610:
where it points, or when the pointer is no longer pointing to any area or has itself been freed, the counter should decrease. When the counter drops to zero, the memory should be considered unused and freed. Some reference counting systems require programmer involvement and some are implemented automatically by the compiler. A disadvantage of reference counting is that circular references can develop which cause a memory leak to occur. This can be mitigated by either adding the concept of a "weak reference" (a reference that does not participate in reference counting, but is notified when the area it is pointing to is no longer valid) or by combining reference counting and garbage collection together.
807:, areas a multiple of 2 KB in size—the size of an area protected by a protection key. Subpools are numbered 0–255. Within a region subpools are assigned either the job's storage protection or the supervisor's key, key 0. Subpools 0–127 receive the job's key. Initially only subpool zero is created, and all user storage requests are satisfied from subpool 0, unless another is specified in the memory request. Subpools 250–255 are created by memory requests by the supervisor on behalf of the job. Most of these are assigned key 0, although a few get the key of the job. Subpool numbers are also relevant in MFT, although the details are much simpler. MFT uses fixed
122:
54:
625:
where all of those chunks are known to be no longer valid. For example, in a web service, after each request the web service no longer needs any of the memory allocated during the execution of the request. Therefore, rather than keeping track of whether or not memory is currently being referenced, the memory is allocated according to the request or lifecycle stage with which it is associated. When that request or stage has passed, all associated memory is deallocated simultaneously.
311:
2114:
2104:
2094:
2084:
2074:
711:
and virtual memory in a process known as overlaying. Burroughs was the first commercial implementation of virtual memory (although developed at
Manchester University for the Ferranti Atlas computer) and integrated virtual memory with the system design of the B5000 from the start (in 1961) needing no external memory management unit (MMU).
576:, when the subroutine is called, and automatically releases that memory when the subroutine is exited. Special declarations may allow local variables to retain values between invocations of the procedure, or may allow local variables to be accessed by other subroutines. The automatic allocation of local variables makes
595:
requests and memory releases in the program. While automatic garbage collection has the advantages of reducing programmer workload and preventing certain kinds of memory allocation bugs, garbage collection does require memory resources of its own, and can compete with the application program for processor time.
814:
Each subpool is mapped by a list of control blocks identifying allocated and free memory blocks within the subpool. Memory is allocated by finding a free area of sufficient size, or by allocating additional blocks in the subpool, up to the region size of the job. It is possible to free all or part of
609:
Reference counting is a strategy for detecting that memory is no longer usable by a program by maintaining a counter for how many independent pointers point to the memory. Whenever a new pointer points to a piece of memory, the programmer is supposed to increase the counter. When the pointer changes
594:
Garbage collection is a strategy for automatically detecting memory allocated to objects that are no longer usable in a program, and returning that allocated memory to a pool of free memory locations. This method is in contrast to "manual" memory management where a programmer explicitly codes memory
710:
The memory subsystem manages the physical memory and the virtual memory of the system (both part of the hardware resource). The virtual memory extends physical memory by using extra space on a peripheral device, usually disk. The memory subsystem is responsible for moving code and data between main
461:
complete. When a block is allocated, the allocator will start with the smallest sufficiently large block to avoid needlessly breaking blocks. When a block is freed, it is compared to its buddy. If they are both free, they are combined and placed in the correspondingly larger-sized buddy-block list.
714:
The memory subsystem is responsible for mapping logical requests for memory blocks to physical portions of memory (segments) which are found in the list of free segments. Each allocated block is managed by means of a segment descriptor, a special control word containing relevant metadata about the
624:
A memory pool is a technique of automatically deallocating memory based on the state of the application, such as the lifecycle of a request or transaction. The idea is that many applications execute large chunks of code which may generate memory allocations, but that there is a point in execution
721:
are essential in providing memory safety and security so that operations cannot overflow or underflow the referenced block (commonly known as buffer overflow). Descriptors themselves are protected control words that cannot be manipulated except for specific elements of the MCP OS (enabled by the
475:
This memory allocation mechanism preallocates memory chunks suitable to fit objects of a certain type or size. These chunks are called caches and the allocator only has to keep track of a list of free cache slots. Constructing an object will use any one of the free cache slots and destructing an
460:
and all new blocks that are formed during allocation are added to their respective memory pools for later use. If a smaller size is requested than is available, the smallest available size is selected and split. One of the resulting parts is selected, and the process repeats until the request is
241:. The essential requirement of memory management is to provide ways to dynamically allocate portions of memory to programs at their request, and free it for reuse when no longer needed. This is critical to any advanced computer system where more than a single
529:
provides an equivalent interface, albeit instead of throwing an SEH exception on overflow, it delegates to malloc when an overlarge size is detected. A similar feature can be emulated using manual accounting and size-checking, such as in the uses of
706:
An operating system manages various resources in the computing system. The memory subsystem is the system element for managing memory. The memory subsystem combines the hardware memory resource and the MCP OS software that manages the resource.
429:
especially with long memory addresses. However, due to the significantly reduced overhead, this method can substantially improve performance for objects that need frequent allocation and deallocation, and so it is often used in
506:. A compiler typically translates it to inlined instructions manipulating the stack pointer. Although there is no need of manually freeing memory allocated this way as it is automatically freed when the function that called
476:
object will add a slot back to the free cache slot list. This technique alleviates memory fragmentation and is efficient as there is no need to search for a suitable portion of memory, as any open slot will suffice.
333:. At any given time, some parts of the heap are in use, while some are "free" (unused) and thus available for future allocations. In the C language, the function which allocates memory from the heap is called
324:
The task of fulfilling an allocation request consists of locating a block of unused memory of sufficient size. Memory requests are satisfied by allocating portions from a large pool of memory called the
1241:
665:, can be used to disallow a process to read or write to memory that is not allocated to it, preventing malicious or malfunctioning code in one program from interfering with the operation of another.
715:
segment including address, length, machine type, and the p-bit or ‘presence’ bit which indicates whether the block is in main memory or needs to be loaded from the address given in the descriptor.
1281:
1265:
1471:
356:. The memory management system must track outstanding allocations to ensure that they do not overlap and that no memory is ever "lost" (i.e. that there are no "
887:
However, the run-time environment for a language processor may subdivide the memory dynamically acquired from the operating system, e.g., to implement a stack.
2054:
542:
The proper management of memory in an application is a difficult problem, and several different strategies for handling memory management have been devised.
1580:
276:. The system allows a computer to appear as if it may have more memory available than physically present, thereby allowing multiple processes to share it.
1715:
1325:
669:
638:
1338:
348:, which arises when there are many small gaps between allocated memory blocks, which invalidates their use for an allocation request. The allocator's
650:. Each attempt by the application to access a particular virtual memory address results in the virtual memory address being translated to an actual
1763:
1345:
1600:
448:
In this system, memory is allocated into several pools of memory instead of just one, where each pool represents blocks of memory of a certain
2107:
1911:
1735:
1445:
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42:
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Even though the memory allocated for specific processes is normally isolated, processes sometimes need to be able to share information.
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97:
75:
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381:
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The specific dynamic memory allocation algorithm implemented can impact performance significantly. A study conducted in 1994 by
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1708:
1039:
730:
687:. Memory management systems, among other operations, also handle the moving of information between these two levels of memory.
234:
127:
2143:
2059:
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and the function which takes previously allocated memory and marks it as "free" (to be used by future allocations) is called
144:
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In many programming language implementations, the runtime environment for the program automatically allocates memory in the
514:
expansion seen in many systems but never in POSIX or the C standard, its behavior in case of a stack overflow is undefined.
392:
Since the precise location of the allocation is not known in advance, the memory is accessed indirectly, usually through a
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205:
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is a method of decoupling the memory organization from the physical hardware. The applications operate on memory via
399:. The specific algorithm used to organize the memory area and allocate and deallocate chunks is interlinked with the
2138:
2077:
1964:
1944:
1797:
1701:
1528:
Proceedings of the 17th ACM SIGPLAN conference on Object-oriented programming, systems, languages, and applications
452:
in size, or blocks of some other convenient size progression. All blocks of a particular size are kept in a sorted
31:
1400:
964:
654:. In this way the addition of virtual memory enables granular control over memory systems and methods of access.
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used by a process from actual physical addresses, allowing separation of processes and increasing the size of the
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A simplistic implementation of these two functions can be found in the article "Inside Memory
Management".
1853:
1751:
1535:
1475:
1423:
979:
373:
79:
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are similar to those for MVT, except that the page size is 4 KiB. For both OS/VS1 and OS/VS2 the shared
789:
785:
781:
754:
288:
257:
38:
1929:
1085:
753:, assigning storage for each job a different key, 0 for the supervisor or 1–15. Memory management in
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261:
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658:
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242:
125:
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2033:
1959:
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997:
604:
573:
551:
1468:
Proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN 2001 conference on
Programming language design and implementation
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269:
174:
2002:
1997:
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1433:
989:
811:
redefinable by the operator instead of dynamic regions and PCP has only a single partition.
280:
198:
169:
113:
272:. The quality of the virtual memory manager can have an extensive effect on overall system
1992:
1891:
1678:
1404:
746:
680:
470:
422:
238:
1643:
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OS Release 21 IBM System/360 Operating System
Supervisor Services and Macro Instructions
421:
of fixed-size blocks of memory (often all of the same size). This works well for simple
380:
required to allocate a single memory slot was 52 (as measured with an instruction level
352:
can also inflate the size of (individually) small allocations. This is often managed by
248:
Several methods have been devised that increase the effectiveness of memory management.
2007:
1974:
1969:
1815:
1774:
868:
729:
Donald Knuth describes a similar system in
Section 2.5 ‘Dynamic Storage Allocation’ of
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565:
310:
253:
249:
1657:
2132:
1984:
1787:
1782:
863:
858:
284:
164:
1001:
1507:
1379:
1047:. IBM Systems Reference Library (First ed.). IBM Corporation. 1965. p. 74
449:
179:
1567:
17:
2028:
1067:
453:
431:
412:
357:
191:
159:
1397:
849:(SWA). Also, the storage keys 0–7 are all reserved for use by privileged code.
1792:
742:
569:
561:
555:
291:, memory is managed by the operating system. In other operating systems, e.g.
1437:
298:
Memory management within an address space is generally categorized as either
1939:
1820:
521:, which reports errors, exists on Microsoft Windows. It requires the use of
491:
418:
292:
149:
30:"Memory allocation" redirects here. For memory allocation in the brain, see
1671:
993:
502:
for dynamically allocating stack memory in a way similar to the heap-based
1549:
1489:
1873:
1868:
1858:
1848:
1124:
417:
Fixed-size blocks allocation, also called memory pool allocation, uses a
900:, the free storage may be subdivided in various ways, e.g., subpools in
1863:
1684:
VMem - general malloc/free replacement. Fast thread safe C++ allocator
1623:
1531:
901:
897:
823:
819:
526:
265:
1693:
1422:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 986. pp. 1–116.
1648:
837:
the address space includes an additional pageable shared area, the
1683:
1120:
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returns, there exists a risk of overflow. And since alloca is an
905:
723:
1697:
295:
operating systems, memory is managed at the application level.
1633:
1609:
1589:
1411:
Wilson, P. R.; Johnstone, M. S.; Neely, M.; Boles, D. (1995).
1354:
1114:
834:
47:
1297:
Program Logic: IBM System/360 Operating System MVT Supervisor
425:
where no large objects need to be allocated but suffers from
1658:
The Memory
Management Reference, Beginner's Guide Allocation
1394:. Section 2.5: Dynamic Storage Allocation, pp. 435–456.
657:
In virtual memory systems the operating system limits how a
120:
822:
are similar to those for MFT and for MVT; the details for
1413:"Dynamic storage allocation: A survey and critical review"
776:
In OS/360 the details vary depending on how the system is
841:(CSA), and two additional private areas, the nonpageable
376:
involved for a variety of allocators. The lowest average
1666:
1736:
Memory management as a function of an operating system
904:, below the line, above the line and above the bar in
344:
Several issues complicate the implementation, such as
1634:
TLSF: a constant time allocator for real-time systems
1198:. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. p. 90.
965:"Memory allocation costs in large C and C++ programs"
745:
does not support virtual memory. Memory isolation of
2042:
2016:
1983:
1910:
1882:
1839:
1806:
1773:
1744:
1588:. IBM Systems Reference Library (Eighth ed.).
1221:"Stories About the B5000 and People Who Were There"
1013:
1011:
531:
522:
518:
507:
503:
499:
338:
334:
580:possible, to a depth limited by available memory.
769:macro, which result in a call to the supervisor (
691:Memory Management in Burroughs/Unisys MCP Systems
679:Memory is usually classified by access rate into
1041:IBM Operating System/360 Concepts and Facilities
963:Detlefs, D.; Dosser, A.; Zorn, B. (June 1994).
124:
1602:OS/VS1 Programmer's Reference Digest Release 6
1461:"Composing High-Performance Memory Allocators"
37:This article is about memory management in an
1709:
1629:Sample bit-mapped arena memory allocator in C
199:
8:
2055:International Symposium on Memory Management
1612:. September 15, 1976. GC24-5091-5 with TNLs.
795:In OS/360 MVT, suballocation within a job's
661:can access the memory. This feature, called
546:Automatic management of call stack variables
403:, and may use any of the following methods:
1716:
1702:
1694:
1183:. Beren Minor's Mirrors. 23 November 2019.
737:Memory management in OS/360 and successors
639:Shared memory (interprocess communication)
206:
192:
109:
1539:
1479:
1427:
1407:(originally published on OSDEV Community)
983:
761:function. Storage is requested using the
98:Learn how and when to remove this message
41:. For management of physical memory, see
1672:Memory Management For System Programmers
1521:"Reconsidering Custom Memory Allocation"
309:
61:This article includes a list of general
1386:, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997.
952:
880:
136:
112:
917:Not to be confused with the unrelated
27:Computer memory management methodology
1357:. March 1973. p. 37. GC28-0661-1
672:is one of the fastest techniques for
590:Garbage collection (computer science)
43:Memory management (operating systems)
7:
1624:"Generic Memory Manager" C++ library
1321:
1277:
1261:
958:
956:
314:An example of external fragmentation
1764:Input–output memory management unit
1639:Slides on Dynamic memory allocation
1398:Simple Memory Allocation Algorithms
1689:Operating System Memory Management
67:it lacks sufficient corresponding
25:
972:Software: Practice and Experience
896:In some operating systems, e.g.,
749:is optionally accomplished using
517:A safer version of alloca called
2113:
2112:
2103:
2102:
2093:
2092:
2083:
2082:
2073:
2072:
1347:Introduction to OS/VS2 Release 2
302:or automatic memory management.
245:might be underway at any time.
52:
1935:Concurrent mark sweep collector
1649:The Memory Management Reference
260:beyond the available amount of
2060:Region-based memory management
1592:. September 1974. GC28-6646-7.
620:Region-based memory management
1:
1194:Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (1992).
486:Stack-based memory allocation
370:Digital Equipment Corporation
2108:Memory management algorithms
1920:Automatic Reference Counting
1758:Translation lookaside buffer
1608:. Systems (Sixth ed.).
1515:Berger, E. D.; Zorn, B. G.;
1455:Berger, E. D.; Zorn, B. G.;
1353:. Systems (first ed.).
1294:IBM Corporation (May 1973).
1019:"Unisys MCP Managing Memory"
773:) to perform the operation.
498:implement a function called
407:Fixed-size blocks allocation
2098:Automatic memory management
1897:C dynamic memory allocation
1142:Microsoft CRT Documentation
1088:; Galvin, Peter B. (2004).
674:inter-process communication
629:Systems with virtual memory
538:Automated memory management
384:on a variety of software).
2160:
2118:Memory management software
1965:Tracing garbage collection
1798:Virtual memory compression
1644:Inside A Storage Allocator
1068:"Inside Memory Management"
815:an allocated memory area.
765:macro and freed using the
722:UNSAFE block directive in
632:
617:
602:
587:
549:
483:
468:
441:
410:
317:
227:dynamic storage allocation
36:
32:Neuronal memory allocation
29:
2068:
1731:
1090:Operating system concepts
1033:"Main Storage Allocation"
231:dynamic memory allocation
223:dynamic memory management
1892:Static memory allocation
1884:Manual memory management
1438:10.1007/3-540-60368-9_19
1339:"Virtual Storage Layout"
1196:Modern Operating Systems
1181:"glibc/include/alloca.h"
845:(LSQA) and the pageable
731:‘Fundamental Algorithms’
320:Manual memory management
306:Manual memory management
300:manual memory management
1950:Garbage-first collector
1925:Boehm garbage collector
1831:x86 memory segmentation
1667:Linux Memory Management
1474:'01. pp. 114–124.
1228:Computer History Museum
843:local system queue area
444:Buddy memory allocation
378:instruction path length
82:more precise citations.
1955:Mark–compact algorithm
1752:Memory management unit
1384:Fundamental Algorithms
994:10.1002/spe.4380240602
939:Except on the Model 67
830:(SQA) is nonpageable.
346:external fragmentation
315:
131:
2144:Computer architecture
1550:10.1145/582419.582421
1490:10.1145/378795.378821
1086:Silberschatz, Abraham
442:Further information:
313:
289:OS/360 and successors
258:virtual address space
252:systems separate the
130:
1902:new and delete (C++)
1534:'02. pp. 1–12.
1403:5 March 2016 at the
285:Burroughs/Unisys MCP
1808:Memory segmentation
1219:Waychoff, Richard.
1127:– Library Functions
1066:Jonathan Bartlett.
839:Common Storage Area
574:automatic variables
494:systems as well as
235:resource management
2050:Automatic variable
2034:Unreachable memory
1960:Reference counting
1930:Cheney's algorithm
1912:Garbage collection
1677:2012-05-10 at the
1303:. pp. 107–137
1156:"gnulib/malloca.h"
1072:IBM DeveloperWorks
803:(SQA) is based on
605:Reference counting
599:Reference counting
584:Garbage collection
552:Automatic variable
316:
145:Process management
132:
2139:Memory management
2126:
2125:
2078:Memory management
1826:Virtual 8086 mode
1725:Memory management
1519:(November 2002).
1447:978-3-540-60368-9
1420:Memory Management
828:System Queue Area
801:System Queue Area
685:secondary storage
663:memory protection
648:virtual addresses
635:Memory protection
496:Microsoft Windows
281:operating systems
270:secondary storage
219:Memory management
216:
215:
155:Memory management
114:Operating systems
108:
107:
100:
18:Memory allocation
16:(Redirected from
2151:
2116:
2115:
2106:
2105:
2096:
2095:
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2085:
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2003:Dangling pointer
1998:Buffer over-read
1970:Strong reference
1841:Memory allocator
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1242:"The Descriptor"
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847:System Work area
818:The details for
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652:physical address
533:
524:
520:
509:
505:
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480:Stack allocation
423:embedded systems
372:illustrates the
340:
336:
254:memory addresses
208:
201:
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110:
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96:
92:
89:
83:
78:this article by
69:inline citations
56:
55:
48:
21:
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2012:
1993:Buffer overflow
1979:
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1679:Wayback Machine
1620:
1605:
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1541:10.1.1.119.5298
1523:
1517:McKinley, K. S.
1514:
1500:
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1457:McKinley, K. S.
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1448:
1415:
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1405:Wayback Machine
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921:data structure.
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751:protection keys
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681:primary storage
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633:Main articles:
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607:
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586:
566:local variables
564:for non-static
558:
548:
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473:
471:Slab allocation
467:
465:Slab allocation
446:
440:
415:
409:
390:
388:Implementations
366:
322:
308:
268:or swapping to
239:computer memory
233:) is a form of
212:
137:Common features
129:
121:
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1380:Donald Knuth
1374:Bibliography
1359:. Retrieved
1346:
1333:
1326:p. 2.37-2.39
1317:
1305:. Retrieved
1296:
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180:Input/output
154:
94:
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66:
2029:Memory leak
1280:, pp.
1264:, pp.
1165:24 November
719:Descriptors
454:linked list
432:video games
413:Memory pool
274:performance
237:applied to
160:File system
80:introducing
2133:Categories
1793:Page table
1138:"_malloca"
947:References
809:partitions
759:supervisor
743:System/360
570:subroutine
562:call stack
556:Call stack
550:See also:
534:in glibc.
364:Efficiency
331:free store
170:Networking
150:Interrupts
88:April 2014
63:references
1940:Finalizer
1821:Real mode
1536:CiteSeerX
1476:CiteSeerX
1424:CiteSeerX
1249:Bitsavers
1115:alloca(3)
1092:. Wiley.
980:CiteSeerX
778:generated
578:recursion
572:, called
492:Unix-like
419:free list
397:reference
374:overheads
293:Unix-like
1874:ptmalloc
1869:mimalloc
1859:jemalloc
1849:dlmalloc
1745:Hardware
1675:Archived
1596:OSVS1Dig
1576:OS360Sup
1401:Archived
1361:July 15,
1322:OSVS1Dig
1278:OS360Sup
1262:OS360Sup
1002:14214110
853:See also
805:subpools
767:FREEMAIN
519:_malloca
382:profiler
354:chunking
350:metadata
279:In some
175:Security
1945:Garbage
1864:libumem
1766:(IOMMU)
1508:7501376
763:GETMAIN
659:process
394:pointer
283:, e.g.
243:process
76:improve
2017:Issues
1568:481812
1566:
1556:
1538:
1532:OOPSLA
1506:
1496:
1478:
1444:
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1390:
1307:Apr 3,
1202:
1160:GitHub
1125:Manual
1096:
1051:Apr 3,
1000:
982:
902:OS/360
898:OS/360
824:OS/VS2
820:OS/VS1
797:region
755:OS/360
695:": -->
527:gnulib
523:_freea
512:ad hoc
508:alloca
504:malloc
500:alloca
401:kernel
335:malloc
287:, and
266:paging
264:using
221:(also
65:, but
2043:Other
1854:Hoard
1760:(TLB)
1754:(MMU)
1606:(PDF)
1586:(PDF)
1564:S2CID
1524:(PDF)
1504:S2CID
1464:(PDF)
1416:(PDF)
1351:(PDF)
1342:(PDF)
1301:(PDF)
1245:(PDF)
1224:(PDF)
1121:Linux
1045:(PDF)
1036:(PDF)
998:S2CID
968:(PDF)
875:Notes
757:is a
568:of a
490:Many
229:, or
1554:ISBN
1494:ISBN
1472:PLDI
1442:ISBN
1388:ISBN
1363:2024
1309:2019
1268:-85.
1200:ISBN
1167:2019
1094:ISBN
1053:2019
919:heap
906:z/OS
747:jobs
741:IBM
724:NEWP
697:edit
683:and
637:and
554:and
458:tree
360:").
341:.
339:free
327:heap
1610:IBM
1590:IBM
1546:doi
1486:doi
1434:doi
1355:IBM
990:doi
835:MVS
833:In
790:MVT
786:MFT
782:PCP
771:SVC
726:).
456:or
329:or
262:RAM
2135::
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1552:.
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1530:.
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1492:.
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1418:.
1382:.
1344:.
1324:,
1282:82
1266:82
1247:.
1226:.
1158:.
1140:.
1070:.
1038:.
1010:^
996:.
988:.
976:24
974:.
970:.
955:^
792:.
788:,
784:,
733:.
676:.
525:.
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225:,
1717:e
1710:t
1703:v
1570:.
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1488::
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1230:.
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1074:.
1055:.
1021:.
1004:.
992::
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207:e
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101:)
95:(
90:)
86:(
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34:.
20:)
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