564:, Kant gives the example of a person who seeks to borrow money without intending to pay it back. The maxim of this action, says Kant, results in a contradiction in conceivability (and thus contradicts perfect duty) because it would logically contradict the reliability of language. If it is universally acceptable to lie, then no one would believe anyone and all truths would be assumed to be lies (this last clause was accepted by casuists, hence the reasons for restrictions given to the cases where deception was authorized). The right to deceive could also not be claimed because it would deny the status of the person deceived as an end in himself. And the theft would be incompatible with a possible kingdom of ends. Therefore, Kant denied the right to lie or deceive for any reason, regardless of context or anticipated consequences. However, it was permissible to remain silent or say no more than needed (such as in the infamous example of a murderer asking to know where someone is).
498:
speaker cannot authentically be said to have meant to say something that has no relation to the literal meaning of the sentence he utters." "Since the non-literal meaning intended by the speaker can be detected in the circumstances of his utterance, he can authentically be said to have meant to say it, and if that meaning yields a true statement, then he has said nothing false." According to
Alphonsus Liguori, for the licit use of a mental reservation, "an absolutely serious cause is not required; any reasonable cause is enough, for instance to free oneself from the inconvenient and unjust interrogation of another." Alphonsus said, "we do not deceive our neighbor, but for a just cause we allow that he deceive himself."
517:
169:. Seeing the imperial officers were gaining on him, Athanasius took advantage of a bend in the river that hid his boat from its pursuers and ordered his boat turned around. When the two boats crossed paths, the Roman officers shouted out, asking if anyone had seen Athanasius. As instructed by Athanasius, his followers shouted back, "Yes, he is not very far off." The pursuing boat hastily continued up the river, while Athanasius returned to Alexandria, where he remained in hiding until the end of the persecution.
105:, in which he both does not want to say the truth and does not want to make an outright lie; in such circumstances, equivocal statements are generally preferred. This type of equivocation has been defined as “nonstraightforward communication...ambiguous, contradictory, tangential, obscure or even evasive.” People typically equivocate when posed a question to which all of the possible replies have potentially negative consequences, yet a reply is still expected (the situational theory of communicative conflict).
621:
accept an untrue version of whatever it may be – permitting that to happen, not willing that it happened, that would be lying. It really is a matter of trying to deal with extraordinarily difficult matters that may arise in social relations where people may ask questions that you simply cannot answer. Everybody knows that this kind of thing is liable to happen. So mental reservation is, in a sense, a way of answering without lying.
222:
lie. Writers of all creeds and of no creed, both ancient and modern, have frankly accepted this position. They admit the doctrine of the "lie of necessity", and maintain that when there is a conflict between justice and veracity it is justice that should prevail. The common
Catholic teaching has formulated the theory of mental reservation as a means by which the claims of both justice and veracity can be satisfied.
886:
508:
wrong, provided, of course, that he is careful not to indicate that he has 'only' so much to eat or that he has 'only' so much money." Also, if "a wife, who has been unfaithful but after her lapse has received the
Sacrament of Penance, is asked by her husband if she has committed adultery, she could truthfully reply: 'I am free from sin.'"
321:
God. Reserving some of that truth from the ears of human hearers was moral if it served a greater good. This is the doctrine of "strict mental reservation", by which the speaker mentally adds some qualification to the words which they utter, and the words together with the mental qualification make a true assertion in accordance with fact.
588:-telling extend far beyond these specific doctrines. Ekman, however, does not consider cases of deception where "it is improper to question" the truth as real form of deceptions – this sort of case, where communication of truth is not to be expected and so deception is justified, was included by casuists.
620:
Well, the general teaching about mental reservation is that you are not permitted to tell a lie. On the other hand, you may be put in a position where you have to answer, and there may be circumstances in which you can use an ambiguous expression realising that the person who you are talking to will
507:
says, "A man can affirm that he had coffee and toast for breakfast without denying that he had an egg, or he might affirm that he has a lesser amount of money in his pocket without denying that he also has a greater amount. So long as he has reasonable cause to conceal part of the truth, he does no
221:
The traditional teaching of moral theologians is that a lie is intrinsically evil, and therefore, never allowed. However, there are instances where one is also under an obligation to keep secrets faithfully, and sometimes the easiest way of fulfilling that duty is to say what is false, or to tell a
381:
Southwell, who was arrested in 1592, was accused at his trial of having told a witness that even if she was forced by the authorities to swear under oath, it was permissible to lie to conceal the whereabouts of a priest. Southwell replied that that was not what he had said. He had said that "to an
246:
said that a man must not slay his own soul by lying in order to preserve the life of another, and that it would be a most perilous doctrine to admit that we may do a lesser evil to prevent another doing a greater. He said that while most doctors teach this, he acknowledged that others allow that a
320:
or mental reservation. Navarrus held that mental reservation involved truths "expressed partly in speech and partly in the mind," relying upon the idea that God hears what is in one's mind while human beings hear only what one speaks. Therefore, the
Christian's moral duty was to tell the truth to
497:
thesis, Edouard
Guilloux says that it is shown from the study of language "that there can be a gap between what a speaker means when he utters a given sentence and the literal meaning of that same sentence", yet "the literal meaning of a sentence must be apt to convey what the speaker means: the
121:
was married to Sarah/Sarai, his half-sister by a different mother. Fearing that as he traveled people would covet his beautiful wife and as a result kill him to take her, he counselled her to agree with him when he would say that "she is my sister". This happened on two occasions, first with the
377:
to death for refusing to enter a plea on the charge of harbouring two priests at York. When caught, tortured and interrogated, Southwell and Garnet practiced mental reservation not to save themselves — their deaths were a foregone conclusion — but to protect their fellow believers.
225:
If there is no good reason to the contrary, truth requires all to speak frankly and openly in such a way as to be understood by those who are addressed. A sin is committed if mental reservations are used without just cause, or in cases when the questioner has a right to the naked truth.
440:, in which the porter directly alludes to the practice of deceiving under oath by means of equivocation. "Faith, here's an equivocator, that could swear in both the scales against either scale; who committed treason enough for God's sake, yet could not equivocate to heaven." (
604:, by disregarding the restrictions placed on its employment by moral theologians and treating it as a method that "allows clerics (to) mislead people...without being guilty of lying", for example when dealing with the police, victims, civil authorities and media. In the
324:
Navarrus gave the doctrine of mental reservation a far broader and more liberal interpretation than had anyone up to that time. Although some other
Catholic theological thinkers and writers took up the argument in favor of strict mental reservation, canonist
658:. Southwell and Garnet practiced mental reservation to save innocent victims while sacrificing themselves. The Irish prelates practiced mental reservation to save themselves while sacrificing innocent victims. And that difference makes all the difference."
646:, the protection of the reputation of the church, and the preservation of its assets. All other considerations, including the welfare of children and justice for victims, were subordinated to these priorities. The archdiocese did not implement its own
459:(published secretly c. 1595)—to whom, it is supposed, Shakespeare was specifically referring. Shakespeare made the reference to priests because the religious use of equivocation was well known in those periods of early modern England (e.g. under
670:, 1956), Deacon argued that payments for interstate transport licensing had been made under duress and should be reimbursed. The court held that on the facts of the case, payment had been made voluntarily, and without protest,and observed that
176:. He once saw a man fleeing from a murderer. When the murderer then came upon Francis, he demanded to know if his quarry had passed that way. Francis answered, "He did not pass this way", sliding his forefinger into the sleeve of his
241:
was a noted canon lawyer, and one of the first writers on casuistry, i.e., seeking to resolve moral problems by extracting or extending theoretical rules from a particular case and applying them to new instances. He noted that
264:
Raymond did not believe that
Augustine would have objection to any of these. Those who hear them may understand them in a sense which is not true, but their self-deception may be permitted by the speaker for a good reason.
463:) when it was a capital offence for a Roman Catholic priest to enter England. A Jesuit priest would equivocate in order to protect himself from the secular authorities without (in his eyes) committing the sin of lying.
683:
405:...attacked the Jesuits in the seventeenth century for what he saw as their moral laxity." "By 1679, the doctrine of strict mental reservation put forward by Navarrus had become such a scandal that
202:
When there was good reason for using equivocation, its lawfulness was admitted by all moral theologians. Traditionally, the doctrine of mental reservation was intimately linked with the concept of
609:
490:
in which he accused Pascal of lying, or even of having himself used mental reservation, by not mentioning all the restrictions imposed by
Sanchez on the use of this form of deception.
382:
oath were required justice, judgement and truth", but the rest of his answer goes unrecorded because one of the judges angrily shouted him down. Convicted in 1595, Southwell was
234:
In "wide mental reservation" the qualification comes from the ambiguity of the words themselves, or from the circumstances of time, place, or person in which they are uttered.
386:. More famous in his own era was Henry Garnet, who wrote a defense of Southwell in 1598; Garnet was captured by the authorities in 1606 due to his alleged involvement in the
466:
Following
Innocent XI's condemnation of strict mental reservation, equivocation (or wide mental reservation) was still considered orthodox, and was revived and defended by
91:). Mental reservation, however, is regarded as unjustifiable without grave reason for withholding the truth. This condition was necessary to preserve a general idea of
83:, that mental reservation was a way to fulfill obligations both to tell the truth and to keep secrets from those not entitled to know them (for example, because of the
84:
419: – although Sanchez added various restrictions (it should not be used in ordinary circumstances, when one is interrogated by competent magistrates, when a
642:
The Dublin
Archdiocese's preoccupations in dealing with cases of child sexual abuse, at least until the mid 1990s, were the maintenance of secrecy, the avoidance of
551:, that: "To tell the truth is thus a duty; but it is only in respect to one who has a right to the truth. But no one has a right to a truth which injures others."
1192:
260:
he may say simply that he is not there, and if his conscience tells him that he ought to say that, then he will not speak against his conscience, nor will he sin.
134:
in Genesis 20:12. Abraham later explained to Abimelech that Sarah was indeed his sister, as they shared the same father, although had different mothers. Writers
390:. Facing the same accusations as Southwell, his attempts to defend himself met with no better result: later that year, Garnet was executed in the same fashion.
361:(1555–1606) both wrote treatises on the topic, which was of far more than academic interest to them. Both risked their lives bringing the sacraments to
845:
Commentarius in cap. Humanae Aures, XXII. qu. V. De veritate responsi; partim verbo expresso, partim mente concepti. & de arte bona & mala simulandi
634:, notes that Henry Garnet in his treatise on the topic took pains to argue that no form of mental reservation was justified — and might even be a
329:
opposed it; the concept remained controversial within the Roman Catholic Church, which never officially endorsed or upheld the doctrine and eventually
601:
1260:
146:
also refer to mental reservation as justification for Judith's false explanation that she intended to betray her people to the Assyrians in the
734:
556:
516:
1250:
1098:, Actes du colloque international « La raison rusĂ©e », Louvain la Neuve, mars 2001, Paris, La DĂ©couverte, 2004, p. 93–118
1087:
Ruser sans mentir, de la casuistique aux sciences sociales : le recours à l’équivocité, entre efficacité pragmatique et souci éthique
861:, Actes du colloque international « La raison rusĂ©e », Louvain la Neuve, mars 2001, Paris, La DĂ©couverte, 2004, p. 93–118
850:
Ruser sans mentir, de la casuistique aux sciences sociales : le recours à l’équivocité, entre efficacité pragmatique et souci éthique
254:
one could decline to answer, in which case if this betrays him, his death will be imputable to the murderers, not to the other's silence;
1026:
353:, when Jesuits who had entered England to minister to the spiritual needs of Catholics were captured by the authorities. The Jesuits
37:
and a doctrine in moral theology which recognizes the "lie of necessity", and holds that when there is a conflict between justice and
962:
337:
in 1679. After this condemnation by the Holy See no Catholic theologian has defended the lawfulness of strict mental reservations.
301:
influence upon this doctrine was not until 1609, "when Suarez rejected Azpilcueta's basic proof and supplied another" (speaking of
250:
Raymond gave as an example, if one is asked by murderers bent on taking the life of someone hiding in the house whether he is in:
580:, who defines lies by omission as the main form of lying – though larger and more complex moral and ethical issues of
1270:
597:
638: — if it would run contrary to the requirements of faith, charity or justice. But according to the Murphy Report:
1255:
1172:
647:
383:
1124:
535:
20:
102:
1280:
1265:
1050:
667:
503:
448:
354:
139:
982:
560:, that lying, or deception of any kind, would be forbidden under any interpretation and in any circumstance. In
158:
277:, this doctrine of permissible "equivocation" did not originate with the Jesuits. They cite a short treatise,
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1245:
719:
1225:
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considered these doctrines as mere justifications for lies. Catholic ethicists also voiced objections: the
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294:
238:
147:
1140:
630:
520:
Many oaths, such as those in the US military, state the oathmaker swears "without mental reservation."
840:
757:
309:
184:
787:
494:
374:
302:
162:
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The linked theories of mental reservation and equivocation became notorious in England during the
1226:"The Historical Significance of Lying and Dissimulation: Truth-Telling, Lying and Self-Deception"
934:
926:
694:
415:
370:
243:
143:
57:, it did not originate with them. It is a theory debated by moral theologians, but not part of
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812:
704:
655:
540:
481:
467:
286:
173:
98:
38:
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allegedly misused the concept of mental reservation when dealing with situations relating to
180:, thus misleading the murderer and saving a life. A variant of this anecdote is cited by the
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916:
699:
544:
406:
330:
135:
70:
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816:
643:
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613:
346:
127:
88:
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854:
724:
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No secret mental reservation of the doer is material. The question is - what would his
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460:
410:
387:
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151:
76:
34:
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402:
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A frequently cited example of equivocation is a well-known incident from the life of
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849:
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358:
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was seeking Athanasius's death, Athanasius fled Alexandria and was pursued up the
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431:
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officially condemned it." Other casuists justifying mental reservation included
50:
46:
1069:
1120:
783:
635:
577:
960:"Truth or Consequences: In Ireland, Straying Far from the Mental Reservation"
880:
788:
Equivocation and Facework in the Discourse of Televised Political Interviews
477:
398:
362:
131:
58:
42:
654:
Kaveny concludes: "The truths of faith are illuminated by the lives of the
206:, which allowed the speaker to employ double meanings of words to tell the
1096:
Les Raisons de la ruse. Une perspective anthropologique et psychanalytique
859:
Les Raisons de la ruse. Une perspective anthropologique et psychanalytique
800:
682:
The case and the same wording were referenced in the 1979 English case of
1160:
Deacon v Transport Regulation Board VicRp 73; VR 458 (18 December 1956)
196:
181:
41:, it is justice that should prevail. The doctrine is a special branch of
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rules and did its best to avoid any application of the law of the state.
430:
This type of equivocation was famously mocked in the porter's speech in
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714:
709:
436:
313:
177:
123:
118:
54:
930:
424:
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St. Alphonsus Liguori on Mental Reservations: A Speech Acts Analysis
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he may use an equivocal expression such as, "He is not at home ", or
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904:
585:
515:
420:
114:
92:
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
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lives, since sheltering a priest was a capital offence. In 1586,
172:
Another anecdote often used to illustrate equivocation concerns
166:
1173:
North Ocean Shipping Co. Ltd. v. Hyundai Construction Co., Ltd.
881:
Slater, Thomas. "Mental Reservation." The Catholic Encyclopedia
666:
In the Australian case of Deacon v Transport Regulation Board (
312:(often called "Navarrus" because he was born in the Kingdom of
883:
Vol. 10. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 11 May 2019
684:
North Ocean Shipping Co. Ltd. v Hyundai Construction Co., Ltd.
581:
1202:
Donne and the Politics of Conscience in Early Modern England.
610:
sexual abuse scandal in the Catholic archdiocese of Dublin
101:
have advanced cases where the actor is confronted with an
1070:
Is Kantian Ethics Left Defenseless in the Face of Evil?
357:(c. 1561–1595) (who was also a poet of note) and
760:, Alex Black, Nicole Chovil, and Jennifer Mullet,
247:lie should be told when a man's life is at stake.
678:indicate to a reasonable man as his mental state?
1209:Conscience and Casuistry in Early Modern Europe.
1094:, P.-J. Laurent, O. Servais & M. Singleton,
857:, P.-J. Laurent, O. Servais & M. Singleton,
672:
640:
618:
1193:Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life
903:Malloch, A. E.; Huntley, Frank L. (Mar 1966).
297:. It was published in Rome in 1584. The first
274:
187:to illustrate his doctrine of a mixed speech (
45:(case-based reasoning) developed in the late
16:Position in ethical theory and moral theology
8:
1211:Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1988.
764:, Newbury Park, CA, Sage Publications, 1990.
1080:
1078:
572:The doctrines have also been criticized by
279:
1131:, Vol. 63, No. 3 (Fall 1996), pp. 801–817.
1048:Hughes, D. (2003). "Mental Reservation".
954:
952:
950:
948:
920:
554:On the other hand, Kant asserted, in the
210:truth while concealing a deeper meaning.
130:12:11-13, and second, with a king called
117:contains a good example of equivocation.
1221:Orchard Park, NY, Broadview Press, 2002.
1219:Propaganda and the Ethics of Persuasion.
1204:Boston, Brill Academic Publishers, 1995.
876:
874:
872:
870:
847:, Roma, 1584. Quoted by J.-P. Cavaillé,
316:) wrote at length about the doctrine of
750:
427:, etc.), which were ignored by Pascal.
293:who was serving as a consultant to the
557:Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals
529:This type of untruth was condemned by
413:, who was criticized by Pascal in his
801:Haydock Commentary Online - Judith 10
7:
308:The 16th-century Spanish theologian
289:(also known as Doctor Navarrus), an
735:You can't have your cake and eat it
628:, writing in the Catholic magazine
14:
884:
820:, Note G: Lying and Equivocation
983:Margaret Clitherow Shrine, York
843:Azpilcueta, Martin, (Navarra),
1261:Catholic theology and doctrine
1054:. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.).
365:Catholics — and not only
333:condemned it as formulated by
19:For the album by Scanner, see
1:
1141:"Church 'lied without lying'"
905:"Some Notes on Equivocation"
539:. Kant was debating against
484:sur les lettres provinciales
103:avoidance-avoidance conflict
53:. While associated with the
1251:Communication of falsehoods
1158:Supreme Court of Victoria,
1125:"Why Don't We Catch Liars?"
1111:Bok, pp. 35–7 and ff.
998:. London: CTS, 2003, p. 49.
994:Fiorella Sultana De Maria.
602:clerical child sexual abuse
384:hanged, drawn and quartered
285:, that had been written by
1297:
803:, accessed 29 October 2022
543:, who had claimed, from a
536:On a supposed right to lie
457:A Treatise of Equivocation
275:Malloch and Huntley (1966)
68:
21:Mental Reservation (album)
18:
1175:, accessed 27 August 2023
1162:, accessed 27 August 2023
1051:New Catholic Encyclopedia
668:Supreme Court of Victoria
547:stance opposed to Kant's
504:New Catholic Encyclopedia
269:Strict mental reservation
140:Giovanni Stefano Menochio
1197:New York, Vintage, 1978.
762:Equivocal Communications
159:Athanasius of Alexandria
85:seal of the confessional
1171:Queens Bench Division,
720:Shifting ground fallacy
423:is requested, even for
230:Wide mental reservation
1271:Philosophy of language
773:Bavelas et al., p. 28.
680:
652:
623:
549:categorical imperative
521:
486:, a reply to Pascal's
295:Apostolic Penitentiary
280:
818:Apologia pro Vita Sua
598:Irish Catholic Church
519:
281:in cap. Humanae aures
148:deuterocanonical book
95:in social relations.
1207:Leites, Edmund, ed.
1068:Matthew Stapleton, "
841:Martin de Azpilcueta
758:Janet Beavin Bavelas
310:Martin de Azpilcueta
185:Martin de Azpilcueta
99:Social psychologists
87:or other clauses of
1149:, 11 November 2009.
1058:. pp. 497–500.
1038:Guilloux, p. 20-22.
1029:" (2015), p. 15-16.
1025:Edouard Guilloux, "
973:, January 15, 2010.
616:describes it thus:
318:mentalis restrictio
239:Raymond of Peñafort
215:Mentalis restrictio
163:Julian the Apostate
31:mental equivocation
1256:Ethical principles
965:2010-08-07 at the
695:Economy (religion)
522:
488:Provincial Letters
444:, Act 2, Scene 3)
416:Provincial Letters
371:Margaret Clitherow
244:Augustine of Hippo
237:Spanish Dominican
144:George Leo Haydock
126:of Egypt, told in
27:Mental reservation
1200:Brown, Meg Lota.
958:Cathleen Kaveny.
813:John Henry Newman
705:Lying by omission
541:Benjamin Constant
525:Kant and Constant
468:Alphonsus Liguori
447:See, for example
287:Martin Azpilcueta
217:in moral theology
174:Francis of Assisi
75:It was argued in
39:telling the truth
1288:
1281:Christian ethics
1266:Consequentialism
1230:Social Research,
1224:Zagorin, Perez.
1176:
1169:
1163:
1156:
1150:
1138:
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1109:
1103:
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1084:J.-P. Cavaillé,
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996:Robert Southwell
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799:Haydock, G. L.,
797:
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771:
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700:Evasion (ethics)
545:consequentialist
449:Robert Southwell
407:Pope Innocent XI
355:Robert Southwell
331:Pope Innocent XI
303:Francisco Suárez
283:
136:Petrus Serrarius
71:Evasion (ethics)
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1295:
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1146:The Irish Times
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1129:Social Research
1119:
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1099:
1090:, published in
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1076:
1067:
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1024:
1020:
1015:
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1007:Randal, p. 151.
1006:
1002:
993:
989:
981:
977:
967:Wayback Machine
957:
946:
902:
901:
897:
885:
879:
868:
862:
853:, published in
839:
835:
831:Zagorin, p. 15.
830:
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811:
807:
798:
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781:
777:
772:
768:
756:
752:
748:
691:
664:
626:Cathleen Kaveny
614:Desmond Connell
594:
570:
527:
514:
347:Elizabethan era
343:
271:
232:
219:
199:communication.
111:
89:confidentiality
73:
67:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1294:
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1284:
1283:
1278:
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1268:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1246:Applied ethics
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1234:
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1215:Randal, Marlin
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1205:
1198:
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1092:Serge Latouche
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922:10.2307/461317
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855:Serge Latouche
833:
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732:
727:
725:So help me God
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663:
662:In secular law
660:
593:
590:
569:
566:
526:
523:
513:
510:
476:Entretiens de
474:wrote in 1694
472:Gabriel Daniel
411:Thomas Sanchez
388:Gunpowder Plot
342:
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270:
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189:oratoria mixta
152:bears her name
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77:moral theology
69:Main article:
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35:ethical theory
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915:(1): 145–6.
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359:Henry Garnet
351:Jacobean era
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327:Paul Laymann
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204:equivocation
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191:) combining
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109:Equivocation
97:
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30:
26:
25:
1100:(in French)
863:(in French)
612:, Cardinal
574:Sissela Bok
432:Shakespeare
395:Protestants
291:Augustinian
65:Secular use
51:Renaissance
47:Middle Ages
1240:Categories
1232:Fall 1996.
1182:References
1121:Paul Ekman
971:Commonweal
784:Peter Bull
636:mortal sin
631:Commonweal
592:In Ireland
578:Paul Ekman
562:Groundwork
495:licentiate
461:James VI/I
939:163980479
782:See also
648:canon-law
608:into the
399:Jansenist
373:had been
132:Abimelech
59:Canon law
43:casuistry
1276:Morality
963:Archived
689:See also
478:Cleanthe
425:heretics
363:recusant
349:and the
197:gestural
182:canonist
49:and the
33:) is an
730:Taqiyya
715:Mesirah
710:Marrano
676:conduct
656:martyrs
644:scandal
576:and by
493:In his
442:Macbeth
437:Macbeth
375:pressed
341:England
335:Sanchez
314:Navarre
208:literal
178:cassock
161:. When
128:Genesis
124:Pharaoh
119:Abraham
55:Jesuits
937:
931:461317
929:
568:Others
512:Legacy
482:Eudoxe
299:Jesuit
193:speech
150:which
81:ethics
935:S2CID
927:JSTOR
746:Notes
586:truth
582:lying
480:et d'
421:creed
367:their
115:Bible
93:truth
1056:Gale
909:PMLA
596:The
584:and
531:Kant
501:The
451:and
393:The
195:and
167:Nile
142:and
113:The
29:(or
917:doi
533:in
434:'s
305:).
1242::
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401:"
23:.
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