wait for the invaders to leave. With no cities and little wealth other than the herds they took with them, the nomads had nothing they could be forced to defend. An example of this is given by
880:
began raiding northeast China in 605, a Chinese general led 20,000 Turks against them, distributing Khitan livestock and women to the Turks as a reward. On two occasions between 635 and 636, Tang royal princesses were married to Turk mercenaries or generals in Chinese service.
2488:
2026:
officials who remained in a city captured by German forces feared execution by Nazis on the hunt for communists. Avoiding that, the officials knew that they would be subject to intense interrogation as to what happened by suspicious Soviets upon returning to the fold.
1924:, starting in 1954, was a massive Soviet agricultural resettlement program that brought more than 300,000 individuals, mostly from the Ukraine, to the northern Kazakh SSR and the Altai region of the Russian SFSR. This was a major change in the ethnicity of the region.
1865:, and Bukhara and Khiva also became SSRs. In 1919, the Conciliatory Commission for Turkestan Affairs was established, to try to improve relations between the locals and the Communists. New policies were introduced, respecting local customs and religion. In 1920, the
1180:
in 751 an Arab army decisively defeated a Tang force, and for the next several centuries Middle Eastern influences would dominate the region. Large-scale Islamization however did not begin until the 9th century, running parallel with the fragmentation of
3352:
Gnecchi-Ruscone, Guido Alberto; Khussainova, Elmira; Kahbatkyzy, Nurzhibek; Musralina, Lyazzat; Spyrou, Maria A.; Bianco, Raffaela A.; Radzeviciute, Rita; Martins, Nuno Filipe Gomes; Freund, Caecilia; Iksan, Olzhas; Garshin, Alexander (March 2021).
406:, who lived to their north in western Siberia, Russia, and parts of Kazakhstan, and survived as a culture until the 1st millennium BC. These cultures, particularly Bactria-Margiana, have been posited as possible representatives of the hypothetical
2086:
borders lay closed for decades, the main trade routes and pipelines run through Russia. As a result, Russia still exerts more influence over the region than in any other former Soviet republics. Nevertheless, the rising energy importance of the
1976:
by both general citizenry and important officials. The evacuation of Soviet citizens and industry during World War II was an essential element of their overall success in the war, and Central Asia served as a main destination for evacuees.
1236:
had begun. Horses continued to grow larger and sturdier so that chariots were no longer needed as the horses could carry men with ease. This greatly increased the mobility of the nomads; it also freed their hands, allowing them to use the
2143:– on an equal basis. Following the ratification of bilateral treaties, Russia, Kazakhstan, and Azerbaijan declared that the northern Caspian was open for business and investment as they had reached a consensus on the legal status of the
1280:
were the most powerful of these nomad groups in the 6th and 7th century and controlled much of the region. In the 10th and 11th centuries, the region was divided between several powerful states including the Samanid dynasty, that of the
793:. The Uyghurs, primarily pastoral nomads, observed a number of religions including Manichaeism, Buddhism, and Nestorian Christianity. Many of the artefacts from this period were found in the 19th century in this remote desert region.
3410:
Damgaard, Peter de Barros; Marchi, Nina; Rasmussen, Simon; Peyrot, Michaël; Renaud, Gabriel; Korneliussen, Thorfinn; Moreno-Mayar, J. Víctor; Pedersen, Mikkel Winther; Goldberg, Amy; Usmanova, Emma; Baimukhanov, Nurbol (May 2018).
3094:
Damgaard, Peter de Barros; Marchi, Nina; Rasmussen, Simon; Peyrot, Michaël; Renaud, Gabriel; Korneliussen, Thorfinn; Moreno-Mayar, J. Víctor; Pedersen, Mikkel Winther; Goldberg, Amy; Usmanova, Emma; Baimukhanov, Nurbol (May 2018).
2163:. Iran, which for millennia had close links with the region, has also been working to build ties and the Central Asian states now have good relations with the Islamic Republic. One important player in the new Central Asia has been
3172:
Anthony, D. W. (2007). "Pontic-Caspian Mesolithic and Early Neolithic societies at the time of the Black Sea Flood: a small audience and small effects". In Yanko-Hombach, V.; Gilbert, A. A.; Panin, N.; Dolukhanov, P. M. (eds.).
339:
cultures develop in the second half of the 5th millennium BC, small communities in permanent settlements which began to engage in agricultural practices as well as herding. Around this time, some of these communities began the
840:
3286:
Jeong, Choongwon; Balanovsky, Oleg; Lukianova, Elena; Kahbatkyzy, Nurzhibek; Flegontov, Pavel; Zaporozhchenko, Valery; Immel, Alexander; Wang, Chuan-Chao; Ixan, Olzhas; Khussainova, Elmira; Bekmanov, Bakhytzhan (June 2019).
2893:
Jeong, Choongwon; Balanovsky, Oleg; Lukianova, Elena; Kahbatkyzy, Nurzhibek; Flegontov, Pavel; Zaporozhchenko, Valery; Immel, Alexander; Wang, Chuan-Chao; Ixan, Olzhas; Khussainova, Elmira; Bekmanov, Bakhytzhan (June 2019).
1695:
obligations, such as military service. The Tsarist regime left substantial elements of the previous regimes (such as Muslim religious courts) intact, and local self-government at the village level was quite extensive.
1087:
believes that the tradition is in error and that "those histories reporting the arrival of Chinese troops are not correct" and claims that the event is mentioned neither in the Chinese annals nor in the manuscripts of
155:
officials retained power as local strongmen, with the partial exception of Kyrgyzstan which, despite ousting three post-Soviet presidents in popular uprisings, has as yet been unable to consolidate a stable democracy.
3028:
Krzewińska, Maja; Kılınç, Gülşah Merve; Juras, Anna; Koptekin, Dilek; Chyleński, Maciej; Nikitin, Alexey G.; Shcherbakov, Nikolai; Shuteleva, Iia; Leonova, Tatiana; Kraeva, Liudmila; Sungatov, Flarit A. (2018-10-03).
1662:
shot up in price in the 1860s, becoming an increasingly important commodity in the region, although its cultivation was on a much lesser scale than during the Soviet period. The cotton trade led to improvements: the
65:
several tribes to organize themselves into a single military force, which would then often launch campaigns of conquest, especially into more 'civilized' areas. A few of these types of tribal coalitions included the
3236:
Damgaard, Peter de Barros; Martiniano, Rui; Kamm, Jack; Moreno-Mayar, J. Víctor; Kroonen, Guus; Peyrot, Michaël; Barjamovic, Gojko; Rasmussen, Simon; Zacho, Claus; Baimukhanov, Nurbol; Zaibert, Victor (2018-06-29).
2962:
Unterländer, Martina; Palstra, Friso; Lazaridis, Iosif; Pilipenko, Aleksandr; Hofmanová, Zuzana; Groß, Melanie; Sell, Christian; Blöcher, Jens; Kirsanow, Karola; Rohland, Nadin; Rieger, Benjamin (2017-03-03).
240:
Genetic, archeologic and linguistic evidence links the early Turkic peoples to the "Northeast Asian gene pool". Proto-Turks are suggested to have adopted a nomadic lifestyle and expanded from eastern Mongolia
1300:
spread to comprise all of Central Asia and China as well as large parts of Russia, and the Middle East. After Genghis Khan died in 1227, most of Central Asia continued to be dominated by the Mongol successor
228:
is thought to have been reached by 38,000 years ago. The currently oldest modern human sample found in northern Central Asia, is a 45,000-year-old remain, which was genetically closest to ancient and modern
2186:
groups have formed in several of the countries, but radical Islam has little history in the region; the Central Asian societies have remained largely secular and all five states enjoy good relations with
1260:
arrived in Western Europe. However, tradition dictated that any dominion conquered in such wars should be divided among all of the khan's sons, so these empires often declined as quickly as they formed.
2695:
Fu, Qiaomei; Li, Heng; Moorjani, Priya; Jay, Flora; Slepchenko, Sergey M.; Bondarev, Aleksei A.; Johnson, Philip L. F.; Petri, Ayinuer A.; Prüfer, Kay; de Filippo, Cesare; Meyer, Matthias (2014-10-23).
2001:
infrastructure for the war effort. Those who were not assigned to the labour army were used for timber harvesting, the construction of railways and other infrastructure, or sent to collective farms.
1651:
of British India. Although the conquest was prompted by almost purely military concerns, in the 1870s and 1880s Turkestan came to play a reasonably important economic role within the Russian Empire.
1904:
writing systems were introduced, to break links with Turkey and Iran. Under the Soviets the southern border was almost completely closed and all travel and trade was directed north through Russia.
2090:
entails a great involvement in the region by the US. The former Soviet republics of the Caucasus now have their own US special envoy and inter-agency working groups. Former US Secretary of Energy
1831:
of Xinjiang gambled and broke his links to Moscow, moving to ally himself with the Kuomintang. This led to a civil war within the region. Sheng was eventually forced to flee and the Soviet-backed
1900:
as threats, which dividing Turkestan would limit. Under the Soviets, the local languages and cultures were systematised and codified, and their differences clearly demarcated and encouraged. New
1034:
in Afghanistan ended with revolts by the Turks in 665, but the Tang retained a military presence in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan. These holdings were later invaded by the
1993:
944:. Like the earlier Han dynasty, the Tang dynasty, along with Turkic allies like the Uyghurs, conquered and subdued Central Asia during the 640s and 650s. During Emperor Taizong's reign alone,
726:
thrived across a wide swath of the region from the 2nd century BC to the 4th century AD, and continued Hellenistic and Buddhist traditions. These states prospered from their position on the
2224:, a shortage of both electricity and fuel, aggravated by abnormally cold temperatures, failing infrastructure, and a shortage of food in which aid from the west began to assist the region.
767:
At this time Central Asia was a heterogeneous region with a mixture of cultures and religions. Buddhism remained the largest religion, but was concentrated in the east. Around Persia,
2074:
Much of the population of Soviet Central Asia was indifferent to the collapse of the Soviet Union, even the large Russian populations in Kazakhstan (roughly 40% of the total) and
1959:
As with the Soviet Union local languages and cultures were mostly encouraged and Xinjiang was granted autonomous status. However, Islam was much persecuted, especially during the
1943:. The area was subject to a number of development schemes and, like Soviet Central Asia, one focus was on the growing of the cotton cash crop. These efforts were overseen by the
1424:, they maintained influence in the Afghanistan region until the late 17th century even as they dominated India. After the Mughal Empire's decline in the 18th century, the
1428:
from Afghanistan would briefly overrun the North Western region of India, by the 19th century, the rise of the British Empire would limit the impact of Afghan conquerors.
1545:. The main opposition to Russian expansion into Turkestan came from the British, who felt that Russia was growing too powerful and threatening the northwest frontiers of
632:, Chinese states would also regularly strive to extend their power westwards. Despite their military might, these states found it difficult to conquer the whole region.
2124:
sectors. According to Gawdat Bahgat, the investment flow suggests that the geological potential of the Caspian region as a major source of oil and gas is not in doubt.
3821:
Twitchett, Denis; Wechsler, Howard J. (1979). "Kao-tsung (reign 649-83) and the Empress Wu: The Inheritor and the Usurper". In Denis Twitchett; John Fairbank (eds.).
4976:
957:
895:
Chinese conscripts, the majority of the troops led by Turkic generals were of non-Chinese origin, campaigning largely in the western frontier where the presence of
2078:, Uzbekistan. Aid from the Kremlin had also been central to the economies of Central Asia, each of the republics receiving massive transfers of funds from Moscow.
41:
concerns the history of the various peoples that have inhabited Central Asia. The lifestyle of such people has been determined primarily by the area's climate and
1862:
953:
382:
While the semi-arid plains were dominated by the nomads, small city-states and sedentary agrarian societies arose in the more humid areas of Central Asia. The
320:. The four analyzed Botai samples had about 2/3 European-related and 1/3 East Asian-related ancestry. The Botai samples also showed high affinity towards the
917:; after these internal conflicts, the Tang began an offensive against the Turks. In the year 630, Tang armies captured areas of the Ordos Desert, modern-day
6134:
5024:
2433:
2300:
1870:
1866:
2116:, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan have gradually moved to centre stage in the global energy markets and are now regarded as key factors of the international
1397:. In the 18th century, the Qing emperors, themselves originally from the far eastern edge of the steppe, campaigned in the west and in Mongolia, with the
864:
It was during the Sui and Tang dynasties that China expanded into eastern Central Asia. Chinese foreign policy to the north and west now had to deal with
511:
1944:
687:(Lit. “Alexandria the Furthest”), established in 329 BC in modern Tajikistan. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, his Central Asian territory fell to the
379:(or gers) – tents made of hides and wood that could be disassembled and transported. Each group had several yurts, each accommodating about five people.
371:
Scattered nomadic groups maintained herds of sheep, goats, horses, and camels, and conducted annual migrations to find new pastures (a practice known as
4439:
Altschuler, Mordechai (1993), "Escape and Evacuation of Soviet Jews at the Time of the Nazi Invasion", in Lucjan Dobroszycki; Jeffrey S. Gurock (eds.),
6287:
2761:
Lu, Dongsheng; Lou, Haiyi; Yuan, Kai; Wang, Xiaoji; Wang, Yuchen; Zhang, Chao; Lu, Yan; Yang, Xiong; Deng, Lian; Zhou, Ying; Feng, Qidi (2016-09-01).
1679:
to Tashkent were constructed. In the long term the development of a cotton monoculture would render Turkestan dependent on food imports from Western
1782:, and the semi-autonomous states of Bukhara and Khiva were also invaded. The main independence forces were rapidly crushed, but guerrillas known as
945:
811:
2209:
One important Soviet legacy that has only gradually been appreciated is the vast ecological destruction. Most notable is the gradual drying of the
2101:
Some analysts, such as Myers Jaffe and Robert A. Manning, estimate however that US' entry into the region (with initiatives such as the US-favored
128:
and construction of infrastructure, but also the suppression of local cultures and a lasting legacy of ethnic tensions and environmental problems.
5158:
807:
383:
1992:
Soviet officials organised their wartime deportation policy largely along ethnic lines. As a response to the German invasion, Soviet citizens of
1967:
in other provinces. However, the Great Leap Forward did not affect much of Xinjiang due to its geographical isolation from other parts of China.
737:
expanded into the region at the height of its imperial power. From roughly 115 to 60 BC, Han forces fought the Xiongnu over control of the oasis
2167:, which has been funding the Islamic revival in the region. Olcott notes that soon after independence Saudi money paid for massive shipments of
1469:
steppe into an agricultural heartland, and subsequently onto the fringe of the Kazakh steppes, beginning with the foundation of the fortress of
1393:
and Mongolia. However, in a sign of the changed times they proved unable to match the Chinese and were decisively defeated by the forces of the
49:
of the region makes agriculture difficult and distance from the sea cut it off from much trade. Thus, few major cities developed in the region.
6389:
4126:
1133:
961:
991:
4929:
4911:
4890:
4869:
4851:
4833:
4815:
4746:
4728:
4698:
4639:
4605:
4581:
4561:
4543:
4525:
4507:
4489:
4172:
3999:
3967:
3916:
3883:
3858:
3830:
3554:
3513:
473:
groups. Despite these ethnic and linguistic differences, the steppe lifestyle led to the adoption of very similar culture across the region.
179:
6415:
4949:
4945:
253:), with subsequent geneflow from Paleo-Siberians, contributing East Asian-related ancestry towards Paleolithic Central Asians. During the
3989:
2155:
Increasingly, other powers have begun to involve themselves in Central Asia. Soon after the Central Asian states won their independence,
6344:
4969:
2192:
929:
Eastern Turkic tribes bearing gold and silk in order to persuade the release of enslaved Chinese prisoners who were captured during the
742:
152:
6069:
4618:
2678:
1083:(d. 649). A Tibetan tradition mentions that after Songtsän Gampo's death in 649 AD, Chinese troops captured Lhasa. The Tibetan scholar
6425:
6339:
5340:
3182:
2227:
As of 2019, despite its common cultural and historical past Central Asia has been "one of the least integrated regions in the world".
815:
486:
1936:
1835:
was formed in northern Dzungaria, while the Republic of China retained control of southern Xinjiang. Both states were annexed by the
869:
in 597, 599, 614, and 617. The Sui army intervened in Turks’ civil war and stirred conflict amongst ethnic groups against the Turks.
5750:
4193:
3538:
3201:
3191:
2423:
2409:
2375:
2348:
2203:
2152:
pipeline (the project was eventually approved and was completed in 2005), reflect a political desire to avoid both Russia and Iran.
1878:
1601:
2199:, and important trade and business links have developed between those that left for Israel after independence and those remaining.
1553:, where both powers competed to advance their own interests in the region. It did little to slow the pace of conquest north of the
888:
until the end of 755, there were approximately ten Turkic generals serving under the Tang. While most of the Tang army was made of
4708:
Dani, A. H.; Litvinsky, B. A.; Zamir Safi, M. H. "Eastern Kushans, Kidarites in Gandhara and Kashmir, and Later Hephthalites". In
269:, Central Asia received noteworthy amounts of migration from East Asian-related populations, and became increasingly diverse. The
6410:
1452:
1071:
The Tang Empire competed with the Tibetan Empire for control of areas in Inner and Central Asia, which was at times settled with
4999:
2127:
Russia and Kazakhstan started a closer energy co-operation in 1998, which was further consolidated in May 2002, when Presidents
1798:
745:
in 60 BC, which dealt with the region's defence and foreign affairs. Chinese rule in Tarim Basin was replaced successively with
577:
In the 2nd and 1st millennia BC, a series of large and powerful states developed on the southern periphery of Central Asia (the
174:
6349:
5619:
2221:
2064:
1882:
1874:
977:
969:
165:
3957:
6384:
6329:
5579:
4962:
1932:
1832:
1213:
1128:
648:, had permanent settlements of various sizes, representing various degrees of civilisation. The vast fortified settlement of
3529:
Baumer, Christoph. "Part I: Early Empires and Kingdoms in East Central Asia 1. The Xiongnu, the First Steppe Nomad Empire".
1952:
1791:
1684:
933:
from the northern frontier; this embassy succeeded in freeing 80,000 Chinese men and women who were then returned to China.
5873:
5335:
4807:
2272:
1892:
These borders had little to do with ethnic make-up, but the Soviets felt it important to divide the region. They saw both
1836:
1821:
1019:
1004:
1911:
at least a million persons died, mostly in the Kazakh SSR. Islam, as well as other religions, were also attacked. In the
771:
became important. Nestorian Christianity entered the area, but was never more than a minority faith. More successful was
6334:
2102:
1046:
108:, and other powers expanded into the area and seized the bulk of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. After the
820:
2202:
China sees the region as an essential future source of raw materials; most Central Asian countries are members of the
1478:
930:
4185:
1165:, but the collapse of the Türgesh Khaganate after 738 opened the way for the re-imposition of Muslim authority under
386:
of the early 2nd millennium BC was the first sedentary civilization of the region, practicing irrigation farming of
5599:
4597:
4481:
2120:. Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan in particular have succeeded in attracting massive foreign investment to their oil and
1457:
873:
833:
341:
200:
109:
4098:
Levi, Scott (1999). "India, Russia and the Eighteenth-Century Transformation of the Central Asian Caravan Trade".
1635:
Russian expansion was halted in 1887 when Russia and Great Britain delineated the northern border of Afghanistan.
437:
A wide variety of people came to populate the steppes. Nomadic groups in Central Asia included the Huns and other
332:
6420:
5835:
5129:
3193:
The horse, the wheel, and language : how Bronze-Age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world
1790:
was also swept up by the Russian Revolution and, though it never became a Soviet republic, it became a communist
4518:
The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Volume II; Frontier, Immigration, & Empire in Han China, 130 B.C. – A.D. 157
2159:
began to look east, and a number of organizations are attempting to build links between the western and eastern
675:
empires, did make deep inroads into Central Asia by founding cities and gaining control of the trading centres.
6282:
5855:
5569:
5559:
5554:
5149:
5139:
5104:
1886:
680:
2636:"Genetic evidence of paleolithic colonization and neolithic expansion of modern humans on the tibetan plateau"
2082:
sixteenth Soviet republic, it shed the communist system only in 1996, but quickly ran into economic problems.
1107:. In fact, it was during this rebellion that the Tang withdrew its western garrisons stationed in what is now
581:). These empires launched several attempts to conquer the steppe people but met with only mixed success. The
6379:
6267:
6144:
6049:
5893:
5775:
5184:
5134:
4666:
4423:
Regional Connection under the Belt and Road Initiative. The Prospects for Economic and Financial Cooperation
2277:
1762:
During the First World War the Muslim exemption from conscription was removed by the Russians, sparking the
1268:
Tang Chinese painting about the Hephthalites, which ruled southern Central Asia, specifically what is today
1000:
364:
by 1000 BC, a way of life that would dominate the region for the next several millennia, giving rise to the
349:
169:
4806:, Manoa: Asian Interactions and Comparisons, a joint publication of the University of Hawaii Press and the
1412:
One Turko-Mongolic dynasty that remained prominent during this period was the Mughal Empire, whose founder
6359:
6119:
5144:
5079:
2247:
2140:
1716:
1318:
1027:
703:
500:
411:
302:
257:, ancient Central Asia received various migration events from Europe and the Middle East, associated with
250:
124:
and Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan in the late 20th century. The Soviet areas of Central Asia saw much
593:
Empire (209 BC-93 (156) AD) may be seen as the first central Asian empire which set an example for later
6194:
6169:
6079:
5710:
5544:
2282:
2267:
2257:
2252:
1963:. Many people from other parts of China fled to Xinjiang due to the failed agricultural policies of the
1921:
1820:
further destabilised the region and saw Turkic nationalists make attempts at independence. In 1933, the
1812:
By the 1930s, the governor of Xinjiang's relationship with Moscow was far more important than that with
1664:
1084:
528:
4764:
Manning, R.; Jaffe, A. (1998), "The myth of the Caspian "Great Game": the real geopolitics of energy",
4137:
1533:
were poorly equipped and could do little to resist Russia's advances, although the Kokandian commander
656:
River, settled since the end of the 5th century BC, became the centre of the Scythian kingdom ruled by
4081:
2014:
together via railway eastward to cities like Tashkent, which received a lion's share of the evacuees.
6303:
6129:
5976:
5511:
5309:
3424:
3366:
3300:
3108:
3042:
2976:
2907:
2709:
2132:
1980:
1763:
1051:
692:
661:
442:
4141:
3031:"Ancient genomes suggest the eastern Pontic-Caspian steppe as the source of western Iron Age nomads"
2634:
Qi X, Cui C, Peng Y, Zhang X, Yang Z, Zhong H, Zhang H, Xiang K, Cao X, Wang Y, et al. (2013).
1588:
fell to the Russians in quick succession over the next three years as the Khanate of Kokand and the
629:
6369:
6159:
5584:
5574:
5304:
5229:
3355:"Ancient genomic time transect from the Central Asian Steppe unravels the history of the Scythians"
2287:
2262:
2042:
From 1988 to 1992, a free press and multi-party system developed in the Central Asian republics as
1960:
1917:
1858:
1848:
1712:
1605:
1473:. The slow Russian conquest of the heart of Central Asia began in the early 19th century, although
676:
649:
294:
3908:
1525:, a traditional Central Asian prison, in the Bukharan Protectorate under Imperial Russia, ca. 1910
1416:
traced descent to Timur. While the Mughals were never able to conquer Babur's original domains in
131:
With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, five Central Asian countries gained independence —
6319:
6272:
6139:
6054:
6039:
5996:
5951:
5815:
5604:
5390:
5279:
5239:
5164:
5009:
4465:
3466:
3150:
2875:
2428:
1964:
1767:
1672:
1655:
1589:
1573:
1338:
1330:
1158:
750:
707:
684:
290:
2820:"Populations dynamics in Northern Eurasian forests: a long-term perspective from Northeast Asia"
1778:
and declared Turkestan's autonomy. This new government was quickly crushed by the forces of the
1355:
conduit for overland trade of other sorts, now linking India with Russia on a north–south axis.
995:
The Chinese Tang dynasty during its greatest extension, controlling large parts of Central Asia.
2479:
Encyclopædia Iranica: Central Asia from the Islamic Period to the Mongol Conquest (C. Bosworth)
6374:
5483:
5325:
5299:
5294:
5194:
5179:
5069:
5064:
5034:
5014:
4925:
4907:
4886:
4865:
4847:
4829:
4811:
4742:
4724:
4694:
4635:
4601:
4577:
4557:
4539:
4521:
4503:
4485:
4189:
4168:
3995:
3963:
3912:
3879:
3854:
3826:
3534:
3509:
3458:
3450:
3392:
3334:
3316:
3268:
3197:
3178:
3142:
3134:
3076:
3058:
3010:
2992:
2941:
2923:
2867:
2849:
2800:
2782:
2743:
2725:
2657:
2616:
2586:
2419:
2405:
2371:
2344:
1817:
1783:
1724:
1597:
1432:
1334:
1314:
1286:
1276:
Once the foreign powers were expelled, several indigenous empires formed in Central Asia. The
1182:
1154:
1150:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1023:
985:
836:
dancing with a cup of wine in its mouth, as the horses of Emperor Xuanzong were trained to do.
606:
586:
578:
524:
399:
345:
236:
230:
125:
42:
4784:
Polian, Pavel (2004), "Forced migrations during and after the Second World War (1939–1953)",
3505:
3501:
1750:
in 1877 his state collapsed as the area was reconquered by China. After lengthy negotiations
909:
Civil war in China was almost totally diminished by 626, along with the defeat in 628 of the
785:
were one of many distinct cultural groups brought together by the trade of the Silk Route at
429:
rose to prominence. After the 1st century BC, these cities became home to the traders of the
6364:
6292:
5913:
5800:
5609:
5594:
5443:
5289:
5249:
5204:
5189:
4773:
4457:
4107:
3900:
3440:
3432:
3382:
3374:
3324:
3308:
3258:
3250:
3124:
3116:
3066:
3050:
3000:
2984:
2931:
2915:
2857:
2839:
2831:
2790:
2774:
2733:
2717:
2647:
2608:
2380:
2136:
2060:
1912:
1640:
1613:
1609:
1593:
1398:
1326:
1302:
1197:
1104:
778:
757:
543:
293:
is used of late Mesolithic cultures of Central Asia, during the 6th to 5th millennia BC (in
4719:
Loewe, Michael (1986), "The Former Han Dynasty", in Denis Twitchett; Michael Loewe (eds.),
2387:: Historical experience of integration and reference points of XXI century. Dushanbe: 2015.
394:
and possibly a form of writing. Bactria-Margiana probably interacted with the contemporary
6354:
6297:
6237:
6227:
6189:
5931:
5624:
5423:
5380:
5362:
5199:
5169:
5074:
5049:
5004:
4878:
4085:
2242:
2237:
2214:
2117:
2091:
2048:
1861:
experienced a flurry of administrative reorganisation. In 1918, the Bolsheviks set up the
1779:
1474:
1264:
1177:
1166:
1061:
1031:
761:
688:
645:
554:
490:
265:, with some groups being of Paleo-Siberian and Samoyedic (Uralic) origin. Since the early
262:
225:
121:
4920:
Yü, Ying-shih (1986), "Han Foreign Relations", in Denis Twitchett; Michael Loewe (eds.),
3901:
3496:
Azarpay, Guitty; Belenickij, Aleksandr M.; Maršak, Boris Il'ič; Dresden, Mark J. (1981).
4922:
The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220
4721:
The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220
3428:
3370:
3304:
3239:"The first horse herders and the impact of early Bronze Age steppe expansions into Asia"
3112:
3046:
2980:
2911:
2862:
2819:
2713:
1220:
Over time, as new technologies were introduced, the nomadic horsemen grew in power. The
6314:
6277:
6099:
6034:
5908:
5760:
5745:
5715:
5478:
5473:
5468:
5433:
5284:
5274:
5234:
5019:
4629:
4625:
4571:
3876:
Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580–800
3387:
3354:
3329:
3288:
3263:
3238:
3071:
3030:
3005:
2964:
2936:
2895:
2795:
2762:
2738:
2697:
2489:
Encyclopædia Iranica: Central Asia from the 16th to the 18th centuries (R.D. McChesney)
2306:
2160:
2144:
2128:
1809:
established a network of consulates in the region and sent aid and technical advisors.
1728:
1708:
1648:
1425:
1417:
1406:
1390:
1386:
1363:
1358:
1282:
1209:
1186:
1035:
918:
903:
865:
768:
723:
719:
668:
622:
495:
450:
438:
426:
298:
283:
275:
270:
258:
210:
97:
74:
4860:
Twitchett, Denis (2000), "Tibet in Tang's Grand Strategy", in van de Ven, Hans (ed.),
2094:
had claimed that "the Caspian region will hopefully save us from total dependence on
1256:. When large numbers of nomads acted in unison they could be devastating, as when the
1161:(705–715) were soon reversed by a combination of native uprisings and invasion by the
348:, the north-west of the region is also considered to be the source of the root of the
6404:
6309:
6262:
6154:
5986:
5971:
5903:
5662:
5428:
5400:
5385:
5345:
5244:
5099:
5084:
5039:
4899:
4591:
4469:
4418:
2879:
2844:
2196:
2182:
The formerly atheistic communist party leaders have mostly converted to Islam. Small
2052:
1908:
1743:
1731:
in the heartland of the empire prevented the Chinese from reasserting their control.
1546:
1297:
1245:
1238:
1185:
political authority and the emergence of local Iranian and Turkic dynasties like the
877:
782:
746:
711:
602:
598:
415:
321:
313:
306:
17:
3470:
3412:
3154:
3096:
949:
594:
191:
6232:
6199:
6179:
6084:
5991:
5946:
5923:
5840:
5735:
5652:
5642:
5534:
5269:
5264:
5254:
5154:
5119:
5044:
2965:"Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe"
2553:
2521:
O'Connell, Robert L.: "Soul of the Sword.", page 51. The Free Press, New York, 2002
2355:
2164:
2106:
2056:
1940:
1897:
1828:
1806:
1802:
1704:
1644:
1562:
1517:
1394:
1371:
1293:
1277:
1253:
910:
885:
790:
618:
564:
504:
372:
357:
336:
316:(c. 3700–3100 BC) is suggested to be the earliest culture to have domesticated the
246:
140:
101:
61:
29:
5214:
4804:
Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations, 600–1400
3217:
Gronenborn, Detlef (2007). "Beyond the models: Neolithisation in Central Europe".
2530:"US and West need to stand solid behind Kyrgyzstan, Central Asia's only democracy"
1494:
that significant numbers of Russians began to settle farther south, especially in
4688:
2818:
Uchiyama, Junzo; Gillam, J. Christopher; Savelyev, Alexander; Ning, Chao (2020).
2599:
Aldenderfer M (2011). "Peopling the Tibetan plateau: insights from archaeology".
1824:
was declared, but it was destroyed soon after with the aid of the Soviet troops.
1715:. Internal turmoil largely halted Chinese expansion in the 19th century. In 1867
706:, which had extensive contacts with India and China until its end in 125 BC. The
6324:
6257:
6209:
6174:
6149:
6114:
6109:
6104:
6094:
6089:
6044:
6024:
6016:
5845:
5830:
5780:
5770:
5725:
5682:
5677:
5458:
5453:
5418:
5219:
5174:
5114:
3175:
The Black Sea Flood Question: changes in coastline, climate and human settlement
2497:
2484:
Encyclopædia Iranica: Central Asia in the Mongol and Timurid Periods (B. Spuler)
2390:
Maitdinova, Guzel. The Kirpand State – an Empire in Middle Asia. Dushanbe: 2011.
2095:
2087:
2043:
1948:
1893:
1751:
1688:
1668:
1558:
1431:
The Chinese dominions stretched into the heart of Central Asia and included the
1202:
1142:
1100:
1096:
1015:
1011:
965:
914:
772:
734:
715:
568:
117:
78:
4693:. Volume III: The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Paris: UNESCO.
2778:
2402:
Central Asia's New States: Independence, Foreign policy, and Regional security.
2368:
Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia, 500 BC. to 1700 AD.
1927:
Similar processes occurred in Xinjiang and the rest of western China where the
1176:
invasion also saw Chinese influence expelled from western Central Asia. At the
356:
appears in the 3rd millennium BC, by 2000 BC, in the form of war chariots with
6204:
6029:
5961:
5956:
5883:
5865:
5825:
5810:
5790:
5755:
5740:
5702:
5692:
5667:
5634:
5521:
5448:
5408:
5224:
5124:
5054:
4786:
Against Their Will: the History and Geography of Forced Migrations in the USSR
4554:
Ancient China and Its Enemies: the Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History
4461:
3436:
3312:
3120:
2919:
2176:
2113:
2068:
1854:
1629:
1621:
1550:
1507:
1436:
1421:
1269:
1162:
1149:
In the 8th century, Islam began to penetrate the region: the desert nomads of
1058:
853:
738:
446:
395:
254:
148:
144:
136:
132:
4111:
3454:
3320:
3138:
3062:
2996:
2927:
2853:
2786:
2729:
2179:
alone, an estimated 500 mosques per year have been erected with Saudi money.
2051:
that lasted from 1992 to 1997. 2005 also saw the largely peaceful ousting of
940:), the Tang government took on the military policy of dominating the central
6124:
6074:
6006:
5941:
5888:
5878:
5850:
5785:
5730:
5720:
5657:
5647:
5493:
5370:
5330:
5259:
5109:
3254:
2698:"The genome sequence of a 45,000-year-old modern human from western Siberia"
2652:
2635:
2384:
1739:
1735:
1585:
1538:
1490:
1379:
1367:
1351:
1221:
1099:
between 670–692 and in 763 the Tibetans even captured the capital of China,
849:
727:
641:
637:
532:
520:
482:
430:
3462:
3396:
3378:
3338:
3272:
3146:
3080:
3054:
3014:
2945:
2871:
2804:
2747:
2661:
2620:
1711:
Mongols. In the meantime, they incorporated parts of Central Asia into the
249:
was characterized by a distinctive but deeply European-related population (
4954:
2612:
936:
While the Turks were settled in the Ordos region (former territory of the
741:
in the Tarim Basin. The Han was eventually victorious and established the
6184:
6164:
5765:
5589:
5503:
5438:
5209:
2674:
2210:
2183:
2075:
1901:
1787:
1676:
1617:
1569:
1542:
1470:
1402:
1089:
973:
922:
422:
361:
279:
266:
113:
60:
Relations between the steppe nomads and the settled people in and around
4687:
Litvinsky, B. A.; Guang-da, Zhang; Samghabadi, R. Shabani, eds. (1996).
3445:
3129:
2988:
2835:
2721:
1095:
There was a long string of conflicts with Tibet over territories in the
6064:
6059:
6001:
5936:
5820:
5805:
5672:
5549:
5539:
5488:
5094:
2171:
to the region and for the construction and repair of a large number of
1813:
1720:
1680:
1636:
1581:
1577:
1534:
1530:
1466:
1465:
The Russians also expanded south, first with the transformation of the
1296:
united the tribes of Mongolia. Using superior military techniques, the
1233:
1116:
1112:
1065:
937:
857:
825:
699:
672:
653:
590:
470:
454:
403:
365:
353:
325:
301:
on the Volga in Russia by about 7000 BC. and from there spread via the
93:
86:
82:
4777:
2333:
2325:
Russia’s Protectorates in Central Asia: Bukhara and Khiva, 1865 - 1924
1292:
The most spectacular power to rise out of Central Asia developed when
120:
remained nominally independent, although Mongolia existed as a Soviet
5966:
5898:
5529:
5463:
5375:
5089:
2360:
2188:
2172:
2156:
1775:
1659:
1495:
1225:
1157:
gained control over parts of Central Asia. The early conquests under
1138:
1055:
1008:
999:
The expansion into Central Asia continued under Taizong's successor,
941:
902:
troops was low. Some "Turkic" troops were nomadisized Han Chinese, a
897:
890:
845:
786:
614:
516:
462:
391:
70:
54:
4649:
3823:
The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China Part I
4184:
Includes only citizens of the PRC. Does not include members of the
5795:
5687:
5614:
5564:
5413:
5059:
4570:
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006),
3962:(illustrated, reprint ed.), Motilal Banarsidass, p. 28,
2474:
Encyclopædia Iranica: Central Asia in pre-Islamic Times (R. Fryer)
2168:
1928:
1771:
1747:
1516:
1482:
1413:
1306:
1263:
1229:
1173:
1132:
1108:
990:
981:
829:
819:
657:
610:
582:
466:
407:
387:
317:
235:
220:
105:
50:
4448:
Bahgat, Gawdat (March 2006), "Central Asia and Energy Security",
4419:
China’s Belt and Road Initiative through the Lens of Central Asia
2404:(Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press) 1996.
2383:. The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Central Asian area of the
1443:. After his death, however, the Persian empire rapidly crumbled.
1022:
into the Tang Empire. The territory was administered through the
6219:
5981:
5029:
2148:
1827:
After the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Governor
1625:
1554:
1440:
1257:
640:'s detailed account of the futile Persian campaigns against the
458:
376:
66:
46:
4958:
2217:, and there exists a plethora of decrepit factories and mines.
1608:
region was annexed in the course of a campaign led by Generals
2763:"Ancestral Origins and Genetic History of Tibetan Highlanders"
2121:
4846:(1st English ed.), Stanford: Stanford University Press,
4772:(4), International Institute for Strategic Studies: 112–129,
2494:
Encyclopædia Iranica: Central Asia in the 18th–19th centuries
1951:
to return to Xinjiang after many had migrated out during the
1869:, covering modern Kazakhstan, was set up. It was renamed the
1774:
Reformers, also known as the Turkestan Muslim Council met in
4330:
4328:
3413:"137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes"
3097:"137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes"
2112:
Despite these reservations and fears, since the late 1980s,
760:
would come to dominate this trade. One of those powers, the
527:, found in the hall of the ruin of an aristocratic house in
4924:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–462,
4741:, et al., Beijing: Encyclopedia of China Publishing House,
4723:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 103–222,
4709:
4188:
in active service. Source: 2000年人口普查中国民族人口资料,民族出版社,2003/9 (
4079:
1378:
An even more important development was the introduction of
112:, the Soviet Union incorporated most of Central Asia; only
4797:, Royal Asiatic Society, Hertford: Stephen Austin and Sons
1971:
Soviet evacuation and World War II population deportations
1153:
could militarily match the nomads of the steppe , and the
96:
allowed settled people to gain control of the region. The
92:
The dominance of the nomads ended in the 16th century as
4668:
The Hephthalites: Archaeological and Historical Analysis
4100:
Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
2679:
The Surprisingly Early Settlement of the Tibetan Plateau
2503:
1216:
seriously depopulated large areas of Muslim Central Asia
434:
people, the popular alternative was to carry out raids.
224:
reached Central Asia by 50,000 to 40,000 years ago. The
178:
Sarmishsay (Navoi Region), Rock Art 3rd millennium BCE.
3289:"The genetic history of admixture across inner Eurasia"
3160:
large-scale migrations out of the homeland in Mongolia.
2896:"The genetic history of admixture across inner Eurasia"
2582:
1604:, with its headquarters at Tashkent. In 1881–1885, the
625:
history of the Xiongnu began long before Modun's rule.
4634:(2nd ed.), New York: Cambridge University Press,
3708:
3706:
3627:
3625:
1801:
in 1911 and the general turmoil in China affected the
1309:, a Turco-Mongol ruler, conquered most of the region.
4500:
China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang dynasty
4127:"Demographics and Development in Xinjiang after 1949"
3849:
Skaff, Jonathan Karem (2009). Nicola Di Cosmo (ed.).
2220:
In the first part of 2008 Central Asia experienced a
4573:
East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History
3498:
Sogdian Painting: The Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art
2332:
ALPAMYSH: Central Asian Identity under Russian Rule
1746:
from the Chinese Empire. After Yakub Beg's death at
1405:
in 1758. The Mongol threat was overcome and much of
698:
In 250 BC, the Central Asian portion of the empire (
6250:
6218:
6015:
5922:
5864:
5701:
5633:
5520:
5502:
5399:
5361:
5354:
5318:
4992:
3693:
3691:
3670:
3643:
1939:forces that controlled southern Xinjiang after the
1907:During the period of forced collectivisation under
1632:(from Afghanistan) all came under Russian control.
1447:Russian expansion into Central Asia (19th century)
1305:. This state proved to be short lived, as in 1369
4950:Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
4456:(1), Routledge – Taylor and Francis Group: 1–16,
1643:remained quasi-independent, but were essentially
1385:The last steppe empire to emerge was that of the
567:show the life of the Hephthalite ruling class of
531:, commissioned by the Sogdian king of Samarkand,
4682:– via Freie Universitat Berlin Repository.
3666:
3664:
213:, thought to represent early Central Asian Huns.
4864:, Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, pp. 106–179,
4520:, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press,
4279:
4277:
3196:. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
2356:UNESCO History of Civilizations of Central Asia
733:Likewise, in eastern Central Asia, the Chinese
274:Asian ancestry, and can be linked to expanding
261:. Bronze Age Central Asia consisted largely of
3853:. Harvard University Press. pp. 183–185.
2957:
2955:
2135:signed a protocol dividing three gas fields –
1863:Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic
1786:continued to fight the communists until 1924.
1770:of 1917 occurred, a provisional Government of
1439:, who extended Persian dominion well past the
1252:would sometimes form under a ruler known as a
781:began in the 6th century; the Turkic speaking
4970:
4788:, Budapest: Central European University Press
4421:”, in Fanny M. Cheung and Ying-yi Hong (eds)
4252:
4250:
2009:Evacuation of Soviet citizens to Central Asia
1734:Instead, the Russians expanded, annexing the
828:-silver jar, shaped in the style of northern
8:
4417:Vakulchuk, Roman and Indra Overland (2019) “
4369:
4357:
3994:(illustrated ed.), Brill, p. 123,
2341:Turkestan and the Fate of the Russian Empire
1867:Kirghiz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic
1345:Early modern period (16th to 19th centuries)
1018:. Ashina was defeated and the khaganate was
4883:The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith
4710:Litvinsky, Guang-da & Samghabadi (1996)
3825:. Cambridge University Press. p. 228.
3500:. University of California Press. pp.
2301:Bibliography of the history of Central Asia
1871:Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic
1754:was returned to Beijing by Russia in 1884.
5358:
4977:
4963:
4955:
4593:The Cambridge Illustrated History of China
4295:
4205:
4134:East-West Center Washington Working Papers
4067:
3903:Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang
3533:. Vol. 2: The Age of the Silk Roads.
1945:Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps
1935:that controlled northern Xinjiang and the
1873:in 1925. In 1924, the Soviets created the
1489:structures in place. With the conquest of
952:, but also separate campaigns against the
874:Turks had become a major militarised force
33:Contemporary political map of Central Asia
6288:Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho
4828:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
4556:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
4043:
3931:
3736:
3444:
3386:
3328:
3262:
3128:
3070:
3004:
2935:
2861:
2843:
2794:
2737:
2651:
2416:The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia
410:culture ancestral to the speakers of the
4690:History of Civilizations of Central Asia
4019:
3878:. Oxford University Press. p. 190.
3844:
3842:
3580:
3483:
2539:
2397:New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
2191:. Central Asia is still home to a large
1703:During the 17th and 18th centuries, the
1456:
1357:
1208:
1196:
1045:
839:
812:Protectorate General to Pacify the North
775:, which became the third largest faith.
660:, who lost his life in a battle against
510:
494:
233:, but his lineage died out quite early.
173:
28:
6135:Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex
5025:Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex
4674:(PhD). Berlin: Berlin Freie Universität
3988:W. D. Shakabpa, Derek F. Maher (2010),
2570:
2514:
2504:Center for the Study of Eurasian Nomads
1953:Muslim revolts against the Qing dynasty
1592:were repeatedly defeated. In 1867, the
1549:. This rivalry came to be known as the
808:Protectorate General to Pacify the West
402:, the originators of the spoke-wheeled
384:Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex
6390:Siberian Collection of Peter the Great
4795:A Corpus of Early Tibetan Inscriptions
4766:Survival: Global Politics and Strategy
4759:, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press
4393:
4381:
4346:
4334:
4319:
4307:
4283:
4268:
4256:
4241:
4229:
4217:
3907:. Columbia University Press. pp.
3760:
2393:O'Brien, Patrick K. (General Editor).
1707:made several campaigns to conquer the
617:was used by the Xiongnu rulers before
589:both ruled parts of Central Asia. The
4031:
3712:
3631:
3616:
3604:
2583:Dani, Litvinsky & Zamir Safi 1996
2452:Istoriya Kul'turnoy zhizni Turkestana
2311:Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion
1931:quickly established control from the
1541:campaign before being killed outside
1461:Russian wars of conquest in Turkestan
180:State Museum of History of Uzbekistan
7:
4055:
3991:One hundred thousand moons, Volume 1
3796:
3682:
1205:of Central Asia in the 13th century.
1042:Tang rivalry with the Tibetan Empire
563:The banquet scenes in the murals of
6345:Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription
3943:
3808:
3784:
3772:
3748:
3724:
3697:
3671:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006)
3655:
3644:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006)
2448:История Культурной Жизни Туркестана
1981:German invasion of the Soviet Union
1671:to Samarkand and Tashkent, and the
1477:had sent a failed expedition under
1064:, 8th century AD, most likely from
948:were launched against not only the
756:Later, external powers such as the
743:Protectorate of the Western Regions
609:(c. 6th century BC – c. 296 BC) in
151:. In all of the new states, former
6340:Pul-i-Darunteh Aramaic inscription
5341:Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
4478:The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia
3851:Military Culture in Imperial China
3592:
3219:Proceedings of the British Academy
2767:American Journal of Human Genetics
2353:Dani, A. H. and V. M. Masson eds.
1885:was split from the Uzbek SSR. The
1723:declaring its independence as the
1366:man in traditional dress with his
1137:Pre-Islamic Buddhist paintings at
962:campaigns against the oasis states
876:employed by the Chinese. When the
816:Inner Asia during the Tang dynasty
789:, which was then ruled by China's
487:Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
57:dominated the area for millennia.
25:
5751:Desert castles of ancient Khorezm
4631:A History of Chinese Civilization
4476:Beckwith, Christopher I. (1987),
4441:The Holocaust in the Soviet Union
2318:Central Asians under Russian Rule
2204:Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
1602:Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufmann
872:As early as the Sui dynasty, the
860:and horse riders, dated c. 740 AD
4946:New Directions Post-Independence
4739:History of Military Legal System
4590:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999),
2418:(Cambridge) 1990 (2nd Edition).
1453:Russian conquest of Central Asia
832:'s leather bag decorated with a
553:
542:
199:
190:
6350:Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka
5620:Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi
2065:outbreak of violence in Andijan
1988:Deportations along ethnic lines
718:, pioneered the development of
714:but controlling a fair part of
166:Genetic history of Central Asia
6385:Boar hunter (Hermitage Museum)
6330:Aramaic Inscription of Laghman
3874:Skaff, Jonathan Karam (2012).
3293:Nature Ecology & Evolution
3177:. Springer. pp. 245–370.
2900:Nature Ecology & Evolution
2468:Rossiya i Hanstva Sredney Azii
2395:Oxford Atlas of World History.
2195:, the largest group being the
1933:Second East Turkestan Republic
1833:Second East Turkestan Republic
1600:was established under General
1214:Mongol invasions and conquests
1129:Muslim conquest of Transoxiana
1103:, for fifteen days during the
972:in 640. The nearby kingdom of
469:, and others, and a number of
1:
5336:Silk Road transmission of art
4808:Association for Asian Studies
4654:Silk Road Art and Archaeology
4538:, Beijing: Renmin Chubanshe,
4165:Community matters in Xinjiang
4088:A Journey of a Thousand Years
2464:Россия и Ханства Средней Азии
2313:(London) 1968 (Third Edition)
2273:History of the central steppe
1822:First East Turkestan Republic
1687:was already planned when the
628:Following the success of the
6335:Kandahar Aramaic inscription
4650:"The Hephthalite Terracotta"
4576:, Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
4536:The History of Chinese Heqin
4443:, New York, NY: M. E. Sharpe
4425:. London: Routledge, p. 116.
3566:"Central Asia, history of",
2103:Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline
601:empires. Xiongnu's ancestor
523:, dated c. 650 AD, known as
6416:Archaeology of Central Asia
4617:, IV. See original text in
4502:, Oxford University Press,
4140:, p. 1, archived from
4125:Toops, Stanley (May 2004),
3899:Millward, James A. (2007).
3658:, pp. 149–152, 257–264
3595:, pp. 390–391, 409–411
3531:The History of Central Asia
2824:Evolutionary Human Sciences
2370:(Cambridge: Da Capo) 2001.
1947:. The XPCC also encouraged
1479:Prince Bekovitch-Cherkassky
1030:. Tang hegemony beyond the
1014:in 657 with an army led by
931:transition from Sui to Tang
644:. The Scythians, like most
613:province, China. The title
368:expansion of the Iron Age.
6442:
4862:Warfare in Chinese History
4793:Richardson, H. E. (1985),
4665:Kurbanov, Aydogdy (2010).
4598:Cambridge University Press
4482:Princeton University Press
4370:Manning & Jaffe (1998)
4358:Manning & Jaffe (1998)
3190:Anthony, David W. (2010).
2779:10.1016/j.ajhg.2016.07.002
2434:Rediscovering Central Asia
2298:
1929:People's Republic of China
1846:
1837:People's Republic of China
1561:remained independent as a
1505:
1450:
1126:
980:in 644 and the kingdom of
805:
802:Sui and early Tang dynasty
730:linking China and Europe.
667:Some empires, such as the
480:
342:domestication of the horse
163:
110:Russian Revolution of 1917
6426:Geography of Central Asia
5836:Siypantosh Rock Paintings
4552:Di Cosmo, Nicola (2002),
4462:10.1080/03068370500456819
4407:Central Asia's New States
3437:10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2
3313:10.1038/s41559-019-0878-2
3121:10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2
2920:10.1038/s41559-019-0878-2
2845:21.11116/0000-0007-7733-A
1853:After being conquered by
1719:led a rebellion that saw
1685:Turkestan–Siberia Railway
1565:between the two empires.
1244:Using small but powerful
1228:, and by the time of the
1005:invaded the Western Turks
525:the Ambassadors' Painting
6283:Mogao Christian painting
5856:Zarautsoy Rock Paintings
5570:Petroglyphs of Arpa-Uzen
5560:Merke Turkic Sanctuaries
4755:Manley, Rebecca (2009),
4648:Ilyasov, Jangar (2001).
4516:Chang, Chun-shu (2007),
4186:People's Liberation Army
4112:10.1163/1568520991201696
1887:Kyrgyz Autonomous Oblast
1742:Valleys and the city of
1321:began to grow in power.
1201:A map showing the major
1075:such as the marrying of
960:. Taizong also launched
681:Hellenistic civilisation
6411:History of Central Asia
6380:Saksanokhur gold buckle
6268:Hephthalite silver bowl
6145:Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa
5185:Second Turkic Khaganate
4986:History of Central Asia
4826:A History of Inner Asia
4757:To the Tashkent Station
4737:Liu, Zhaoxiang (2000),
3568:Encyclopædia Britannica
3255:10.1126/science.aar7711
2278:History of Turkmenistan
1889:became an SSR in 1936.
1647:along the lines of the
1485:as early as the 1720s.
921:province, and southern
621:so it is possible that
421:Later the strongest of
375:). The people lived in
350:Indo-European languages
309:of the Eastern Baltic.
170:Ancient North Eurasians
39:history of Central Asia
6360:Stamp seal (BM 119999)
6120:Alexandria Prophthasia
5145:First Turkic Khaganate
5080:Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
4906:, Beijing: 中国社会科学出版社,
4842:Stein, R. A. (1972) ,
4498:Benn, Charles (2002),
3959:Tibet Past and Present
3379:10.1126/sciadv.abe4414
3055:10.1126/sciadv.aat4457
2400:Olcott, Martha Brill.
2248:History of Afghanistan
1843:Soviet era (1918–1991)
1557:, but did ensure that
1526:
1462:
1409:was annexed to China.
1389:who conquered much of
1375:
1273:
1217:
1206:
1146:
1068:
1028:Four Garrisons of Anxi
996:
970:annexation of Gaochang
861:
837:
710:, mostly based in the
704:Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
535:
508:
412:Indo-Iranian languages
303:Dnieper-Donets culture
251:Ancient North Eurasian
242:
183:
34:
6170:Gawhar Shad Mausoleum
5545:Karsakpay inscription
5000:Mal'ta–Buret' culture
4885:, Chicago: Serindia,
4824:Soucek, Svat (2000),
4405:Martha Brill Olcott.
3956:Charles Bell (1992),
2969:Nature Communications
2653:10.1093/molbev/mst093
2613:10.1089/ham.2010.1094
2558:Encyclopaedia Iranica
2283:History of Uzbekistan
2268:History of Tajikistan
2258:History of Kyrgyzstan
2253:History of Kazakhstan
1922:Virgin Lands campaign
1758:Revolution and revolt
1665:Trans-Caspian Railway
1520:
1460:
1361:
1267:
1212:
1200:
1136:
1085:Tsepon W. D. Shakabpa
1049:
1038:to the south in 670.
994:
968:, beginning with the
843:
823:
514:
498:
481:Further information:
333:Pontic–Caspian steppe
239:
177:
164:Further information:
81:and most notably the
53:horse peoples of the
32:
18:Medieval Central Asia
5977:Kutlug Timur Minaret
5512:Noin-Ula burial site
5310:Chinese Central Asia
4904:Turkic peoples (突厥史)
4900:Xue, Zongzheng (薛宗正)
4844:Tibetan Civilization
4802:Sen, Tansen (2003),
4660:. Kamakura: 187–200.
4534:Cui, Mingde (2005),
3946:, pp. 24, 30–31
2316:Bacon, Elizabeth A.
2222:severe energy crisis
2139:, Tsentralnoye, and
2133:Nursultan Nazarbayev
1797:The creation of the
1764:Central Asian Revolt
1594:governor-generalship
1420:, which fell to the
978:captured by the Tang
693:Wars of the Diadochi
679:'s conquests spread
662:Philip II of Macedon
85:conquest of much of
6370:Siberian Ice Maiden
6160:Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan
5575:Petrovka settlement
5305:Soviet Central Asia
5230:Great Seljuq Empire
4712:, pp. 163–184.
3429:2018Natur.557..369D
3371:2021SciA....7.4414G
3305:2019NatEE...3..966J
3113:2018Natur.557..369D
3047:2018SciA....4.4457K
2989:10.1038/ncomms14615
2981:2017NatCo...814615U
2912:2019NatEE...3..966J
2836:10.1017/ehs.2020.11
2722:10.1038/nature13810
2714:2014Natur.514..445F
2683:Scientific American
2601:High Alt. Med. Biol
2573:, pp. 187–197.
2554:"DelbarjīnELBARJĪN"
2542:, pp. 135–136.
2288:History of Xinjiang
2263:History of Mongolia
1961:Cultural Revolution
1918:Baikonur Cosmodrome
1859:Soviet Central Asia
1849:Soviet Central Asia
677:Alexander the Great
499:Tetradrachm of the
425:city-states of the
344:. According to the
295:Russian archaeology
6320:Buddhas of Bamiyan
6273:Chilek silver bowl
6140:Buddhas of Bamiyan
5816:Obi-Rakhmat Grotto
5605:Talapty Settlement
5391:Filippovka kurgans
5280:Khanate of Bukhara
5240:Khwarazmian Empire
5165:Ikhshids of Sogdia
5010:Afanasievo culture
4244:, pp. 137–138
4084:2008-09-13 at the
4070:, pp. 106–143
3811:, pp. 222–225
3787:, pp. 380–386
3775:, pp. 226–227
3700:, pp. 655–659
3583:, pp. 250–251
3249:(6396): eaar7711.
2429:S. Frederick Starr
2320:(Cornell UP, 1966)
1965:Great Leap Forward
1768:Russian Revolution
1766:of 1916. When the
1673:Trans-Aral Railway
1656:American Civil War
1590:Emirate of Bukhara
1568:After the fall of
1529:The forces of the
1527:
1463:
1401:taking control of
1376:
1339:Khanate of Kashgar
1331:Khanate of Bukhara
1274:
1218:
1207:
1159:Qutayba ibn Muslim
1147:
1073:marriage alliances
1069:
997:
862:
838:
708:Indo-Greek Kingdom
685:Alexandria Eschate
536:
509:
352:. The horse-drawn
291:Ceramic Mesolithic
243:
184:
35:
6398:
6397:
6375:Ai-Khanoum plaque
6246:
6245:
6050:Chakhil-i-Ghoundi
5326:Central Asian art
5300:Russian Turkestan
5295:Chinese Turkestan
5195:Abbasid Caliphate
5159:Anxi Protectorate
5105:Kushano-Sasanians
5070:Macedonian Empire
5065:Achaemenid Empire
5035:Andronovo culture
5015:Sintashta culture
4931:978-0-521-24327-8
4913:978-7-5004-0432-3
4892:978-1-932476-12-5
4871:978-90-04-11774-7
4853:978-0-8047-0806-7
4835:978-0-521-65169-1
4817:978-0-8248-2593-5
4778:10.1080/713660015
4748:978-7-5000-6303-2
4730:978-0-521-24327-8
4700:978-92-3-103211-0
4641:978-0-521-49781-7
4607:978-0-521-66991-7
4583:978-0-618-13384-0
4563:978-0-521-77064-4
4545:978-7-01-004828-4
4527:978-0-472-11534-1
4509:978-0-19-517665-0
4491:978-0-691-02469-1
4337:, p. 148–195
4296:Altschuler (1993)
4206:Altschuler (1993)
4173:978-90-04-16675-2
4068:Richardson (1985)
4001:978-90-04-17788-8
3969:978-81-208-1048-8
3918:978-0-231-13924-3
3885:978-0-19-973413-9
3860:978-0-674-03109-8
3832:978-0-521-21446-9
3515:978-0-520-03765-6
3423:(7705): 369–374.
3107:(7705): 369–374.
2708:(7523): 445–449.
2381:Maitdinova, Guzel
2366:Hildinger, Erik.
2323:Becker, Seymour,
2193:Jewish population
2047:exception of the
1937:Republic of China
1818:Chinese Civil War
1799:Republic of China
1792:People's Republic
1598:Russian Turkestan
1513:Russian campaigns
1433:Khanate of Kokand
1335:Khanate of Kokand
1287:Khwarezmid Empire
1155:Umayyad Caliphate
1119:temple in Lhasa.
1077:Princess Wencheng
1024:Anxi Protectorate
702:) seceded as the
587:Achaemenid Empire
579:Ancient Near East
400:Andronovo culture
346:Kurgan hypothesis
126:industrialization
16:(Redirected from
6433:
6421:Prehistoric Asia
6365:Seal of Khingila
6293:Penjikent murals
5914:Kalai Kafirnigan
5801:Koi Krylgan Kala
5610:Turkistan (city)
5595:Steppe Geoglyphs
5359:
5290:Khanate of Khiva
5250:Chagatai Khanate
5205:Saffarid dynasty
5190:Uyghur Khaganate
4979:
4972:
4965:
4956:
4934:
4916:
4895:
4879:Whitfield, Susan
4874:
4856:
4838:
4820:
4798:
4789:
4780:
4760:
4751:
4733:
4713:
4704:
4683:
4681:
4679:
4673:
4661:
4644:
4610:
4586:
4566:
4548:
4530:
4512:
4494:
4472:
4444:
4426:
4415:
4409:
4403:
4397:
4391:
4385:
4379:
4373:
4367:
4361:
4355:
4349:
4344:
4338:
4332:
4323:
4317:
4311:
4305:
4299:
4293:
4287:
4286:, pp. 66–69
4281:
4272:
4271:, pp. 24–47
4266:
4260:
4254:
4245:
4239:
4233:
4227:
4221:
4215:
4209:
4203:
4197:
4182:
4176:
4161:
4155:
4154:
4153:
4152:
4146:
4138:East–West Center
4131:
4122:
4116:
4115:
4095:
4089:
4077:
4071:
4065:
4059:
4053:
4047:
4044:Twitchett (2000)
4041:
4035:
4029:
4023:
4017:
4011:
4010:
4009:
4008:
3985:
3979:
3978:
3977:
3976:
3953:
3947:
3941:
3935:
3932:Whitfield (2004)
3929:
3923:
3922:
3906:
3896:
3890:
3889:
3871:
3865:
3864:
3846:
3837:
3836:
3818:
3812:
3806:
3800:
3794:
3788:
3782:
3776:
3770:
3764:
3758:
3752:
3751:, pp. 85–95
3746:
3740:
3737:Twitchett (2000)
3734:
3728:
3722:
3716:
3710:
3701:
3695:
3686:
3680:
3674:
3668:
3659:
3653:
3647:
3641:
3635:
3629:
3620:
3614:
3608:
3602:
3596:
3590:
3584:
3578:
3572:
3571:
3563:
3557:
3551:
3545:
3544:
3526:
3520:
3519:
3493:
3487:
3481:
3475:
3474:
3448:
3407:
3401:
3400:
3390:
3359:Science Advances
3349:
3343:
3342:
3332:
3283:
3277:
3276:
3266:
3233:
3227:
3226:
3214:
3208:
3207:
3188:
3169:
3163:
3162:
3132:
3091:
3085:
3084:
3074:
3041:(10): eaat4457.
3035:Science Advances
3025:
3019:
3018:
3008:
2959:
2950:
2949:
2939:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2865:
2847:
2815:
2809:
2808:
2798:
2758:
2752:
2751:
2741:
2692:
2686:
2672:
2666:
2665:
2655:
2646:(8): 1761–1778.
2631:
2625:
2624:
2596:
2590:
2580:
2574:
2568:
2562:
2561:
2549:
2543:
2537:
2531:
2528:
2522:
2519:
2470:") (Москва) 1974
2385:Great Silk Route
2061:Tulip Revolution
1913:Second World War
1641:Khanate of Khiva
1614:Mikhail Skobelev
1610:Mikhail Annenkov
1399:Qianlong Emperor
1327:Khanate of Khiva
1303:Chagatai Khanate
1241:from horseback.
1123:Arrival of Islam
1105:An Shi Rebellion
986:conquered in 649
925:from the Turks.
913:Chinese warlord
779:Turkic expansion
557:
546:
203:
194:
77:migrations into
21:
6441:
6440:
6436:
6435:
6434:
6432:
6431:
6430:
6401:
6400:
6399:
6394:
6355:Afrasiab murals
6298:Sampul tapestry
6242:
6238:Shahr-e Sukhteh
6228:Bandian complex
6214:
6190:Musalla Complex
6070:Tapa-i Kafariha
6011:
5932:Cave of Dzhebel
5918:
5860:
5697:
5629:
5625:Araltobe kurgan
5516:
5498:
5424:Kizilgaha caves
5395:
5381:Pazyryk burials
5363:Southern Russia
5350:
5314:
5200:Tahirid dynasty
5170:Tokhara Yabghus
5075:Seleucid Empire
5050:Pazyryk culture
5005:Yamnaya culture
4988:
4983:
4942:
4937:
4932:
4919:
4914:
4898:
4893:
4877:
4872:
4859:
4854:
4841:
4836:
4823:
4818:
4801:
4792:
4783:
4763:
4754:
4749:
4736:
4731:
4718:
4707:
4701:
4686:
4677:
4675:
4671:
4664:
4647:
4642:
4626:Gernet, Jacques
4624:
4619:perseus project
4608:
4589:
4584:
4569:
4564:
4551:
4546:
4533:
4528:
4515:
4510:
4497:
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4404:
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4380:
4376:
4368:
4364:
4356:
4352:
4345:
4341:
4333:
4326:
4318:
4314:
4306:
4302:
4294:
4290:
4282:
4275:
4267:
4263:
4255:
4248:
4240:
4236:
4228:
4224:
4216:
4212:
4204:
4200:
4183:
4179:
4162:
4158:
4150:
4148:
4144:
4129:
4124:
4123:
4119:
4097:
4096:
4092:
4086:Wayback Machine
4078:
4074:
4066:
4062:
4054:
4050:
4042:
4038:
4030:
4026:
4020:Beckwith (1987)
4018:
4014:
4006:
4004:
4002:
3987:
3986:
3982:
3974:
3972:
3970:
3955:
3954:
3950:
3942:
3938:
3930:
3926:
3919:
3898:
3897:
3893:
3886:
3873:
3872:
3868:
3861:
3848:
3847:
3840:
3833:
3820:
3819:
3815:
3807:
3803:
3795:
3791:
3783:
3779:
3771:
3767:
3759:
3755:
3747:
3743:
3735:
3731:
3723:
3719:
3711:
3704:
3696:
3689:
3681:
3677:
3669:
3662:
3654:
3650:
3642:
3638:
3630:
3623:
3615:
3611:
3603:
3599:
3591:
3587:
3581:Di Cosmo (2002)
3579:
3575:
3565:
3564:
3560:
3553:Herodotus, IV,
3552:
3548:
3541:
3528:
3527:
3523:
3516:
3495:
3494:
3490:
3482:
3478:
3409:
3408:
3404:
3351:
3350:
3346:
3285:
3284:
3280:
3235:
3234:
3230:
3216:
3215:
3211:
3204:
3189:
3185:
3171:
3170:
3166:
3093:
3092:
3088:
3027:
3026:
3022:
2961:
2960:
2953:
2892:
2891:
2887:
2817:
2816:
2812:
2760:
2759:
2755:
2694:
2693:
2689:
2685:, 1 March 2017.
2673:
2669:
2640:Mol. Biol. Evol
2633:
2632:
2628:
2598:
2597:
2593:
2581:
2577:
2569:
2565:
2551:
2550:
2546:
2538:
2534:
2529:
2525:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2443:
2441:Other languages
2343:(London) 2003.
2339:Brower, Daniel
2330:Paksoy, H. B.,
2303:
2297:
2295:Further reading
2292:
2243:Eurasian Steppe
2238:Eurasian nomads
2233:
2215:nuclear testing
2118:energy security
2092:Bill Richardson
2049:Tajik Civil War
2040:
2011:
1990:
1973:
1881:. In 1929, the
1851:
1845:
1780:Tashkent Soviet
1760:
1729:Nian Rebellions
1701:
1689:First World War
1654:Because of the
1649:princely states
1521:Prisoners in a
1515:
1510:
1504:
1475:Peter the Great
1455:
1449:
1347:
1232:the use of the
1195:
1178:Battle of Talas
1167:Nasr ibn Sayyar
1131:
1125:
1044:
1032:Pamir Mountains
1001:Emperor Gaozong
946:large campaigns
884:Throughout the
848:wall murals of
844:The monumental
818:
806:Main articles:
804:
799:
762:Parthian Empire
758:Sassanid Empire
689:Seleucid Empire
683:all the way to
630:Han–Xiongnu War
607:Zhongshan state
575:
574:
573:
572:
560:
559:
558:
549:
548:
547:
493:
491:Western Regions
479:
263:Iranian peoples
226:Tibetan Plateau
217:
216:
215:
214:
206:
205:
204:
196:
195:
172:
162:
153:Communist Party
122:satellite state
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6439:
6437:
6429:
6428:
6423:
6418:
6413:
6403:
6402:
6396:
6395:
6393:
6392:
6387:
6382:
6377:
6372:
6367:
6362:
6357:
6352:
6347:
6342:
6337:
6332:
6327:
6322:
6317:
6315:Bimaran Casket
6312:
6307:
6304:Sogdian Daēnās
6300:
6295:
6290:
6285:
6280:
6278:Gardez Ganesha
6275:
6270:
6265:
6260:
6254:
6252:
6248:
6247:
6244:
6243:
6241:
6240:
6235:
6230:
6224:
6222:
6216:
6215:
6213:
6212:
6207:
6202:
6197:
6192:
6187:
6182:
6177:
6172:
6167:
6162:
6157:
6152:
6147:
6142:
6137:
6132:
6127:
6122:
6117:
6112:
6107:
6102:
6100:Takht-e Rostam
6097:
6092:
6087:
6082:
6077:
6072:
6067:
6062:
6057:
6052:
6047:
6042:
6037:
6035:Dilberjin Tepe
6032:
6027:
6021:
6019:
6013:
6012:
6010:
6009:
6004:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5974:
5969:
5964:
5959:
5954:
5949:
5944:
5939:
5934:
5928:
5926:
5920:
5919:
5917:
5916:
5911:
5909:Takht-i Sangin
5906:
5901:
5896:
5891:
5886:
5881:
5876:
5870:
5868:
5862:
5861:
5859:
5858:
5853:
5848:
5843:
5838:
5833:
5828:
5823:
5818:
5813:
5808:
5803:
5798:
5793:
5788:
5783:
5778:
5773:
5768:
5763:
5761:Guldursun-Kala
5758:
5753:
5748:
5746:Dalverzin Tepe
5743:
5738:
5733:
5728:
5723:
5718:
5716:Akchakhan-Kala
5713:
5707:
5705:
5699:
5698:
5696:
5695:
5690:
5685:
5680:
5675:
5670:
5665:
5660:
5655:
5650:
5645:
5639:
5637:
5631:
5630:
5628:
5627:
5622:
5617:
5612:
5607:
5602:
5597:
5592:
5587:
5582:
5577:
5572:
5567:
5562:
5557:
5552:
5547:
5542:
5537:
5532:
5526:
5524:
5518:
5517:
5515:
5514:
5508:
5506:
5500:
5499:
5497:
5496:
5491:
5486:
5481:
5476:
5474:Dunhuang Caves
5471:
5469:Bezeklik Caves
5466:
5461:
5456:
5451:
5446:
5441:
5436:
5434:Subashi Temple
5431:
5426:
5421:
5416:
5411:
5405:
5403:
5397:
5396:
5394:
5393:
5388:
5383:
5378:
5373:
5367:
5365:
5356:
5352:
5351:
5349:
5348:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5328:
5322:
5320:
5316:
5315:
5313:
5312:
5307:
5302:
5297:
5292:
5287:
5285:Durrani Empire
5282:
5277:
5275:Timurid Empire
5272:
5267:
5262:
5257:
5252:
5247:
5242:
5237:
5232:
5227:
5222:
5217:
5212:
5207:
5202:
5197:
5192:
5187:
5182:
5177:
5172:
5167:
5162:
5152:
5147:
5142:
5137:
5132:
5127:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5107:
5102:
5097:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5037:
5032:
5027:
5022:
5020:Vakhsh culture
5017:
5012:
5007:
5002:
4996:
4994:
4990:
4989:
4984:
4982:
4981:
4974:
4967:
4959:
4953:
4952:
4941:
4940:External links
4938:
4936:
4935:
4930:
4917:
4912:
4896:
4891:
4875:
4870:
4857:
4852:
4839:
4834:
4821:
4816:
4799:
4790:
4781:
4761:
4752:
4747:
4734:
4729:
4716:
4715:
4714:
4699:
4684:
4662:
4645:
4640:
4622:
4611:
4606:
4587:
4582:
4567:
4562:
4549:
4544:
4531:
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4508:
4495:
4490:
4473:
4445:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4427:
4410:
4398:
4386:
4374:
4362:
4350:
4339:
4324:
4312:
4300:
4288:
4273:
4261:
4246:
4234:
4222:
4210:
4198:
4177:
4156:
4136:, no. 1,
4117:
4090:
4072:
4060:
4048:
4036:
4024:
4012:
4000:
3980:
3968:
3948:
3936:
3924:
3917:
3891:
3884:
3866:
3859:
3838:
3831:
3813:
3801:
3789:
3777:
3765:
3753:
3741:
3729:
3717:
3702:
3687:
3685:, pp. 2–3
3675:
3660:
3648:
3636:
3621:
3609:
3597:
3585:
3573:
3558:
3546:
3539:
3521:
3514:
3488:
3476:
3402:
3344:
3299:(6): 966–976.
3278:
3228:
3209:
3202:
3184:978-9402404654
3183:
3164:
3086:
3020:
2951:
2906:(6): 966–976.
2885:
2810:
2773:(3): 580–594.
2753:
2687:
2667:
2626:
2607:(2): 141–147.
2591:
2575:
2563:
2544:
2532:
2523:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2507:
2506:
2501:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2462:Н. А. Халфин;
2458:(Москва) 1927
2456:
2455:
2446:В.В. Бартольд
2442:
2439:
2438:
2437:
2426:
2412:
2398:
2391:
2388:
2378:
2364:
2351:
2337:
2328:
2321:
2314:
2307:V. V. Barthold
2299:Main article:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2129:Vladimir Putin
2039:
2036:
2010:
2007:
1994:German descent
1989:
1986:
1972:
1969:
1844:
1841:
1759:
1756:
1713:Chinese Empire
1700:
1697:
1514:
1511:
1506:Main article:
1503:
1502:The Great Game
1500:
1498:(Semirechye).
1451:Main article:
1448:
1445:
1426:Durrani Empire
1418:Fergana Valley
1407:Inner Mongolia
1391:East Turkestan
1346:
1343:
1246:composite bows
1224:developed the
1194:
1193:Steppe empires
1191:
1127:Main article:
1124:
1121:
1081:Songtsän Gampo
1043:
1040:
1036:Tibetan Empire
919:Inner Mongolia
824:A Tang period
803:
800:
798:
795:
769:Zoroastrianism
724:Kushan Kingdom
720:Greco-Buddhism
605:tribe founded
562:
561:
552:
551:
550:
541:
540:
539:
538:
537:
519:wall mural of
501:Greco-Bactrian
478:
475:
443:Indo-Europeans
427:Fergana Valley
398:nomads of the
299:Samara culture
284:Northeast Asia
278:outgoing from
276:Turkic peoples
271:Turkic peoples
259:Indo-Europeans
211:Dilberjin Tepe
208:
207:
198:
197:
189:
188:
187:
186:
185:
161:
158:
98:Russian Empire
69:' invasion of
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6438:
6427:
6424:
6422:
6419:
6417:
6414:
6412:
6409:
6408:
6406:
6391:
6388:
6386:
6383:
6381:
6378:
6376:
6373:
6371:
6368:
6366:
6363:
6361:
6358:
6356:
6353:
6351:
6348:
6346:
6343:
6341:
6338:
6336:
6333:
6331:
6328:
6326:
6323:
6321:
6318:
6316:
6313:
6311:
6310:Oxus Treasure
6308:
6306:
6305:
6301:
6299:
6296:
6294:
6291:
6289:
6286:
6284:
6281:
6279:
6276:
6274:
6271:
6269:
6266:
6264:
6263:Orlat plaques
6261:
6259:
6256:
6255:
6253:
6249:
6239:
6236:
6234:
6231:
6229:
6226:
6225:
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6217:
6211:
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6201:
6198:
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6186:
6183:
6181:
6178:
6176:
6173:
6171:
6168:
6166:
6163:
6161:
6158:
6156:
6155:Dasht-e Nawar
6153:
6151:
6148:
6146:
6143:
6141:
6138:
6136:
6133:
6131:
6128:
6126:
6123:
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6118:
6116:
6113:
6111:
6108:
6106:
6103:
6101:
6098:
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6093:
6091:
6088:
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6081:
6078:
6076:
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6066:
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6053:
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6041:
6038:
6036:
6033:
6031:
6028:
6026:
6023:
6022:
6020:
6018:
6014:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5987:Monjukli Depe
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5973:
5972:Konye-Urgench
5970:
5968:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5953:
5950:
5948:
5945:
5943:
5940:
5938:
5935:
5933:
5930:
5929:
5927:
5925:
5921:
5915:
5912:
5910:
5907:
5905:
5904:Takht-i Kuwad
5902:
5900:
5897:
5895:
5892:
5890:
5887:
5885:
5882:
5880:
5877:
5875:
5872:
5871:
5869:
5867:
5863:
5857:
5854:
5852:
5849:
5847:
5844:
5842:
5839:
5837:
5834:
5832:
5829:
5827:
5824:
5822:
5819:
5817:
5814:
5812:
5809:
5807:
5804:
5802:
5799:
5797:
5794:
5792:
5789:
5787:
5784:
5782:
5779:
5777:
5774:
5772:
5769:
5767:
5764:
5762:
5759:
5757:
5754:
5752:
5749:
5747:
5744:
5742:
5739:
5737:
5734:
5732:
5729:
5727:
5724:
5722:
5719:
5717:
5714:
5712:
5709:
5708:
5706:
5704:
5700:
5694:
5691:
5689:
5686:
5684:
5681:
5679:
5676:
5674:
5671:
5669:
5666:
5664:
5663:Koshoy Korgon
5661:
5659:
5656:
5654:
5651:
5649:
5646:
5644:
5641:
5640:
5638:
5636:
5632:
5626:
5623:
5621:
5618:
5616:
5613:
5611:
5608:
5606:
5603:
5601:
5598:
5596:
5593:
5591:
5588:
5586:
5583:
5581:
5578:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5568:
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5563:
5561:
5558:
5556:
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5551:
5548:
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5541:
5538:
5536:
5533:
5531:
5528:
5527:
5525:
5523:
5519:
5513:
5510:
5509:
5507:
5505:
5501:
5495:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5482:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5472:
5470:
5467:
5465:
5462:
5460:
5457:
5455:
5452:
5450:
5447:
5445:
5442:
5440:
5437:
5435:
5432:
5430:
5429:Kumtura Caves
5427:
5425:
5422:
5420:
5417:
5415:
5412:
5410:
5407:
5406:
5404:
5402:
5401:Western China
5398:
5392:
5389:
5387:
5386:Salbyk kurgan
5384:
5382:
5379:
5377:
5376:Arzhan kurgan
5374:
5372:
5369:
5368:
5366:
5364:
5360:
5357:
5353:
5347:
5346:Serindian art
5344:
5342:
5339:
5337:
5334:
5332:
5329:
5327:
5324:
5323:
5321:
5317:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5288:
5286:
5283:
5281:
5278:
5276:
5273:
5271:
5268:
5266:
5263:
5261:
5258:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5248:
5246:
5245:Mongol Empire
5243:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5235:Ghurid Empire
5233:
5231:
5228:
5226:
5223:
5221:
5218:
5216:
5213:
5211:
5208:
5206:
5203:
5201:
5198:
5196:
5193:
5191:
5188:
5186:
5183:
5181:
5178:
5176:
5173:
5171:
5168:
5166:
5163:
5160:
5156:
5153:
5151:
5150:Western Turks
5148:
5146:
5143:
5141:
5138:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5100:Kushan Empire
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5085:Guiyi Circuit
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5060:Median Empire
5058:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5040:Tagar culture
5038:
5036:
5033:
5031:
5028:
5026:
5023:
5021:
5018:
5016:
5013:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4997:
4995:
4991:
4987:
4980:
4975:
4973:
4968:
4966:
4961:
4960:
4957:
4951:
4947:
4944:
4943:
4939:
4933:
4927:
4923:
4918:
4915:
4909:
4905:
4901:
4897:
4894:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4873:
4867:
4863:
4858:
4855:
4849:
4845:
4840:
4837:
4831:
4827:
4822:
4819:
4813:
4809:
4805:
4800:
4796:
4791:
4787:
4782:
4779:
4775:
4771:
4767:
4762:
4758:
4753:
4750:
4744:
4740:
4735:
4732:
4726:
4722:
4717:
4711:
4706:
4705:
4702:
4696:
4692:
4691:
4685:
4670:
4669:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4651:
4646:
4643:
4637:
4633:
4632:
4627:
4623:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4609:
4603:
4599:
4596:, Cambridge:
4595:
4594:
4588:
4585:
4579:
4575:
4574:
4568:
4565:
4559:
4555:
4550:
4547:
4541:
4537:
4532:
4529:
4523:
4519:
4514:
4511:
4505:
4501:
4496:
4493:
4487:
4483:
4480:, Princeton:
4479:
4474:
4471:
4467:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4451:
4450:Asian Affairs
4446:
4442:
4437:
4436:
4431:
4424:
4420:
4414:
4411:
4408:
4402:
4399:
4395:
4394:Bahgat (2006)
4390:
4387:
4383:
4382:Bahgat (2006)
4378:
4375:
4372:, p. 113
4371:
4366:
4363:
4360:, p. 112
4359:
4354:
4351:
4348:
4347:Soucek (2000)
4343:
4340:
4336:
4335:Manley (2009)
4331:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4320:Manley (2009)
4316:
4313:
4309:
4308:Manley (2009)
4304:
4301:
4297:
4292:
4289:
4285:
4284:Manley (2009)
4280:
4278:
4274:
4270:
4269:Manley (2009)
4265:
4262:
4259:, p. 138
4258:
4257:Polian (2004)
4253:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4242:Polian (2004)
4238:
4235:
4232:, p. 137
4231:
4230:Polian (2004)
4226:
4223:
4219:
4218:Manley (2009)
4214:
4211:
4207:
4202:
4199:
4195:
4194:7-105-05425-5
4191:
4187:
4181:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4163:Hann (2008).
4160:
4157:
4147:on 2007-07-16
4143:
4139:
4135:
4128:
4121:
4118:
4113:
4109:
4106:(4): 519–48.
4105:
4101:
4094:
4091:
4087:
4083:
4080:
4076:
4073:
4069:
4064:
4061:
4057:
4052:
4049:
4046:, p. 109
4045:
4040:
4037:
4033:
4028:
4025:
4022:, p. 146
4021:
4016:
4013:
4003:
3997:
3993:
3992:
3984:
3981:
3971:
3965:
3961:
3960:
3952:
3949:
3945:
3940:
3937:
3934:, p. 193
3933:
3928:
3925:
3920:
3914:
3910:
3905:
3904:
3895:
3892:
3887:
3881:
3877:
3870:
3867:
3862:
3856:
3852:
3845:
3843:
3839:
3834:
3828:
3824:
3817:
3814:
3810:
3805:
3802:
3798:
3793:
3790:
3786:
3781:
3778:
3774:
3769:
3766:
3763:, p. 248
3762:
3761:Gernet (1996)
3757:
3754:
3750:
3745:
3742:
3739:, p. 125
3738:
3733:
3730:
3727:, p. 788
3726:
3721:
3718:
3715:, p. 111
3714:
3709:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3694:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3679:
3676:
3672:
3667:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3652:
3649:
3646:, p. 113
3645:
3640:
3637:
3634:, p. 127
3633:
3628:
3626:
3622:
3619:, p. 198
3618:
3613:
3610:
3607:, p. 174
3606:
3601:
3598:
3594:
3589:
3586:
3582:
3577:
3574:
3569:
3562:
3559:
3556:
3550:
3547:
3542:
3540:9781788313513
3536:
3532:
3525:
3522:
3517:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3492:
3489:
3486:, p. 67.
3485:
3484:Kurbanov 2010
3480:
3477:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3406:
3403:
3398:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3348:
3345:
3340:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3282:
3279:
3274:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3232:
3229:
3224:
3220:
3213:
3210:
3205:
3203:9780691148182
3199:
3195:
3194:
3186:
3180:
3176:
3168:
3165:
3161:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3090:
3087:
3082:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3024:
3021:
3016:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2958:
2956:
2952:
2947:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2889:
2886:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2814:
2811:
2806:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2757:
2754:
2749:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2691:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2671:
2668:
2663:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2630:
2627:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2595:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2579:
2576:
2572:
2567:
2564:
2559:
2555:
2548:
2545:
2541:
2540:Kurbanov 2010
2536:
2533:
2527:
2524:
2518:
2515:
2509:
2505:
2502:
2499:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2435:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2424:0-521-24304-1
2421:
2417:
2414:Sinor, Denis
2413:
2411:
2410:1-878379-51-8
2407:
2403:
2399:
2396:
2392:
2389:
2386:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2376:0-306-81065-4
2373:
2369:
2365:
2362:
2358:
2357:
2352:
2350:
2349:0-415-29744-3
2346:
2342:
2338:
2335:
2334:
2329:
2326:
2322:
2319:
2315:
2312:
2308:
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2302:
2294:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2235:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2218:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2205:
2200:
2198:
2197:Bukharan Jews
2194:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2153:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2125:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2110:
2108:
2104:
2099:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2083:
2079:
2077:
2072:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2045:
2037:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2008:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1995:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1977:
1970:
1968:
1966:
1962:
1956:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1925:
1923:
1919:
1914:
1910:
1909:Joseph Stalin
1905:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1890:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1850:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1825:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1795:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1757:
1755:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1698:
1696:
1692:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1652:
1650:
1646:
1645:protectorates
1642:
1638:
1633:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1547:British India
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1524:
1519:
1512:
1509:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1492:
1486:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1459:
1454:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1429:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1383:
1381:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1360:
1356:
1353:
1344:
1342:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1322:
1320:
1316:
1310:
1308:
1304:
1299:
1298:Mongol Empire
1295:
1290:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1271:
1266:
1262:
1259:
1255:
1249:
1247:
1242:
1240:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1215:
1211:
1204:
1199:
1192:
1190:
1188:
1184:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1144:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1122:
1120:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1093:
1091:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1053:
1048:
1041:
1039:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1010:
1007:ruled by the
1006:
1002:
993:
989:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
934:
932:
926:
924:
920:
916:
912:
907:
905:
901:
899:
894:
892:
887:
882:
879:
875:
870:
867:
859:
855:
851:
847:
842:
835:
831:
827:
822:
817:
813:
809:
801:
796:
794:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
774:
770:
765:
763:
759:
754:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
731:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
712:Punjab region
709:
705:
701:
696:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
665:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
646:nomad empires
643:
639:
633:
631:
626:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
583:Median Empire
580:
570:
566:
556:
545:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
515:A monumental
513:
507:(171–145 BC).
506:
502:
497:
492:
488:
484:
476:
474:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
441:, as well as
440:
435:
432:
428:
424:
419:
417:
416:Indo-Iranians
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
380:
378:
374:
369:
367:
363:
359:
358:spoked wheels
355:
351:
347:
343:
338:
334:
329:
327:
323:
319:
315:
314:Botai culture
310:
308:
307:Narva culture
304:
300:
296:
292:
287:
285:
281:
277:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
238:
234:
232:
227:
223:
222:
212:
202:
193:
181:
176:
171:
167:
159:
157:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
129:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
90:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
63:
58:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
31:
27:
19:
6302:
6233:Mount Khajeh
6200:Qala-i-Jangi
6180:Khair Khaneh
6085:Khair Khaneh
5992:Namazga-Tepe
5947:Anau culture
5924:Turkmenistan
5841:Tavka Kurgan
5736:Balalyk Tepe
5653:Burana Tower
5643:Aigyr-Zhal 2
5535:Issyk kurgan
5270:Kart dynasty
5265:Sufi dynasty
5255:Golden Horde
5180:Oghuz Yabgus
5155:Tang dynasty
5120:Hephthalites
5045:Uyuk culture
4985:
4921:
4903:
4882:
4861:
4843:
4825:
4803:
4794:
4785:
4769:
4765:
4756:
4738:
4720:
4689:
4676:. Retrieved
4667:
4657:
4653:
4630:
4614:
4592:
4572:
4553:
4535:
4517:
4499:
4477:
4453:
4449:
4440:
4422:
4413:
4406:
4401:
4389:
4377:
4365:
4353:
4342:
4322:, p. 50
4315:
4310:, p. 48
4303:
4298:, p. 80
4291:
4264:
4237:
4225:
4220:, p. 41
4213:
4208:, p. 78
4201:
4180:
4164:
4159:
4149:, retrieved
4142:the original
4133:
4120:
4103:
4099:
4093:
4075:
4063:
4058:, p. 11
4051:
4039:
4034:, p. 65
4032:Stein (1972)
4027:
4015:
4005:, retrieved
3990:
3983:
3973:, retrieved
3958:
3951:
3939:
3927:
3902:
3894:
3875:
3869:
3850:
3822:
3816:
3804:
3792:
3780:
3768:
3756:
3744:
3732:
3720:
3713:Ebrey (1999)
3678:
3673:, p. 92
3651:
3639:
3632:Ebrey (1999)
3617:Loewe (1986)
3612:
3605:Chang (2007)
3600:
3588:
3576:
3567:
3561:
3549:
3530:
3524:
3497:
3491:
3479:
3446:1887/3202709
3420:
3416:
3405:
3362:
3358:
3347:
3296:
3292:
3281:
3246:
3242:
3231:
3222:
3218:
3212:
3192:
3174:
3167:
3158:
3130:1887/3202709
3104:
3100:
3089:
3038:
3034:
3023:
2972:
2968:
2903:
2899:
2888:
2827:
2823:
2813:
2770:
2766:
2756:
2705:
2701:
2690:
2682:
2670:
2643:
2639:
2629:
2604:
2600:
2594:
2578:
2571:Ilyasov 2001
2566:
2557:
2552:Bernard, P.
2547:
2535:
2526:
2517:
2467:
2463:
2457:
2451:
2447:
2432:
2415:
2401:
2394:
2367:
2354:
2340:
2331:
2324:
2317:
2310:
2226:
2219:
2208:
2201:
2181:
2165:Saudi Arabia
2154:
2141:Khvalynskoye
2126:
2111:
2107:Persian Gulf
2100:
2084:
2080:
2073:
2057:Askar Akayev
2041:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2003:
1999:
1991:
1978:
1974:
1957:
1941:Qing dynasty
1926:
1906:
1898:pan-Islamism
1891:
1852:
1829:Sheng Shicai
1826:
1811:
1807:Soviet Union
1803:Qing dynasty
1796:
1761:
1733:
1705:Qing dynasty
1702:
1699:Qing dynasty
1693:
1653:
1634:
1606:Transcaspian
1567:
1563:buffer state
1528:
1522:
1487:
1464:
1430:
1411:
1395:Qing dynasty
1384:
1377:
1372:Turkmenistan
1348:
1323:
1311:
1294:Genghis Khan
1291:
1283:Seljuk Turks
1278:Hephthalites
1275:
1250:
1243:
1219:
1203:trade routes
1171:
1148:
1094:
1079:(d. 680) to
1070:
998:
935:
927:
908:
896:
889:
886:Tang dynasty
883:
871:
863:
791:Tang dynasty
777:
766:
755:
751:Hephthalites
732:
697:
666:
634:
627:
619:Modun Chanyu
576:
565:Balalyk Tepe
445:such as the
436:
420:
381:
373:transhumance
370:
337:Chalcolithic
330:
311:
288:
247:Central Asia
245:Paleolithic
244:
221:Homo sapiens
219:
218:
209:Murals from
141:Turkmenistan
130:
102:Qing dynasty
91:
62:Central Asia
59:
38:
36:
26:
6325:Kabul hoard
6258:Sokh snakes
6210:Surkh Kotal
6175:Haji Piyada
6150:Darra-e Kur
6115:Yemshi Tepe
6110:Tillya Tepe
6105:Tepe Fullol
6095:Tepe Narenj
6090:Tapa Sardar
6080:Fondukistan
6045:Tapa Shotor
6025:Tepe Fullol
6017:Afghanistan
5846:Toprak-Kala
5831:Shahrukhiya
5781:Kampir Tepe
5771:Itchan Kala
5726:Ancient Pap
5683:Shakh Fazil
5555:Krasnyi Yar
5459:Mogao Caves
5419:Kizil Caves
5355:Archaeology
5220:Farighunids
5175:Turk Shahis
5115:Alchon Huns
4678:5 September
4613:Herodotus,
4396:, p. 8
4384:, p. 3
4056:Benn (2002)
3799:, p. 2
3797:Benn (2002)
3683:Benn (2002)
2498:Yuri Bregel
2096:Middle East
2088:Caspian Sea
2044:perestroika
1949:Han Chinese
1894:pan-Turkism
1879:Turkmen SSR
1691:broke out.
1669:Krasnovodsk
1572:to General
1559:Afghanistan
1143:Afghanistan
1097:Tarim Basin
1016:Su Dingfang
1012:Ashina Helu
966:Tarim Basin
915:Liang Shidu
904:desinicized
856:), showing
773:Manichaeism
739:city-states
735:Han dynasty
716:Afghanistan
691:during the
664:in 339 BC.
569:Tokharistan
477:Ancient era
231:East Asians
118:Afghanistan
79:Transoxiana
6405:Categories
6205:Rag-i-Bibi
6030:Ai-Khanoum
5962:Gonur Depe
5957:Dev-Kesken
5894:Kafir-kala
5884:Ajina tepe
5866:Tajikistan
5826:Sarmishsay
5811:Kyzyl-Kala
5791:Khalchayan
5776:Kafir-kala
5756:Fayaz Tepe
5741:Burchmulla
5703:Uzbekistan
5693:Tash Rabat
5668:Manas Ordo
5635:Kyrgyzstan
5522:Kazakhstan
5225:Ghaznavids
5130:Ustrushana
5125:Tocharians
5055:Massagetae
4432:References
4151:2011-08-25
4007:2011-07-06
3975:2010-07-17
3944:Sen (2003)
3809:Xue (1992)
3785:Xue (1992)
3773:Xue (1992)
3749:Liu (2000)
3725:Xue (1992)
3698:Cui (2005)
3656:Xue (1992)
2585:, p.
2177:Tajikistan
2137:Kurmangazy
2114:Azerbaijan
2069:Uzbekistan
2055:president
2038:Since 1991
1847:See also:
1683:, and the
1551:Great Game
1508:Great Game
1437:Nader Shah
1422:Shaybanids
1374:, c. 1915.
1337:, and the
1285:, and the
1270:Uzbekistan
1059:polychrome
956:, and the
854:Tajikistan
673:Macedonian
505:Eucratides
447:Tocharians
396:Bronze Age
324:sample in
322:Mal'ta boy
255:Bronze Age
241:westwards.
160:Prehistory
149:Tajikistan
145:Kyrgyzstan
137:Uzbekistan
133:Kazakhstan
73:, various
6251:Artifacts
6125:Aq Kupruk
6075:Mes Aynak
6007:Ulug Depe
5942:Altyndepe
5889:Cyropolis
5879:Penjikent
5851:Varakhsha
5786:Kara Tepe
5731:Ayaz-Kala
5721:Akhsikath
5711:Afrasiyab
5658:Issyk-Kul
5648:Balasagun
5494:Beshbalik
5371:Sintashta
5331:Silk Road
5260:Ilkhanate
5215:Ma'munids
5110:Kidarites
4948:from the
4615:Histories
4470:162353264
3593:Yü (1986)
3455:1476-4687
3321:2397-334X
3139:1476-4687
3063:2375-2548
2997:2041-1723
2975:: 14615.
2928:2397-334X
2880:219470000
2854:2513-843X
2787:0002-9297
2730:0028-0836
1883:Tajik SSR
1875:Uzbek SSR
1855:Bolshevik
1839:in 1949.
1794:in 1924.
1717:Yakub Beg
1586:Samarkand
1576:in 1865,
1574:Cherniaev
1491:Turkestan
1467:Ukrainian
1380:gunpowder
1370:camel in
1368:dromedary
1362:A native
1352:Silk Road
1350:from the
1222:Scythians
958:Xueyantuo
850:Panjakent
728:Silk Road
642:Scythians
638:Herodotus
623:statehood
533:Varkhuman
521:Samarkand
483:Silk Road
455:Scythians
431:Silk Road
289:The term
43:geography
6185:Mundigak
6165:Firozkoh
6055:Shotorak
5874:Bunjikat
5766:Hazorasp
5590:Shilikty
5580:Boralday
5504:Mongolia
5439:Dunhuang
5210:Samanids
5140:Farghana
4993:Polities
4902:(1992),
4881:(2004),
4628:(1996),
4082:Archived
3471:13670282
3463:29743675
3397:33771866
3339:31036896
3273:29743352
3225:: 73–98.
3155:13670282
3147:29743675
3081:30417088
3015:28256537
2946:31036896
2872:37588381
2863:10427466
2805:27569548
2748:25341783
2675:Jane Qiu
2662:23682168
2621:21718162
2359:(Paris:
2231:See also
2211:Aral Sea
2184:Islamist
2076:Tashkent
1902:Cyrillic
1877:and the
1857:forces,
1788:Mongolia
1784:Basmachi
1677:Orenburg
1639:and the
1618:Ashgabat
1578:Khodjend
1570:Tashkent
1543:Chimkent
1539:quixotic
1531:khanates
1481:against
1471:Orenburg
1403:Xinjiang
1387:Dzungars
1315:Novgorod
1187:Samanids
1101:Chang'an
1090:Dunhuang
1026:and the
1020:absorbed
974:Karasahr
950:Göktürks
923:Mongolia
906:people.
852:(modern
797:Medieval
529:Afrasiab
451:Persians
366:Scythian
362:nomadism
280:Mongolia
267:Iron Age
114:Mongolia
94:firearms
6130:Asqalan
6065:Bimaran
6060:Paitava
6002:Togolok
5937:Abiward
5821:Poykent
5806:Koktepe
5673:Navekat
5550:Kerderi
5540:Jankent
5489:Kashgar
5464:Tumshuq
5409:Bulayïq
5319:Culture
5135:Khuttal
5095:Xiongnu
3425:Bibcode
3388:7997506
3367:Bibcode
3330:6542712
3301:Bibcode
3264:6748862
3243:Science
3109:Bibcode
3072:6223350
3043:Bibcode
3006:5337992
2977:Bibcode
2937:6542712
2908:Bibcode
2830:: e16.
2796:5011065
2739:4753769
2710:Bibcode
2363:) 1992–
2173:mosques
2063:and an
2059:in the
1814:Nanking
1725:Taiping
1721:Kashgar
1709:Dzungar
1681:Siberia
1637:Bukhara
1630:Panjdeh
1535:Alimqul
1496:Zhetysu
1364:Turkmen
1319:Muscovy
1234:stirrup
1183:Abbasid
1163:Türgesh
1117:Jokhang
1113:Qinghai
1066:Bukhara
1056:Sogdian
1050:A lion
964:of the
954:Tuyuhun
938:Xiongnu
878:Khitans
858:cavalry
846:Sogdian
783:Uyghurs
747:Kushans
700:Bactria
669:Persian
654:Dnieper
652:on the
650:Kamenka
595:Göktürk
591:Xiongnu
517:Sogdian
423:Sogdian
404:chariot
354:chariot
331:In the
326:Siberia
305:to the
87:Eurasia
51:Nomadic
47:aridity
6195:Nagara
5967:Jeitun
5899:Sarazm
5585:Sawran
5530:Begash
5484:Khotan
5479:Loulan
5090:Yuezhi
4928:
4910:
4889:
4868:
4850:
4832:
4814:
4745:
4727:
4697:
4638:
4604:
4580:
4560:
4542:
4524:
4506:
4488:
4468:
4192:
4171:
3998:
3966:
3915:
3882:
3857:
3829:
3570:, 2002
3555:83–144
3537:
3512:
3469:
3461:
3453:
3417:Nature
3395:
3385:
3365:(13).
3337:
3327:
3319:
3271:
3261:
3200:
3181:
3153:
3145:
3137:
3101:Nature
3079:
3069:
3061:
3013:
3003:
2995:
2944:
2934:
2926:
2878:
2870:
2860:
2852:
2803:
2793:
2785:
2746:
2736:
2728:
2702:Nature
2660:
2619:
2422:
2408:
2374:
2361:UNESCO
2347:
2336:(1989)
2327:(1968)
2189:Israel
2169:Qurans
2157:Turkey
2098:oil".
2053:Kyrgyz
1920:. The
1816:. The
1776:Kokand
1752:Kuldja
1744:Kuldja
1660:cotton
1628:, and
1622:Persia
1620:(from
1616:, and
1584:, and
1582:Djizak
1537:led a
1523:zindan
1333:, the
1329:, the
1226:saddle
1151:Arabia
1139:Bamyan
1009:qaghan
1003:, who
942:steppe
898:fubing
891:fubing
866:Turkic
814:, and
787:Turfan
722:. The
615:chanyu
603:Xianyu
599:Mongol
489:, and
471:Mongol
463:Yuezhi
392:barley
147:, and
100:, the
83:Mongol
75:Turkic
71:Europe
55:steppe
45:. The
6040:Hadda
5796:Khiva
5688:Suyab
5678:Özgön
5615:Urpek
5600:Sumbe
5565:Otrar
5454:Rawak
5444:Miran
5414:Kucha
4672:(PDF)
4466:S2CID
4175:. p52
4145:(PDF)
4130:(PDF)
3911:–42.
3467:S2CID
3151:S2CID
2876:S2CID
2510:Notes
2175:. In
2161:Turks
2145:basin
1772:Jadid
1748:Korla
1675:from
1667:from
1483:Khiva
1414:Babur
1307:Timur
1230:Alans
1109:Gansu
1052:motif
982:Kucha
911:Ordos
834:horse
830:nomad
658:Ateas
611:Hebei
503:King
467:Wusun
439:Turks
414:(see
408:Aryan
388:wheat
377:yurts
318:horse
106:China
6220:Iran
5997:Nisa
5982:Merv
5952:Anau
5449:Niya
5030:Saka
4926:ISBN
4908:ISBN
4887:ISBN
4866:ISBN
4848:ISBN
4830:ISBN
4812:ISBN
4743:ISBN
4725:ISBN
4695:ISBN
4680:2012
4636:ISBN
4602:ISBN
4578:ISBN
4558:ISBN
4540:ISBN
4522:ISBN
4504:ISBN
4486:ISBN
4190:ISBN
4169:ISBN
3996:ISBN
3964:ISBN
3913:ISBN
3880:ISBN
3855:ISBN
3827:ISBN
3535:ISBN
3510:ISBN
3459:PMID
3451:ISSN
3393:PMID
3335:PMID
3317:ISSN
3269:PMID
3198:ISBN
3179:ISBN
3143:PMID
3135:ISSN
3077:PMID
3059:ISSN
3011:PMID
2993:ISSN
2942:PMID
2924:ISSN
2868:PMID
2850:ISSN
2801:PMID
2783:ISSN
2744:PMID
2726:ISSN
2658:PMID
2617:PMID
2420:ISBN
2406:ISBN
2372:ISBN
2345:ISBN
2149:Iran
2131:and
1979:The
1916:the
1896:and
1738:and
1727:and
1626:Merv
1612:and
1555:Oxus
1441:Oxus
1317:and
1258:Huns
1254:khan
1174:Arab
1172:The
1111:and
1062:silk
984:was
976:was
900:(府兵)
893:(府兵)
826:gilt
749:and
671:and
597:and
585:and
459:Saka
390:and
312:The
282:and
168:and
116:and
67:Huns
37:The
4774:doi
4458:doi
4108:doi
3441:hdl
3433:doi
3421:557
3383:PMC
3375:doi
3325:PMC
3309:doi
3259:PMC
3251:doi
3247:360
3223:144
3125:hdl
3117:doi
3105:557
3067:PMC
3051:doi
3001:PMC
2985:doi
2932:PMC
2916:doi
2858:PMC
2840:hdl
2832:doi
2791:PMC
2775:doi
2734:PMC
2718:doi
2706:514
2648:doi
2609:doi
2587:183
2122:gas
1740:Ili
1736:Chu
1624:),
1596:of
1239:bow
1054:on
418:).
104:of
6407::
4810:,
4770:40
4768:,
4656:.
4652:.
4600:,
4484:,
4464:,
4454:37
4452:,
4327:^
4276:^
4249:^
4167:.
4132:,
4104:42
4102:.
3909:33
3841:^
3705:^
3690:^
3663:^
3624:^
3508:.
3506:93
3502:92
3465:.
3457:.
3449:.
3439:.
3431:.
3419:.
3415:.
3391:.
3381:.
3373:.
3361:.
3357:.
3333:.
3323:.
3315:.
3307:.
3295:.
3291:.
3267:.
3257:.
3245:.
3241:.
3221:.
3157:.
3149:.
3141:.
3133:.
3123:.
3115:.
3103:.
3099:.
3075:.
3065:.
3057:.
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