Mercantilism - Knowledge (XXG)

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intervention from the crown put crippling laws for the protection of Spanish goods and services. Mercantilist protectionist policy in Spain caused the long-run failure of the Castilian textile industry as the efficiency severely dropped off with each passing year due to the production being held at a specific level. Spain's heavily protected industries led to famines as much of its agricultural land was required to be used for sheep instead of grain. Much of their grain was imported from the Baltic region of Europe which caused a shortage of food in the inner regions of Spain. Spain limiting the trade of their colonies is one of the causes that led to the

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barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports to the realm. The government had to fight smuggling, which became a favourite American technique in the 18th century to circumvent the restrictions on trading with the French, Spanish, or Dutch. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses to benefit the government. The government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on the

1438:. It sought to derive the maximum material benefit from the colony, for the homeland, with a minimum of colonial investment in the colony itself. The ideology was embodied in New France through the establishment under Royal Charter of a number of corporate trading monopolies including La Compagnie des Marchands, which operated from 1613 to 1621, and the Compagnie de Montmorency, from that date until 1627. It was in turn replaced by La 3017:. Keynes reiterated that the doctrines advocated for by mercantilism aided the improvement of both the domestic and foreign outlay—domestic because the policies lowered the domestic rate of interest, and investment by foreigners by tending to create a favorable balance of trade. Keynes and other economists of the 20th century also realized that the balance of payments is an important concern. Keynes also supported 1386: 2652: 1260:, in which any gain by one party required a loss by another. Thus, any system of policies that benefited one group would by definition harm the other, and there was no possibility of economics being used to maximize the commonwealth, or common good. Mercantilists' writings were also generally created to rationalize particular practices rather than as investigations into the best policies. 1416:. Under Colbert, the French government became deeply involved in the economy in order to increase exports. Protectionist policies were enacted that limited imports and favored exports. Industries were organized into guilds and monopolies, and production was regulated by the state through a series of more than one thousand directives outlining how different products should be produced. 2664: 1110: 2950:, who in 1699 wrote, "Gold and Silver are indeed the Measures of Trade, but that the Spring and Original of it, in all nations is the Natural or Artificial Product of the Country; that is to say, what this Land or what this Labour and Industry Produces." The critique that mercantilism was a form of rent seeking has also seen criticism, as scholars such as 1549: 2924: 2942:

its value would slowly rise. Eventually, it would no longer be cost-effective to export goods from the high-price country to the low-price country, and the balance of trade would reverse. Mercantilists fundamentally misunderstood this, long arguing that an increase in the money supply simply meant that everyone gets richer.

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would later do for classical economics. Rather, each mercantilist writer tended to focus on a single area of the economy. Only later did non-mercantilist scholars integrate these "diverse" ideas into what they called mercantilism. Some scholars thus reject the idea of mercantilism completely, arguing

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was based on the principle that the state should rule in the economic realm as it did in the diplomatic, and that the interests of the state as identified by the king were superior to those of merchants and of everyone else. Mercantilist economic policies aimed to build up the state, especially in an

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Scholars are also divided over the cause of mercantilism's end. Those who believe the theory was simply an error hold that its replacement was inevitable as soon as Smith's more accurate ideas were unveiled. Those who feel that mercantilism amounted to rent-seeking hold that it ended only when major

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and modern accounting. This accounting made extremely clear the inflow and outflow of trade, contributing to the close scrutiny given to the balance of trade. New markets and new mines propelled foreign trade to previously inconceivable volumes, resulting in "the great upward movement in prices" and

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In France, the triangular trade method was integral in the continuation of mercantilism throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. In order to maximize exports and minimize imports, France worked on a strict Atlantic route: France, to Africa, to the Americas and then back to France. By bringing African

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of this era, as many nations expended significant effort to conquer new colonies that would be sources of gold (as in Mexico) or sugar (as in the West Indies), as well as becoming exclusive markets. European power spread around the globe, often under the aegis of companies with government-guaranteed

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Mercantilism was the economic version of warfare using economics as a tool for warfare by other means backed up by the state apparatus and was well suited to an era of military warfare. Since the level of world trade was viewed as fixed, it followed that the only way to increase a nation's trade was

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The importance placed on bullion was also a central target, even if many mercantilists had themselves begun to de-emphasize the importance of gold and silver. Adam Smith noted that at the core of the mercantile system was the "popular folly of confusing wealth with money", that bullion was just the

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Hume famously noted the impossibility of the mercantilists' goal of a constant positive balance of trade. As bullion flowed into one country, the supply would increase, and the value of bullion in that state would steadily decline relative to other goods. Conversely, in the state exporting bullion,

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British mercantilist writers were themselves divided on whether domestic controls were necessary. British mercantilism thus mainly took the form of efforts to control trade. A wide array of regulations were put in place to encourage exports and discourage imports. Tariffs were placed on imports and

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Most of the European economists who wrote between 1500 and 1750 are today generally described as mercantilists; this term was initially used solely by critics, such as Mirabeau and Smith, but historians proved quick to adopt it. Originally the standard English term was "mercantile system". The word

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To encourage industry, foreign artisans and craftsmen were imported. Colbert also worked to decrease internal barriers to trade, reducing internal tariffs and building an extensive network of roads and canals. Colbert's policies were quite successful, and France's industrial output and the economy

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merchants and governments developed and enforced mercantilist policies. Merchants benefited greatly from the enforced monopolies, bans on foreign competition, and poverty of the workers. Governments benefited from the high tariffs and payments from the merchants. Whereas later economic ideas were

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With respect to its colonies, British mercantilism meant that the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other European powers. The government protected its merchants—and kept foreign ones out—through trade

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Spain benefited from mercantilism early on as it brought a large amount of precious metals such as gold and silver into their treasury by way of the new world. In the long run, Spain's economy collapsed as it was unable to adjust to the inflation that came with the large influx of bullion. Heavy

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power shifts occurred. In Britain, mercantilism faded as the Parliament gained the monarch's power to grant monopolies. While the wealthy capitalists who controlled the House of Commons benefited from these monopolies, Parliament found it difficult to implement them because of the high cost of

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The other nations of Europe also embraced mercantilism to varying degrees. The Netherlands, which had become the financial centre of Europe by being its most efficient trader, had little interest in seeing trade restricted and adopted few mercantilist policies. Mercantilism became prominent in

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offers a third explanation for mercantilism. European trade exported bullion to pay for goods from Asia, thus reducing the money supply and putting downward pressure on prices and economic activity. The evidence for this hypothesis is the lack of inflation in the British economy until the

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Mercantilism taught that trade was a zero-sum game, with one country's gain equivalent to a loss sustained by the trading partner. Overall, however, mercantilist policies had a positive impact on Britain, helping to transform the nation into the world's dominant trading power and a

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affirmed that motivating the production process was as significant as encouraging consumption, which benefited the new mercantilism. Keynes also affirmed that in the post-classical period the primary focus on gold and silver supplies (bullion) was rational. During the era before

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same as any other commodity, and that there was no reason to give it special treatment. More recently, scholars have discounted the accuracy of this critique. They believe Mun and Misselden were not making this mistake in the 1620s, and point to their followers Josiah Child and

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Mercantilist ideas were the dominant economic ideology of all of Europe in the early modern period, and most states embraced it to a certain degree. Mercantilism was centred on England and France, and it was in these states that mercantilist policies were most often enacted.

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that it gives "a false unity to disparate events". Smith saw the mercantile system as an enormous conspiracy by manufacturers and merchants against consumers, a view that has led some authors, especially Robert E. Ekelund and Robert D. Tollison, to call mercantilism "a

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which employed economic fallacy to build up a structure of imperial state power, as well as special subsidy and monopolistic privilege to individuals or groups favored by the state. Thus, mercantilism held exports should be encouraged by the government and imports

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A fourth explanation lies in the increasing professionalisation and technification of the wars of the era, which turned the maintenance of adequate reserve funds (in the prospect of war) into a more and more expensive and eventually competitive business.

1200:, were merchants, while many of the writers from other countries were public officials. Beyond mercantilism as a way of understanding the wealth and power of nations, Mun and Misselden are noted for their viewpoints on a wide range of economic matters. 82:, especially on manufactured goods, were almost universally a feature of mercantilist policy. Before it fell into decline, mercantilism was dominant in modernized parts of Europe and some areas in Africa from the 16th to the 19th centuries, a period of 2776:

as the focus of power. Technological changes in shipping and the growth of urban centers led to a rapid increase in international trade. Mercantilism focused on how this trade could best aid the states. Another important change was the introduction of

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Adam Smith criticized the mercantile doctrine that prioritized production in the economy; he maintained that consumption was of prime significance. Additionally, the mercantile system was well liked by the traders as it was what is now referred to as

1196:. Themes also existed in writers from the German historical school from List, as well as followers of the American and British systems of free-trade, thus stretching the system into the 19th century. However, many British writers, including Mun and 1690:

Mercantilism as a weapon has continued to be used by nations through the 21st century by way of modern tariffs as it puts smaller economies in a position to conform to the larger economies goals or risk economic ruin due to an imbalance in trade.

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The first school to completely reject mercantilism was the physiocrats, who developed their theories in France. Their theories also had several important problems, and the replacement of mercantilism did not come until Adam Smith published

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For instance, imagine that Portugal was a more efficient producer of wine than England, yet in England, cloth could be produced more efficiently than it could in Portugal. Thus if Portugal specialized in wine and England in cloth,

3553:, p. 47. "According to Adam Smith, the main architect of the mercantile system of economic thinking was the English writer and tradesman Thomas Mun (1571–1641). His main published writings appear in two short treatises, 1263:

Mercantilist domestic policy was more fragmented than its trade policy. While Adam Smith portrayed mercantilism as supportive of strict controls over the economy, many mercantilists disagreed. The early modern era was one of

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had long been interested in mercantilist policies, but the vast and decentralized nature of their empire made implementing such notions difficult. Some constituent states of the empire did embrace mercantilism, most notably

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grew considerably during this period, as France became the dominant European power. He was less successful in turning France into a major trading power, and Britain and the Dutch Republic remained supreme in this field.

3101:, as they greatly expanded the British merchant fleet and played a central role in turning Britain into the world's naval and economic superpower from the 18th century onward. Some economists thus feel that protecting 202:, 1549: "We must always take heed that we buy no more from strangers than we sell them, for so should we impoverish ourselves and enrich them." The period featured various but often disjointed efforts by the court of 2858:

describes mercantilism as the period of the worldwide development of European commerce, which began in the 15th century with the voyages of Portuguese and Spanish explorers to Africa, Asia, and the New World.

1532:. One domestic policy that had a lasting impact was the conversion of "wastelands" to agricultural use. Mercantilists believed that to maximize a nation's power, all land and resources had to be used to their 171:, yet mercantilist writers emphasize the circulation of money and reject hoarding. Their emphasis on monetary metals accords with current ideas regarding the money supply, such as the stimulative effect of a 2886:

were the founding fathers of anti-mercantilist thought. A number of scholars found important flaws with mercantilism long before Smith developed an ideology that could fully replace it. Critics like Hume,

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and on local exchanges between individuals. Mercantilism was closely aligned with the other theories and ideas that began to replace the medieval worldview. This period saw the adoption of the very

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Mercantilism arose in France in the early 16th century soon after the monarchy had become the dominant force in French politics. In 1539, an important decree banned the import of woolen goods from

3038:, writing within a Keynesian framework, wrote of mercantilism, "With employment less than full and Net National Product suboptimal, all the debunked mercantilist arguments turn out to be valid." 3561:(1664). Adam Smith picked out this last tract – published posthumously after Mun's death, but probably written during the late 1620s – as the archetype of mercantilist texts; its manifesto." 1649:, can be linked directly to mercantilist theories. Most wars had other causes but they reinforced mercantilism by clearly defining the enemy, and justified damage to the enemy's economy. 206:(r. 1558–1603) to develop a naval and merchant fleet capable of challenging the Spanish stranglehold on trade and of expanding the growth of bullion at home. Queen Elizabeth promoted the 2979:

Mercantilist regulations were steadily removed over the course of the 18th century in Britain, and during the 19th century, the British government fully embraced free trade and Smith's

1487: 1311:, which predicted that mankind would outgrow its resources. The idea of mercantilism was to protect the markets as well as maintain agriculture and those who were dependent upon it. 5020: 4443: 2968:. Smith spent a considerable portion of the book rebutting the arguments of the mercantilists, though often these are simplified or exaggerated versions of mercantilist thought. 2904:

also points towards the heart of the anti-mercantilist critique: that the wealth of the world is not fixed, but is created by human labor (represented embryonically by Locke's

1272:; some mercantilists supported these, but others acknowledged the corruption and inefficiency of such systems. Many mercantilists also realized that the inevitable results of 2983:

economics. On the continent, the process was somewhat different. In France, economic control remained in the hands of the royal family, and mercantilism continued until the

156:, which first began to quantify large-scale trade accurately, marked mercantilism's birth as a codified school of economic theories. The Italian economist and mercantilist 3097:

In specific instances, protectionist mercantilist policies also had an important and positive impact on the state that enacted them. Adam Smith, for instance, praised the

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Mercantilism promotes government regulation of a nation's economy for the purpose of augmenting and bolstering state power at the expense of rival national powers. High

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by European powers early in the 17th century, mercantile theory gained a new and wider significance, in which its aim and ideal became both national and imperialistic.

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Rothbard viewed mercantilism not as a coherent economic theory but rather a series of post-hoc rationalizations for various economic policies by interested parties.

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society". To a certain extent, mercantilist doctrine itself made a general theory of economics impossible. Mercantilists viewed the economic system as a

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theorists. The goal of these thinkers was to find an economic system compatible with Christian doctrines of piety and justice. They focused mainly on

1632:(Peter the Great) attempted to pursue mercantilism, but had little success because of Russia's lack of a large merchant class or an industrial base. 1442:, created in 1627 by King Louis XIII, and the Communauté des habitants in 1643. These were the first corporations to operate in what is now Canada. 4910: 2954:

in the 1930s pointed out that merchant mercantilists such as Mun understood that they would not gain by higher prices for English wares abroad.

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Over the rest of the 16th century, further protectionist measures were introduced. The height of French mercantilism is closely associated with

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During the economic collapse of the 17th century, Spain had little coherent economic policy, but French mercantilist policies were imported by

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That opportunities be constantly sought for selling a country's surplus manufactures to foreigners, so far as necessary, for gold and silver.

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That where certain imports are indispensable they be obtained at first hand, in exchange for other domestic goods instead of gold and silver.

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age of incessant warfare, and theorists charged the state with looking for ways to strengthen the economy and to weaken foreign adversaries.

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supplanted the heavy emphasis on money, accompanied by a shift in focus from the capacity to carry on wars to promoting general prosperity.

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that is designed to maximize the exports and minimize the imports for an economy. In other words, it seeks to maximize the accumulation of

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slaves to labor in the New World, their labor value increased, and France capitalized upon the market resources produced by slave labor.

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Mercantilist literature also extended beyond England. Italy and France produced noted writers of mercantilist themes, including Italy's

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That all raw materials found in a country be used in domestic manufacture, since finished goods have a higher value than raw materials.

5422: 568: 2832:'s work in 17th-century France came to exemplify classical mercantilism. In the English-speaking world, its ideas were criticized by 2745:, portrays mercantilism not as a mistake, but rather as the best possible system for those who developed it. This school argues that 1161:

The bulk of what is commonly called "mercantilist literature" appeared in the 1620s in Great Britain. Smith saw the English merchant

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being another major proponent. In Britain, government control over the domestic economy was far less extensive than on the

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The rise of the European economy: an economic history of continental Europe from the fifteenth to the eighteenth century

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often developed by academics and philosophers, almost all mercantilist writers were merchants or government officials.

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Other than Von Hornick, there were no mercantilist writers presenting an overarching scheme for the ideal economy, as

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and the steadily increasing power of Parliament. Government-controlled monopolies were common, especially before the

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The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present

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Mercantilism, which reached its height in the Europe of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, was a system of

4449: 3511: 2282: 1969: 1509: 1504:, which both protected the colonies of Britain but was vital in capturing the colonies of other European powers. 962: 890: 311: 207: 60: 1412:, finance minister for 22 years in the 17th century, to the extent that French mercantilism is sometimes called 5553: 5407: 5334: 5324: 5262: 5043: 3102: 2888: 2556: 2252: 2099: 1938: 1912: 1834: 1779: 1658: 498: 244: 94: 87: 5512: 5432: 5329: 5319: 5307: 5297: 5070: 4360: 3372: 3018: 3013:, an increase in gold and silver was one of the ways of mercantilism increasing an economy's reserve or the 2807: 2448: 2094: 2089: 2079: 1774: 1662: 1578: 1289: 1064: 1014: 895: 623: 493: 83: 4403: 2730:

Scholars debate over why mercantilism dominated economic ideology for 250 years. One group, represented by

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The mercantilists saw a large population as a form of wealth that made possible the development of bigger

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Magnusson, Lars G. (2003), "Mercantilism", in Samuels, Warren J.; Biddle, Jeff E.; Davis, Jon B. (eds.),

2987:. In Germany, mercantilism remained an important ideology in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when the 1679:

The connection between communism and mercantilism has been explored by Marxist economist and sociologist

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Numerous French authors helped cement French policy around statist mercantilism in the 17th century, as

3333: 2850:. Mercantilism was rejected by Britain and France by the mid-19th century. The British Empire embraced 3296: 5522: 5502: 5442: 5277: 5225: 4982: 4547: 3507: 3024:

As of 2010, the word "mercantilism" remains a pejorative term, often used to attack various forms of

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and used its power as the financial center of the world to promote the same. The Guyanese historian

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removed foreign merchants from being involved England's domestic trade. British policies in their

1165:(1571–1641) as a major creator of the mercantile system, especially in his posthumously published 210:

in Parliament and issued orders to her navy for the protection and promotion of English shipping.

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is considered to have written one of the first treatises on political economy with his 1613 work,

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The rise of commercial empires: England and the Netherlands in the Age of Mercantilism, 1650–1770

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That all exports of gold and silver be prohibited and all domestic money be kept in circulation.

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The Great Frontier War: Britain, France, and the Imperial Struggle for North America, 1607–1755

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That every little bit of a country's soil be utilized for agriculture, mining or manufacturing.

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England's Treasure by Foreign Trade or the Balance of Foreign Trade is the Rule of Our Treasure

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remained opaque to people at the time, as they simply lacked the required analytical tools.

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bounties given for exports, and the export of some raw materials was banned completely. The

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were seen to inevitably lead to vice and laziness, and would result in harm to the economy.

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That no importation be allowed if such goods are sufficiently and suitably supplied at home.

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In Europe, academic belief in mercantilism began to fade in the late-18th century after the

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Prior to mercantilism, the most important economic work done in Europe was by the medieval

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deficit or reach a current account surplus, and it includes measures aimed at accumulating

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Mercantilism became the dominant school of economic thought in Europe throughout the late

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view of the world, and some of the most stridently mercantilist legislation, such as the

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were fought between the English and the Dutch for control over the seas and trade routes.

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France imposed its mercantilist philosophy on its colonies in North America, especially

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England began the first large-scale and integrative approach to mercantilism during the

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if they traded. This is an example of the reciprocal benefits of trade (whether due to

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In 1690, Locke argued that prices vary in proportion to the quantity of money. Locke's

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government (1640–60). Mercantilist policies were also embraced throughout much of the

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Mercantilism as a Rent-Seeking Society: Economic Regulation in Historical Perspective

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That as much as possible, imports be confined to raw materials that can be finished .

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Modern World System and Indian Proto-industrialization: Bengal 1650–1800, (Volume 1)

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undermined much of mercantilism and it steadily lost favor during the 18th century.

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are often dependent on such tariffs and restrictions hurting the opposing economy.

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Mercantilism developed at a time of transition for the European economy. Isolated

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The Ancién Regime in Europe: government and society in the major states 1648–1789

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Tackling the Poverty of Nations: Why So Many Are Poor and What We Can Do About It

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a zero-sum game of cutthroat competition, because both sides can benefit from it.

1405:. The next year, a number of restrictions were imposed on the export of bullion. 5173: 5088: 4569:

John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace

3899: 3010: 2951: 2797: 2758: 2731: 2616: 2518: 2438: 2194: 1927: 1889: 1844: 1814: 1769: 1653: 1308: 1285: 1284:

of the working population; laborers and farmers were to live at the "margins of

1034: 989: 952: 930: 925: 538: 513: 292: 255:

from 1665 to 1683 who revised the tariff system and expanded industrial policy.

153: 125: 72: 4741: 3791: 275:

through the activities of the East India Company, in light of the arguments of

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Authors noted most for establishing the English mercantilist system include

45: 4358:

Heckscher, Eli F. (1936) "Revisions in Economic History: V. Mercantilism."

2734:, sees mercantilism as simply a straightforward, common-sense system whose 2663: 1357:

Promoting manufacturing and industry through research or direct subsidies.

1347:

Forbidding trade to be carried in foreign ships, as per, for example, the

1109: 287:(in power from 1799 to 1814/1815). The British Parliament's repeal of the 71:. Historically, such policies might have contributed to war and motivated 5517: 5153: 4700: 3405:

How India Clothed the World: The World of South Asian Textiles, 1500–1850

3051: 2879: 2463: 2370: 1824: 1734: 1537: 1402: 1257: 431: 284: 198:(1558–1603). An early statement on national balance of trade appeared in 4633: 3754:

International Political Economy: Perspectives on Global Power and Wealth

3214:

Mercantilism and the Economic History of the Early Modern Atlantic World

4675: 4526:

The Origins of Scientific Economics: English Economic Thought 1660–1776

4366: 3862:

The French Atlantic triangle: literature and culture of the slave trade

3846:

The French Atlantic triangle: literature and culture of the slave trade

3114: 3086: 2815: 1764: 1620:

also followed some mercantilist financial policies during the reign of

1590: 787: 563: 145: 4787:

A Concise History of Economic Thought: From Mercantilism to Monetarism

2923: 4873: 4335:

European Economic History: From Mercantilism to Maastricht and Beyond

3105:, while causing short-term harm, can be beneficial in the long term. 1673: 1666: 1625: 1452:

Economic history of the United Kingdom § The age of mercantilism

1328: 1231:

That all imports of foreign goods be discouraged as much as possible.

915: 133: 118: 79: 4667: 3297:"U.S. tech group urges global action against Chinese "mercantilism"" 3041:

Some other systems that copy several mercantilist policies, such as

1280:. One notion that mercantilists widely agreed upon was the need for 4694: 1556:

in the North Atlantic, in which raw materials were imported to the

1215:

of 1684, which comprehensively sums up the tenets of mercantilism:

3060: 2922: 1849: 1547: 1486: 1398: 1384: 137: 112: 18: 3195:

History of the domestic and foreign commerce of the United States

2964:

in 1776. This book outlines the basics of what is today known as

4888: 1657:

monopolies in certain defined geographical regions, such as the

1304: 141: 5002: 4892: 4641: 4874:

An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations

4605:

A History of Economic Theory: Classic Contributions, 1720–1980

4195:

Colbert, Mercantilism and the French Quest for the Asian Trade

2707:

The term "mercantile system" was used by its foremost critic,

3824:

History of domestic and foreign commerce of the United States

4353:

New Economics: Keynes' Influence on Theory And Public Policy

3677: 3675: 3488:"Insights From Doctrinal History. Mercantilists. Classicals" 3258:"Mercantilism: A Lesson for Our Times? | Murray N. Rothbard" 1641:

to take it from another. A number of wars, most notably the

1288:". The goal was to maximize production, with no concern for 93:

With the efforts of supranational organizations such as the

1597:

had perhaps the most rigidly controlled economy in Europe.

225:(1571–1641), who first articulated the Elizabethan system ( 2916:(although this idea was only fully fleshed out in 1817 by 2782:

an increase in "the volume of merchant activity itself".

1344:

Banning the export of gold and silver, even for payments.

2814:. This dark view of human nature also fit well with the 3205: 3203: 1560:

and then processed and redistributed to other colonies.

271:, a major trading nation, and the establishment of the 200:

Discourse of the Common Wealth of this Realm of England

3555:

A Discourse of Trade from England unto the East Indies

1552:

Mercantilism helped create trade patterns such as the

1536:, and this era thus saw projects like the draining of 4445:

The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money

3049:. In an essay appearing in the May 14, 2007 issue of 2908:). Mercantilists failed to understand the notions of 1456:

In England, mercantilism reached its peak during the

162:

A Short Treatise on the Wealth and Poverty of Nations

3534: 3532: 3530: 5470: 5214: 5102: 5069: 5062: 5036: 4654:(May 1964), "Theoretical notes on trade problems", 4278:, College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 3067:

trade policy that threatened to undermine the post–

283:. French economic policy liberalized greatly under 4571:, Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 4337:(1st ed.), Copenhagen Business School Press, 4256:Ekelund, Robert B. Jr.; Hébert, Robert F. (1997), 3735:Seeds of Liberty: The Genesis of the American Mind 3021:in the economy as necessary, as did mercantilism. 4607:, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 3927: 3925: 2741:The second school, supported by scholars such as 30:, completed in 1639 at the height of mercantilism 4274:Ekelund, Robert B.; Tollison, Robert D. (1981), 4260:(4th ed.), Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, 3979: 3943: 3860:Miller, C. L. 2008. "Introduction." pp. 1–39 in 3630: 3594: 3239: 3237: 1334:Forbidding colonies to trade with other nations. 1292:. Extra money, free time, and education for the 144:regarding control of the Mediterranean trade in 4065: 3827:. Carnegie Institution of Washington. pp. 3618: 3606: 3282:"Macroeconomic effects of Chinese mercantilism" 3083: 1307:. Opposite to mercantilism was the doctrine of 1225:That a large, working population be encouraged. 48:within the country and use those resources for 4544:A Companion to the History of Economic Thought 4236:Ekelund, Robert B.; Hébert, Robert F. (1975), 5014: 4904: 4206:Civilization and Capitalism 15th–18th Century 4028: 3916: 3844:Miller, C. L. 2008. "Introduction." p. 14 in 3654: 3582: 2688: 1134: 247:(reigned 1643–1715) followed the guidance of 8: 4803:Walters, Robert S.; Blake, David H. (1976), 4506:Landreth, Harry; Colander, David C. (2002), 4448:, London: Palgrave Macmillan, archived from 4298:Economics in Perspective: A Critical History 4150: 4006:International Business Management Text Cases 1516:led to friction with the inhabitants of the 4217:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History 3821:Emory Richard Johnson; et al. (1915). 3757:(4th ed.). Routledge. pp. 128ff. 3751:Frieden, Jeffry A.; Lake, David A. (2014). 2772:estates were being replaced by centralized 5066: 5021: 5007: 4999: 4911: 4897: 4889: 4785:Vaggi, Gianni; Groenewegen, Peter (2003), 4510:(4th ed.), Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 4040:Referenced to Davenant, 1771 , p. 171, in 3666: 2822:of 1651, was enacted by the government of 2695: 2681: 1702: 1141: 1127: 306: 4805:The Politics of Global Economic Relations 4492:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 4430:, New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers 4138: 4053: 4041: 3967: 3900:"Mercantilism: Definition & Examples" 3876:Regulating the British Economy, 1660–1850 3570: 3550: 3538: 3243: 1565:Central Europe and Scandinavia after the 1389:French finance minister and mercantilist 1366:Restricting domestic consumption through 1363:Maximizing the use of domestic resources. 4404:"Mercantilism: Past, Present and Future" 4162: 4114: 3681: 3463:Money and the Market in India, 1100–1700 3354:The National System of Political Economy 2757:Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, when 1616:with some success. Ottoman Grand Vizier 4807:, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 4771:(3rd ed.), Duke University Press, 4258:A History of Economic Theory and Method 4239:A History of Economic Theory and Method 3991: 3931: 3808: 3402:Giorgio Riello, Tirthankar Roy (2009). 3376: 3186: 3170:). In modern economic theory, trade is 3146: 1714: 318: 4656:The Review of Economics and Statistics 4174: 4126: 4101: 4089: 4077: 3955: 3777: 3717: 3693: 3642: 3557:(1621) and perhaps the more important 1154:"mercantilism" came into English from 5184:Marxian critique of political economy 4643:Mercantilism: A Lesson for Our Times? 4467:The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics 3856: 3854: 3840: 3838: 3746: 3744: 3728: 3726: 3228:The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics 3081:of economics, describes it this way: 167:Mercantilism in its simplest form is 101:have assumed a greater importance in 55:The policy aims to reduce a possible 7: 4386:The Century of Revolution, 1603–1714 3878:. Farnham: Ashgate Pub. p. 83. 3705: 3559:England's Treasure by Forraign Trade 3334:"Learning from Chinese Mercantilism" 3130:Neorealism (international relations) 295:in 1846 symbolized the emergence of 4857:Englands Treasure by Forraign Trade 4646:, Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar 3295:Martina, Michael (March 16, 2017). 1672:With the establishment of overseas 1331:, especially on manufactured goods. 16:Economic policy emphasizing exports 4843:, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul 4726:The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism 4420:10.1111/j.1467-9957.1974.tb00098.x 4204:(1979), "The Wheels of Commerce", 3071:international economic structure. 1213:Austria Over All, If She Only Will 14: 3316:"Why Do All Roads Lead To China?" 1115:Business and economics portal 5488:History of macroeconomic thought 5313:Neoclassical–Keynesian synthesis 4789:, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 4402:Johnson, Harky G. (March 1974), 2662: 2650: 1484:, but were often controversial. 1203:The Austrian lawyer and scholar 1108: 240:–1699) then developed further. 4767:Spiegel, Henry William (1991), 4632:24#94 (1939), pp. 129–135 4231:, Oxford University Press, 2014 1175:Principles of Political Economy 4769:The growth of economic thought 3514:gave way to the classicism of 2989:historical school of economics 253:Controller-General of Finances 187:concerns irrelevant. In time, 1: 5478:Critique of political economy 4333:Hansen, E. Damsgaard (2001), 3390:The European World: A history 3225:"Mercantilism," Laura LaHaye 2937:is an attack on mercantilism. 2920:) and the benefits of trade. 2454:Critique of political economy 2112:Critique of political economy 1010:Commons-based peer production 730:Socialism of the 21st century 234: 5386:Rational expectations theory 4628:Rees, J. F. "Mercantilism" 4426:Kellenbenz, Hermann (1976), 4301:, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 3980:Landreth & Colander 2002 3944:Landreth & Colander 2002 3631:Landreth & Colander 2002 3595:Landreth & Colander 2002 3303:– via www.reuters.com. 3063:was pursuing an essentially 3045:, are also sometimes called 2504:Periodizations of capitalism 1368:non-tariff barriers to trade 1323:The policies have included: 99:non-tariff barriers to trade 97:to reduce tariffs globally, 5483:History of economic thought 5030:Schools of economic thought 4988:Philipp Wilhelm von Hornick 4696:China's Wrong Turn on Trade 4508:History of Economic Thought 4376:, London: Allen & Unwin 4351:Harris, Seymour E. (1950), 4066:Ekelund & Tollison 1981 3619:Ekelund & Tollison 1981 3607:Ekelund & Tollison 1981 3465:. Oxford University Press. 2200:Simple commodity production 1618:Kemankeş Kara Mustafa Pasha 1440:Compagnie des Cent-Associés 1205:Philipp Wilhelm von Hornick 1158:in the early-19th century. 5570: 5403:New neoclassical synthesis 5391:Real business-cycle theory 4742:10.4135/9781412965811.n198 4372:Heckscher, Eli F. (1935), 4365:7#1 1936, pp. 44–54. 3433:Abhay Kumar Singh (2006). 3256:kanopiadmin (2017-02-15). 2509:Perspectives on capitalism 1665:(operating in present-day 1581:being notable proponents. 1449: 1430:Economic history of Canada 1427: 1378: 1337:Monopolizing markets with 299:as an alternative system. 4928: 4839:Wilson, Charles (1963) , 4640:Rothbard, Murray (1997), 4524:Letwin, William (2003) , 4488:Landes, David S. (1997), 4315:Grant, R. George (2009), 4242:, New York: McGraw–Hill, 4219:, Oxford University Press 4029:Ekelund & Hébert 1975 4004:Dutta, Bholanath (2010). 3917:Ekelund & Hébert 1975 3790:Rothbard, Murray (2010). 3655:Ekelund & Hébert 1975 3583:Ekelund & Hébert 1997 1575:Jacob Kettler of Courland 1393:served for over 20 years. 1207:, one of the pioneers of 1188:(1580–?) and, in France, 1167:Treasure by Foreign Trade 504:Socialist-oriented market 208:Trade and Navigation Acts 4821:Williams, E. N. (1999), 4388:(2nd ed.), Nelson, 4215:(2003), "Mercantilism", 4151:Walters & Blake 1976 3864:. Duke University Press. 3848:. Duke University Press. 3495:Richmond Federal Reserve 3437:. Northern Book Centre. 2846:with his explanation of 2836:with the publication of 2779:double-entry bookkeeping 1780:Economic interventionism 1659:Dutch East India Company 1652:Mercantilism fueled the 1276:and price ceilings were 95:World Trade Organization 88:economic interventionism 5513:Post-autistic economics 4361:Economic History Review 4293:Galbraith, John Kenneth 4229:Encyclopædia Britannica 3904:Encyclopedia Britannica 3792:"Mercantilism in Spain" 3357:. A.M. Kelley. p. 3351:Friedrich List (1916). 3043:Japan's economic system 3019:government intervention 2808:international relations 2800:and the primacy of the 2449:Criticism of capitalism 1603:separation of the Dutch 1579:Christian IV of Denmark 1268:and government-imposed 279:(1723–1790) and of the 181:floating exchange rates 84:proto-industrialization 5251:Modern Monetary Theory 4621:Omrund, David (2003), 4603:Niehans, Jürg (1990), 4457:LaHaye, Laura (2008). 3092: 2938: 2479:Exploitation of labour 2190:Primitive accumulation 1561: 1496: 1394: 121: 31: 5335:Keynes–Marx synthesis 4958:Jean-Baptiste Colbert 4728:. Thousand Oaks, CA: 4528:, London: Routledge, 4408:The Manchester School 3874:Gauci, Perry (2011). 3055:, business columnist 2974:group decision making 2961:The Wealth of Nations 2934:The Wealth of Nations 2926: 2914:comparative advantage 2906:labor theory of value 2884:Jean-Jacques Rousseau 2848:comparative advantage 2842:in 1776 and later by 2839:The Wealth of Nations 2830:Jean-Baptiste Colbert 2721:divine right of kings 2657:Capitalism portal 2469:Culture of capitalism 2424:Capitalist propaganda 2180:Industrial Revolution 2170:Commercial Revolution 1551: 1490: 1410:Jean-Baptiste Colbert 1391:Jean-Baptiste Colbert 1388: 1354:Subsidies on exports. 1177:, published in 1767. 249:Jean Baptiste Colbert 116: 22: 5523:World-systems theory 5503:Mainstream economics 5443:Technocracy movement 5423:Saltwater/freshwater 4983:James Denham-Steuart 4736:. pp. 326–328. 4691:Samuelson, Robert J. 4548:Blackwell Publishing 4469:. Indianapolis, IN: 4436:Keynes, John Maynard 3506:the mercantilism of 3486:Humphrey, Thomas M. 3284:. December 31, 2009. 3216:(Cambridge UP, 2001) 3158:states would end up 2820:Navigation Ordinance 2632:Right-libertarianism 2562:Classical liberalism 2529:Venture philanthropy 2165:Capitalism and Islam 2160:Age of Enlightenment 1755:Capital accumulation 1663:Hudson's Bay Company 1636:Wars and imperialism 1534:highest and best use 1040:Newly industrialized 783:Collective ownership 644:Vertical archipelago 281:classical economists 183:have since rendered 173:growing money-supply 5508:Heterodox economics 5236:Capability approach 5112:American (National) 5094:School of Salamanca 4825:, London: Pimlico, 4585:Nester, R. (2000), 4463:Henderson, David R. 3684:, pp. 177–183. 3459:Sanjay Subrahmanyam 3388:Jerome Blum et al. 3077:, representing the 3057:Robert J. Samuelson 3006:John Maynard Keynes 2966:classical economics 2863:End of mercantilism 2669:Business portal 1785:Economic liberalism 1775:Competitive markets 1595:Frederick the Great 1586:Holy Roman Emperors 1571:Christina of Sweden 1522:American Revolution 1282:economic oppression 1025:Inclusive Democracy 130:early-modern period 5144:English historical 4978:Ferdinando Galiani 4863:2006-10-23 at the 4473:pp. 340–343. 4471:Liberty Fund, Inc. 3811:, pp. 93–118. 3371:Now attributed to 3168:absolute advantage 2939: 2910:absolute advantage 2429:Capitalist realism 1820:Goods and services 1800:Fictitious capital 1562: 1497: 1401:and some parts of 1395: 963:Material balancing 445:Buddhist economics 265:East India Company 122: 73:colonial expansion 32: 5536: 5535: 5498:Political economy 5466: 5465: 5398:New institutional 5371:Neo-Schumpeterian 5179:Marxist economics 5159:German historical 4996: 4995: 4938:Gerard de Malynes 4884:Wealth of Nations 4879:Project Gutenberg 4832:978-0-7126-5934-5 4814:978-0-13-684712-0 4796:978-0-333-99936-3 4778:978-0-8223-0973-4 4751:978-1-4129-6580-4 4614:978-0-8018-3834-7 4596:978-0-275-96772-7 4578:978-0-19-829236-4 4557:978-0-631-22573-7 4535:978-0-415-31329-2 4517:978-0-618-13394-9 4499:978-0-521-09418-4 4480:978-0-86597-666-5 4395:978-0-17-712002-2 4382:Hill, Christopher 4344:978-87-630-0017-8 4326:978-1-4363-3582-9 4308:978-0-395-35572-5 4285:978-0-89096-120-9 4267:978-1-57766-381-2 4249:978-0-07-019143-3 4092:, vol. 2, p. 484. 4015:978-81-7446-867-3 3970:, pp. 33–34. 3906:. 22 August 2023. 3885:978-0-7546-9762-6 3764:978-1-134-59595-2 3737:(1948) pp. 204ff. 3585:, pp. 40–41. 3472:978-0-521-25758-9 3444:978-81-7211-201-1 3419:978-90-474-2997-5 3125:Money-free market 3103:infant industries 2985:French Revolution 2761:came into vogue. 2743:Robert B. Ekelund 2736:logical fallacies 2725:absolute monarchy 2705: 2704: 2524:Spontaneous order 2494:History of theory 2137:New institutional 2107:Market monetarism 2042:Economic theories 1875:Supply and demand 1810:Free price system 1647:Franco-Dutch Wars 1567:Thirty Years' War 1518:Thirteen Colonies 1514:American colonies 1482:English Civil War 1151: 1150: 661:By regional model 455:Sabbath economics 215:Gerard de Malynes 189:industrial policy 61:monetary reserves 24:Seaport at sunset 5561: 5528:Economic systems 5067: 5049:Medieval Islamic 5023: 5016: 5009: 5000: 4973:Charles Davenant 4943:Edward Misselden 4913: 4906: 4899: 4890: 4881: 4844: 4835: 4817: 4799: 4781: 4763: 4714:Smith, George H. 4709: 4708: 4707: 4686: 4647: 4636:; historiography 4625: 4617: 4599: 4581: 4565:Markwell, Donald 4560: 4538: 4520: 4502: 4484: 4453: 4431: 4422: 4398: 4377: 4355: 4347: 4329: 4311: 4288: 4270: 4252: 4232: 4220: 4213:Brezis, Elise S. 4208: 4202:Braudel, Fernand 4197: 4178: 4172: 4166: 4160: 4154: 4148: 4142: 4136: 4130: 4124: 4118: 4111: 4105: 4099: 4093: 4087: 4081: 4075: 4069: 4063: 4057: 4051: 4045: 4038: 4032: 4026: 4020: 4019: 4001: 3995: 3989: 3983: 3977: 3971: 3965: 3959: 3953: 3947: 3941: 3935: 3929: 3920: 3914: 3908: 3907: 3896: 3890: 3889: 3871: 3865: 3858: 3849: 3842: 3833: 3832: 3818: 3812: 3806: 3800: 3799: 3787: 3781: 3775: 3769: 3768: 3748: 3739: 3730: 3721: 3715: 3709: 3703: 3697: 3691: 3685: 3679: 3670: 3664: 3658: 3652: 3646: 3640: 3634: 3628: 3622: 3616: 3610: 3604: 3598: 3592: 3586: 3580: 3574: 3568: 3562: 3548: 3542: 3536: 3525: 3524: 3503: 3501: 3492: 3483: 3477: 3476: 3455: 3449: 3448: 3430: 3424: 3423: 3410:Brill Publishers 3399: 3393: 3386: 3380: 3373:Sir Thomas Smith 3369: 3363: 3362: 3348: 3342: 3341: 3340:. 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McCusker 3207: 3198: 3191: 3175: 3151: 3135:Crony capitalism 3065:neo-mercantilist 3047:neo-mercantilist 2948:Charles Davenant 2697: 2690: 2683: 2667: 2666: 2655: 2654: 2459:Critique of work 2434:Capitalist state 2117:Critique of work 2000:Regulated market 1902:Economic systems 1855:Private property 1805:Financial market 1795:Entrepreneurship 1790:Economic surplus 1703: 1681:Giovanni Arrighi 1643:Anglo-Dutch Wars 1569:(1618–48), with 1554:triangular trade 1493:Anglo-Dutch Wars 1184:(1544–1617) and 1143: 1136: 1129: 1113: 1112: 871:Municipalization 856:Financialization 826:Collectivization 808:Social ownership 798:Private property 792:Common ownership 750:Common ownership 564:Closed (autarky) 521:State capitalism 499:Socialist market 484:Market socialist 320:Economic systems 307: 239: 236: 220: 67:, especially of 65:balance of trade 26:, a painting by 5569: 5568: 5564: 5563: 5562: 5560: 5559: 5558: 5554:Economic policy 5539: 5538: 5537: 5532: 5462: 5448:Thermoeconomics 5219:21st centuries) 5218: 5216: 5210: 5098: 5058: 5044:Ancient schools 5032: 5027: 4997: 4992: 4924: 4917: 4882:: Adam Smith's 4871: 4865:Wayback Machine 4851: 4838: 4833: 4820: 4815: 4802: 4797: 4784: 4779: 4766: 4752: 4712: 4705: 4703: 4693:(17 May 2007), 4689: 4668:10.2307/1928178 4652:Samuelson, Paul 4650: 4639: 4620: 4615: 4602: 4597: 4584: 4579: 4563: 4558: 4541: 4536: 4523: 4518: 4505: 4500: 4487: 4481: 4456: 4434: 4425: 4401: 4396: 4380: 4371: 4350: 4345: 4332: 4327: 4314: 4309: 4291: 4286: 4273: 4268: 4255: 4250: 4235: 4223: 4211: 4200: 4189: 4186: 4184:Further reading 4181: 4173: 4169: 4161: 4157: 4149: 4145: 4137: 4133: 4125: 4121: 4112: 4108: 4100: 4096: 4088: 4084: 4076: 4072: 4064: 4060: 4052: 4048: 4039: 4035: 4027: 4023: 4016: 4008:. Excel Books. 4003: 4002: 3998: 3990: 3986: 3978: 3974: 3966: 3962: 3954: 3950: 3942: 3938: 3930: 3923: 3915: 3911: 3898: 3897: 3893: 3886: 3873: 3872: 3868: 3859: 3852: 3843: 3836: 3820: 3819: 3815: 3807: 3803: 3796:Mises Institute 3789: 3788: 3784: 3776: 3772: 3765: 3750: 3749: 3742: 3731: 3724: 3716: 3712: 3704: 3700: 3692: 3688: 3680: 3673: 3667:Kellenbenz 1976 3665: 3661: 3653: 3649: 3641: 3637: 3629: 3625: 3617: 3613: 3605: 3601: 3593: 3589: 3581: 3577: 3569: 3565: 3549: 3545: 3537: 3528: 3499: 3497: 3490: 3485: 3484: 3480: 3473: 3457: 3456: 3452: 3445: 3432: 3431: 3427: 3420: 3412:. p. 174. 3401: 3400: 3396: 3387: 3383: 3370: 3366: 3350: 3349: 3345: 3332: 3331: 3327: 3313: 3312: 3308: 3294: 3293: 3289: 3280: 3279: 3275: 3266: 3264: 3262:Mises Institute 3255: 3254: 3250: 3242: 3235: 3224: 3220: 3208: 3201: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3179: 3178: 3152: 3148: 3143: 3111: 3099:Navigation Acts 3079:Austrian School 3075:Murray Rothbard 3030:neomercantilism 3015:supply of money 2997: 2991:was paramount. 2901:Second Treatise 2865: 2824:Oliver Cromwell 2717:political power 2701: 2661: 2649: 2642: 2641: 2547: 2539: 2538: 2514:Post-capitalism 2419:Anti-capitalism 2414: 2406: 2405: 2301: 2293: 2292: 2213: 2205: 2204: 2155: 2147: 2146: 2043: 2035: 2034: 2025:State-sponsored 1903: 1895: 1894: 1760:Capital markets 1725: 1701: 1638: 1546: 1544:Other countries 1510:Navigation Acts 1458:Long Parliament 1454: 1448: 1432: 1426: 1383: 1377: 1360:Limiting wages. 1349:Navigation Acts 1317: 1182:Giovanni Botero 1147: 1107: 1100: 1099: 1065:Post-industrial 1060:Post-capitalist 1020:Hunter-gatherer 1005: 997: 996: 911: 903: 902: 881:Nationalization 841:Demutualization 836:Corporatization 821: 813: 812: 803:State ownership 778: 770: 769: 745: 737: 736: 662: 654: 653: 624:Robinson Crusoe 559: 558:By coordination 551: 550: 535:Traditionalist 395:Neomercantilist 355: 347: 328: 305: 237: 221:1585–1641) and 204:Queen Elizabeth 196:Elizabethan Era 148:. However, the 111: 103:neomercantilism 57:current account 42:economic policy 17: 12: 11: 5: 5567: 5565: 5557: 5556: 5551: 5541: 5540: 5534: 5533: 5531: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5495: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5474: 5472: 5468: 5467: 5464: 5463: 5461: 5460: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5440: 5435: 5430: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5408:Organizational 5405: 5400: 5395: 5394: 5393: 5388: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5356:Neo-Malthusian 5353: 5352: 5351: 5341: 5340: 5339: 5338: 5337: 5332: 5322: 5317: 5316: 5315: 5300: 5295: 5290: 5285: 5280: 5275: 5273:Disequilibrium 5270: 5265: 5263:Constitutional 5260: 5255: 5254: 5253: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5222: 5220: 5212: 5211: 5209: 5208: 5203: 5202: 5201: 5191: 5186: 5181: 5176: 5171: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5151: 5149:French liberal 5146: 5141: 5136: 5135: 5134: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5108: 5106: 5100: 5099: 5097: 5096: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5075: 5073: 5064: 5060: 5059: 5057: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5040: 5038: 5034: 5033: 5028: 5026: 5025: 5018: 5011: 5003: 4994: 4993: 4991: 4990: 4985: 4980: 4975: 4970: 4965: 4960: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4929: 4926: 4925: 4922: 4918: 4916: 4915: 4908: 4901: 4893: 4887: 4886: 4868: 4867: 4850: 4849:External links 4847: 4846: 4845: 4836: 4831: 4818: 4813: 4800: 4795: 4782: 4777: 4764: 4750: 4734:Cato Institute 4722:Hamowy, Ronald 4718:"Mercantilism" 4710: 4687: 4662:(2): 145–154, 4648: 4637: 4626: 4618: 4613: 4600: 4595: 4582: 4577: 4561: 4556: 4546:, Malden, MA: 4539: 4534: 4521: 4516: 4503: 4498: 4485: 4479: 4459:"Mercantilism" 4454: 4432: 4423: 4399: 4394: 4378: 4369: 4356: 4348: 4343: 4330: 4325: 4312: 4307: 4289: 4284: 4271: 4266: 4253: 4248: 4233: 4225:"Mercantilism" 4221: 4209: 4198: 4191:Ames, Glenn J. 4185: 4182: 4180: 4179: 4167: 4155: 4143: 4139:Samuelson 1964 4131: 4119: 4106: 4104:, p. 321. 4094: 4082: 4070: 4058: 4054:Magnusson 2003 4046: 4042:Magnusson 2003 4033: 4021: 4014: 3996: 3984: 3972: 3968:Galbraith 1987 3960: 3948: 3936: 3921: 3909: 3891: 3884: 3866: 3850: 3834: 3813: 3801: 3782: 3770: 3763: 3740: 3722: 3710: 3698: 3686: 3671: 3659: 3647: 3635: 3623: 3611: 3609:, p. 154. 3599: 3587: 3575: 3571:Magnusson 2003 3563: 3551:Magnusson 2003 3543: 3539:Magnusson 2003 3526: 3478: 3471: 3450: 3443: 3425: 3418: 3394: 3392:(1970) p. 279. 3381: 3377:Braudel (1979) 3364: 3343: 3325: 3306: 3287: 3273: 3248: 3244:Samuelson 2007 3233: 3218: 3199: 3193:Johnson et al 3185: 3183: 3180: 3177: 3176: 3145: 3144: 3142: 3139: 3138: 3137: 3132: 3127: 3122: 3120:British Empire 3117: 3110: 3107: 3036:Paul Samuelson 2996: 2993: 2864: 2861: 2791:microeconomics 2703: 2702: 2700: 2699: 2692: 2685: 2677: 2674: 2673: 2672: 2671: 2659: 2644: 2643: 2640: 2639: 2634: 2629: 2624: 2622:Ordoliberalism 2619: 2614: 2609: 2604: 2599: 2594: 2589: 2584: 2579: 2574: 2569: 2564: 2559: 2554: 2548: 2545: 2544: 2541: 2540: 2537: 2536: 2531: 2526: 2521: 2516: 2511: 2506: 2501: 2499:Market economy 2496: 2491: 2486: 2481: 2476: 2471: 2466: 2461: 2456: 2451: 2446: 2441: 2436: 2431: 2426: 2421: 2415: 2413:Related topics 2412: 2411: 2408: 2407: 2404: 2403: 2398: 2393: 2388: 2383: 2378: 2373: 2368: 2363: 2358: 2353: 2348: 2343: 2338: 2333: 2328: 2323: 2318: 2313: 2308: 2302: 2299: 2298: 2295: 2294: 2291: 2290: 2285: 2283:State monopoly 2280: 2275: 2270: 2265: 2260: 2255: 2250: 2245: 2240: 2235: 2230: 2225: 2220: 2214: 2211: 2210: 2207: 2206: 2203: 2202: 2197: 2192: 2187: 2182: 2177: 2172: 2167: 2162: 2156: 2153: 2152: 2149: 2148: 2145: 2144: 2139: 2134: 2129: 2124: 2119: 2114: 2109: 2104: 2103: 2102: 2097: 2092: 2082: 2077: 2072: 2067: 2066: 2065: 2055: 2050: 2044: 2041: 2040: 2037: 2036: 2033: 2032: 2027: 2022: 2017: 2012: 2007: 2002: 1997: 1992: 1987: 1982: 1977: 1972: 1967: 1962: 1957: 1952: 1947: 1942: 1935: 1930: 1925: 1920: 1915: 1910: 1904: 1901: 1900: 1897: 1896: 1893: 1892: 1887: 1882: 1877: 1872: 1867: 1862: 1857: 1852: 1847: 1842: 1840:Liberalization 1837: 1832: 1830:Invisible hand 1827: 1822: 1817: 1812: 1807: 1802: 1797: 1792: 1787: 1782: 1777: 1772: 1767: 1762: 1757: 1752: 1747: 1745:Businessperson 1742: 1740:Business cycle 1737: 1732: 1726: 1723: 1722: 1719: 1718: 1712: 1711: 1700: 1697: 1637: 1634: 1607:Spanish Empire 1593:, which under 1558:mother country 1545: 1542: 1530:global hegemon 1470:Robert Walpole 1468:periods, with 1450:Main article: 1447: 1446:United Kingdom 1444: 1428:Main article: 1425: 1422: 1379:Main article: 1376: 1373: 1372: 1371: 1364: 1361: 1358: 1355: 1352: 1345: 1342: 1335: 1332: 1316: 1313: 1266:letters patent 1245: 1244: 1241: 1238: 1235: 1232: 1229: 1226: 1223: 1220: 1149: 1148: 1146: 1145: 1138: 1131: 1123: 1120: 1119: 1118: 1117: 1102: 1101: 1098: 1097: 1092: 1087: 1082: 1077: 1075:Resource-based 1072: 1067: 1062: 1057: 1052: 1047: 1042: 1037: 1032: 1027: 1022: 1017: 1012: 1006: 1003: 1002: 999: 998: 995: 994: 993: 992: 987: 982: 972: 967: 966: 965: 960: 955: 950: 940: 939: 938: 933: 928: 918: 912: 909: 908: 905: 904: 901: 900: 899: 898: 888: 883: 878: 873: 868: 863: 861:Liberalization 858: 853: 848: 843: 838: 833: 828: 822: 819: 818: 815: 814: 811: 810: 805: 800: 795: 785: 779: 777:Property types 776: 775: 772: 771: 768: 767: 762: 757: 752: 746: 743: 742: 739: 738: 735: 734: 733: 732: 726:Latin America 724: 723: 722: 717: 712: 707: 702: 697: 689: 688: 687: 682: 677: 672: 663: 660: 659: 656: 655: 652: 651: 646: 641: 636: 631: 626: 621: 616: 611: 606: 601: 596: 591: 586: 581: 576: 571: 566: 560: 557: 556: 553: 552: 549: 548: 547: 546: 541: 533: 528: 523: 518: 517: 516: 511: 506: 501: 496: 491: 486: 481: 476: 466: 465: 464: 459: 458: 457: 447: 439: 434: 429: 424: 419: 414: 413: 412: 407: 402: 397: 392: 387: 382: 377: 372: 362: 356: 353: 352: 349: 348: 346: 345: 340: 335: 329: 326: 323: 322: 316: 315: 304: 301: 245:King Louis XIV 238: 1630/31 110: 107: 69:finished goods 63:by a positive 28:Claude Lorrain 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5566: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5546: 5544: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5475: 5473: 5469: 5459: 5458:Social credit 5456: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5433:Structuralist 5431: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5413:Public choice 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5383: 5382: 5381:New classical 5379: 5377: 5376:Neoliberalism 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5366:Neo-Ricardian 5364: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5350: 5347: 5346: 5345: 5342: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5327: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5314: 5311: 5310: 5309: 5306: 5305: 5304: 5301: 5299: 5298:Institutional 5296: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5286: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5271: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5256: 5252: 5249: 5248: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5223: 5221: 5213: 5207: 5204: 5200: 5197: 5196: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5187: 5185: 5182: 5180: 5177: 5175: 5172: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5133: 5130: 5129: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5109: 5107: 5105: 5101: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5076: 5074: 5072: 5068: 5065: 5061: 5055: 5054:Scholasticism 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5041: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5024: 5019: 5017: 5012: 5010: 5005: 5004: 5001: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4974: 4971: 4969: 4968:William Petty 4966: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4933:Antonio Serra 4931: 4930: 4927: 4923: 4921:Mercantilists 4920: 4914: 4909: 4907: 4902: 4900: 4895: 4894: 4891: 4885: 4880: 4876: 4875: 4870: 4869: 4866: 4862: 4859: 4858: 4855:Thomas Mun's 4853: 4852: 4848: 4842: 4837: 4834: 4828: 4824: 4819: 4816: 4810: 4806: 4801: 4798: 4792: 4788: 4783: 4780: 4774: 4770: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4702: 4698: 4697: 4692: 4688: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4644: 4638: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4624: 4619: 4616: 4610: 4606: 4601: 4598: 4592: 4588: 4583: 4580: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4559: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4540: 4537: 4531: 4527: 4522: 4519: 4513: 4509: 4504: 4501: 4495: 4491: 4486: 4482: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4455: 4452:on 2008-12-19 4451: 4447: 4446: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4424: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4400: 4397: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4370: 4368: 4364: 4362: 4357: 4354: 4349: 4346: 4340: 4336: 4331: 4328: 4322: 4318: 4313: 4310: 4304: 4300: 4299: 4294: 4290: 4287: 4281: 4277: 4272: 4269: 4263: 4259: 4254: 4251: 4245: 4241: 4240: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4187: 4183: 4177:, p. 64. 4176: 4171: 4168: 4165:, p. 43. 4164: 4163:Rothbard 1997 4159: 4156: 4152: 4147: 4144: 4140: 4135: 4132: 4128: 4123: 4120: 4116: 4115:Markwell 2006 4110: 4107: 4103: 4098: 4095: 4091: 4086: 4083: 4079: 4074: 4071: 4067: 4062: 4059: 4056:, p. 54. 4055: 4050: 4047: 4044:, p. 53. 4043: 4037: 4034: 4031:, p. 43. 4030: 4025: 4022: 4017: 4011: 4007: 4000: 3997: 3993: 3988: 3985: 3982:, p. 53. 3981: 3976: 3973: 3969: 3964: 3961: 3958:, p. 10. 3957: 3952: 3949: 3946:, p. 43. 3945: 3940: 3937: 3934:, p. 19. 3933: 3928: 3926: 3922: 3919:, p. 61. 3918: 3913: 3910: 3905: 3901: 3895: 3892: 3887: 3881: 3877: 3870: 3867: 3863: 3857: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3841: 3839: 3835: 3830: 3826: 3825: 3817: 3814: 3810: 3805: 3802: 3797: 3793: 3786: 3783: 3780:, p. 15. 3779: 3774: 3771: 3766: 3760: 3756: 3755: 3747: 3745: 3741: 3738: 3736: 3732:Max Savelle, 3729: 3727: 3723: 3720:, p. 54. 3719: 3714: 3711: 3708:, p. 32. 3707: 3702: 3699: 3696:, p. 65. 3695: 3690: 3687: 3683: 3682:Williams 1999 3678: 3676: 3672: 3669:, p. 29. 3668: 3663: 3660: 3657:, p. 36. 3656: 3651: 3648: 3645:, p. 31. 3644: 3639: 3636: 3633:, p. 48. 3632: 3627: 3624: 3620: 3615: 3612: 3608: 3603: 3600: 3597:, p. 44. 3596: 3591: 3588: 3584: 3579: 3576: 3573:, p. 50. 3572: 3567: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3547: 3544: 3541:, p. 46. 3540: 3535: 3533: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3521: 3520:David Ricardo 3517: 3513: 3512:James Steuart 3509: 3496: 3489: 3482: 3479: 3474: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3454: 3451: 3446: 3440: 3436: 3429: 3426: 3421: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3406: 3398: 3395: 3391: 3385: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3368: 3365: 3360: 3356: 3355: 3347: 3344: 3339: 3335: 3329: 3326: 3321: 3317: 3314:Pham, Peter. 3310: 3307: 3302: 3298: 3291: 3288: 3283: 3277: 3274: 3263: 3259: 3252: 3249: 3245: 3240: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3229: 3222: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3206: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3190: 3187: 3181: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3150: 3147: 3140: 3136: 3133: 3131: 3128: 3126: 3123: 3121: 3118: 3116: 3113: 3112: 3108: 3106: 3104: 3100: 3095: 3091: 3088: 3082: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3053: 3048: 3044: 3039: 3037: 3033: 3031: 3027: 3026:protectionism 3022: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3007: 3003: 2994: 2992: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2981:laissez-faire 2977: 2975: 2969: 2967: 2963: 2962: 2955: 2953: 2949: 2943: 2936: 2935: 2930: 2925: 2921: 2919: 2918:David Ricardo 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2902: 2896: 2894: 2890: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2876:Edward Gibbon 2873: 2869: 2862: 2860: 2857: 2856:Walter Rodney 2853: 2849: 2845: 2844:David Ricardo 2841: 2840: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2812:Thomas Hobbes 2809: 2805: 2804: 2803:raison d'état 2799: 2796: 2795:Machiavellian 2792: 2788: 2783: 2780: 2775: 2774:nation-states 2771: 2766: 2762: 2760: 2755: 2751: 2748: 2744: 2739: 2737: 2733: 2728: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2698: 2693: 2691: 2686: 2684: 2679: 2678: 2676: 2675: 2670: 2665: 2660: 2658: 2653: 2648: 2647: 2646: 2645: 2638: 2635: 2633: 2630: 2628: 2625: 2623: 2620: 2618: 2615: 2613: 2612:Neoliberalism 2610: 2608: 2605: 2603: 2600: 2598: 2595: 2593: 2590: 2588: 2585: 2583: 2580: 2578: 2575: 2573: 2570: 2568: 2565: 2563: 2560: 2558: 2557:Authoritarian 2555: 2553: 2550: 2549: 2543: 2542: 2535: 2532: 2530: 2527: 2525: 2522: 2520: 2517: 2515: 2512: 2510: 2507: 2505: 2502: 2500: 2497: 2495: 2492: 2490: 2487: 2485: 2484:Globalization 2482: 2480: 2477: 2475: 2472: 2470: 2467: 2465: 2462: 2460: 2457: 2455: 2452: 2450: 2447: 2445: 2444:Crisis theory 2442: 2440: 2437: 2435: 2432: 2430: 2427: 2425: 2422: 2420: 2417: 2416: 2410: 2409: 2402: 2399: 2397: 2394: 2392: 2389: 2387: 2384: 2382: 2379: 2377: 2374: 2372: 2369: 2367: 2364: 2362: 2359: 2357: 2354: 2352: 2349: 2347: 2344: 2342: 2339: 2337: 2334: 2332: 2329: 2327: 2324: 2322: 2319: 2317: 2314: 2312: 2309: 2307: 2304: 2303: 2300:Intellectuals 2297: 2296: 2289: 2288:Technological 2286: 2284: 2281: 2279: 2276: 2274: 2271: 2269: 2266: 2264: 2261: 2259: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2249: 2246: 2244: 2241: 2239: 2236: 2234: 2231: 2229: 2226: 2224: 2221: 2219: 2216: 2215: 2209: 2208: 2201: 2198: 2196: 2193: 2191: 2188: 2186: 2183: 2181: 2178: 2176: 2173: 2171: 2168: 2166: 2163: 2161: 2158: 2157: 2151: 2150: 2143: 2140: 2138: 2135: 2133: 2130: 2128: 2125: 2123: 2120: 2118: 2115: 2113: 2110: 2108: 2105: 2101: 2098: 2096: 2093: 2091: 2088: 2087: 2086: 2083: 2081: 2080:Institutional 2078: 2076: 2073: 2071: 2068: 2064: 2061: 2060: 2059: 2056: 2054: 2051: 2049: 2046: 2045: 2039: 2038: 2031: 2028: 2026: 2023: 2021: 2018: 2016: 2013: 2011: 2008: 2006: 2003: 2001: 1998: 1996: 1993: 1991: 1988: 1986: 1983: 1981: 1978: 1976: 1973: 1971: 1968: 1966: 1963: 1961: 1958: 1956: 1953: 1951: 1948: 1946: 1943: 1941: 1940: 1939:Laissez-faire 1936: 1934: 1931: 1929: 1926: 1924: 1921: 1919: 1916: 1914: 1913:Authoritarian 1911: 1909: 1906: 1905: 1899: 1898: 1891: 1888: 1886: 1883: 1881: 1880:Surplus value 1878: 1876: 1873: 1871: 1868: 1866: 1863: 1861: 1860:Privatization 1858: 1856: 1853: 1851: 1848: 1846: 1843: 1841: 1838: 1836: 1833: 1831: 1828: 1826: 1823: 1821: 1818: 1816: 1813: 1811: 1808: 1806: 1803: 1801: 1798: 1796: 1793: 1791: 1788: 1786: 1783: 1781: 1778: 1776: 1773: 1771: 1768: 1766: 1763: 1761: 1758: 1756: 1753: 1751: 1748: 1746: 1743: 1741: 1738: 1736: 1733: 1731: 1728: 1727: 1721: 1720: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1704: 1698: 1696: 1694: 1688: 1684: 1682: 1677: 1675: 1670: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1655: 1650: 1648: 1644: 1635: 1633: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1610: 1608: 1604: 1598: 1596: 1592: 1587: 1584:The Habsburg 1582: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1559: 1555: 1550: 1543: 1541: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1525: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1505: 1503: 1494: 1489: 1485: 1483: 1479: 1476:, limited by 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1453: 1445: 1443: 1441: 1437: 1431: 1423: 1421: 1417: 1415: 1411: 1406: 1404: 1400: 1392: 1387: 1382: 1374: 1369: 1365: 1362: 1359: 1356: 1353: 1350: 1346: 1343: 1340: 1336: 1333: 1330: 1326: 1325: 1324: 1321: 1314: 1312: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1297: 1295: 1294:lower classes 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1278:black markets 1275: 1271: 1267: 1261: 1259: 1258:zero-sum game 1255: 1250: 1242: 1239: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1227: 1224: 1221: 1218: 1217: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1201: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1186:Antonio Serra 1183: 1178: 1176: 1172: 1171:James Steuart 1168: 1164: 1159: 1157: 1144: 1139: 1137: 1132: 1130: 1125: 1124: 1122: 1121: 1116: 1111: 1106: 1105: 1104: 1103: 1096: 1093: 1091: 1088: 1086: 1083: 1081: 1078: 1076: 1073: 1071: 1070:Post-scarcity 1068: 1066: 1063: 1061: 1058: 1056: 1053: 1051: 1048: 1046: 1043: 1041: 1038: 1036: 1033: 1031: 1028: 1026: 1023: 1021: 1018: 1016: 1015:Expeditionary 1013: 1011: 1008: 1007: 1001: 1000: 991: 988: 986: 983: 981: 978: 977: 976: 973: 971: 968: 964: 961: 959: 956: 954: 951: 949: 946: 945: 944: 941: 937: 934: 932: 929: 927: 924: 923: 922: 919: 917: 914: 913: 907: 906: 897: 894: 893: 892: 891:Socialization 889: 887: 886:Privatization 884: 882: 879: 877: 876:Mutualization 874: 872: 869: 867: 866:Marketization 864: 862: 859: 857: 854: 852: 851:Expropriation 849: 847: 844: 842: 839: 837: 834: 832: 831:Communization 829: 827: 824: 823: 817: 816: 809: 806: 804: 801: 799: 796: 793: 789: 786: 784: 781: 780: 774: 773: 766: 763: 761: 758: 756: 753: 751: 748: 747: 741: 740: 731: 728: 727: 725: 721: 718: 716: 713: 711: 708: 706: 703: 701: 698: 696: 693: 692: 690: 686: 683: 681: 678: 676: 673: 671: 668: 667: 665: 664: 658: 657: 650: 647: 645: 642: 640: 637: 635: 632: 630: 627: 625: 622: 620: 617: 615: 612: 610: 607: 605: 602: 600: 597: 595: 592: 590: 587: 585: 582: 580: 577: 575: 572: 570: 569:Decentralized 567: 565: 562: 561: 555: 554: 545: 542: 540: 537: 536: 534: 532: 529: 527: 526:Social credit 524: 522: 519: 515: 512: 510: 507: 505: 502: 500: 497: 495: 494:Participatory 492: 490: 487: 485: 482: 480: 477: 475: 472: 471: 470: 467: 463: 460: 456: 453: 452: 451: 448: 446: 443: 442: 440: 438: 435: 433: 430: 428: 425: 423: 420: 418: 415: 411: 408: 406: 405:Social market 403: 401: 400:Protectionist 398: 396: 393: 391: 388: 386: 383: 381: 380:Laissez-faire 378: 376: 373: 371: 368: 367: 366: 363: 361: 358: 357: 351: 350: 344: 341: 339: 336: 334: 331: 330: 325: 324: 321: 317: 313: 309: 308: 302: 300: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 273:British India 270: 269:Mughal Bengal 266: 261: 258: 254: 250: 246: 241: 232: 228: 224: 216: 211: 209: 205: 201: 197: 192: 190: 186: 182: 178: 174: 170: 165: 163: 159: 158:Antonio Serra 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 135: 131: 127: 120: 117:Merchants in 115: 108: 106: 104: 100: 96: 91: 89: 85: 81: 76: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 53: 51: 47: 43: 40: 36: 29: 25: 21: 5549:Mercantilism 5283:Evolutionary 5215:Contemporary 5194:Neoclassical 5139:Distributist 5084:Mercantilism 5083: 5071:Early modern 4963:Josiah Child 4919: 4883: 4872: 4856: 4841:Mercantilism 4840: 4822: 4804: 4786: 4768: 4725: 4704:, retrieved 4695: 4659: 4655: 4642: 4629: 4622: 4604: 4586: 4568: 4543: 4525: 4507: 4489: 4466: 4450:the original 4444: 4427: 4411: 4407: 4385: 4374:Mercantilism 4373: 4359: 4352: 4334: 4316: 4297: 4275: 4257: 4238: 4228: 4216: 4205: 4194: 4170: 4158: 4146: 4134: 4129:, p. 3. 4122: 4109: 4097: 4085: 4080:, p. 6. 4073: 4061: 4049: 4036: 4024: 4005: 3999: 3992:Spiegel 1991 3987: 3975: 3963: 3951: 3939: 3932:Niehans 1990 3912: 3903: 3894: 3875: 3869: 3861: 3845: 3823: 3816: 3809:Spiegel 1991 3804: 3795: 3785: 3773: 3753: 3734: 3713: 3701: 3689: 3662: 3650: 3638: 3626: 3621:, p. 9. 3614: 3602: 3590: 3578: 3566: 3558: 3554: 3546: 3505: 3498:. 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Retrieved 3261: 3251: 3226: 3221: 3213: 3194: 3189: 3171: 3159: 3155: 3149: 3096: 3093: 3090:discouraged. 3084: 3073: 3069:World War II 3050: 3040: 3034: 3023: 3002:rent seeking 2998: 2978: 2970: 2959: 2956: 2944: 2940: 2932: 2899: 2897: 2889:Dudley North 2866: 2837: 2828: 2801: 2784: 2767: 2763: 2752: 2747:rent-seeking 2740: 2729: 2706: 2534:Wage slavery 2474:Evergreening 2185:Mercantilism 2184: 2132:Neoclassical 1960:Mercantilist 1959: 1937: 1870:Rent seeking 1835:Visible hand 1689: 1685: 1678: 1671: 1651: 1639: 1611: 1599: 1583: 1563: 1526: 1506: 1498: 1455: 1433: 1418: 1407: 1396: 1339:staple ports 1322: 1318: 1298: 1262: 1254:rent-seeking 1246: 1212: 1202: 1179: 1174: 1166: 1160: 1152: 980:Peer-to-peer 975:Self-managed 910:Coordination 846:Deregulation 531:Distributist 385:Mercantilist 384: 267:annexed the 262: 242: 231:Josiah Child 226: 212: 199: 193: 166: 161: 123: 92: 77: 54: 35:Mercantilism 34: 33: 23: 5438:Supply-side 5361:Neo-Marxian 5174:Marginalism 5104:Late modern 5089:Physiocrats 4589:, Praeger, 4319:, Xlibris, 4175:Hansen 2001 4127:Wilson 1963 4102:Harris 1950 4090:Brezis 2003 4078:Wilson 1963 3956:Wilson 1963 3778:Wilson 1963 3718:Nester 2000 3694:Hansen 2001 3643:Landes 1997 3164:comparative 3059:wrote that 3011:paper money 2952:Jacob Viner 2798:realpolitik 2759:paper money 2732:Jacob Viner 2617:Objectivism 2602:Libertarian 2519:Speculation 2439:Consumerism 2273:Progressive 2212:Development 2195:Physiocracy 2142:Supply-side 1950:Libertarian 1928:Free-market 1908:Anglo-Saxon 1890:Wage labour 1845:Marginalism 1815:Free market 1770:Corporation 1654:imperialism 1309:physiocracy 1290:consumption 1286:subsistence 1085:Traditional 1035:Manorialism 1030:Information 1004:Other types 990:Open access 953:Cybernetics 695:Anglo-Saxon 680:Singaporean 639:Underground 634:Subsistence 539:Corporatist 514:Syndicalist 474:Communalist 360:Associative 354:By ideology 327:Major types 293:Robert Peel 154:Renaissance 126:Renaissance 39:nationalist 5543:Categories 5418:Regulation 5344:Monetarism 5330:Circuitism 5278:Ecological 5246:Chartalism 5226:Behavioral 5169:Manchester 5164:Malthusian 5122:Birmingham 5079:Cameralism 5063:Modern era 5037:Pre-modern 4953:Jean Bodin 4948:Thomas Mun 4706:2007-12-06 3516:David Hume 3267:2018-09-11 3182:References 3160:better off 2929:Adam Smith 2893:John Locke 2872:David Hume 2868:Adam Smith 2852:free trade 2834:Adam Smith 2787:scholastic 2754:Monetarism 2709:Adam Smith 2597:Liberalism 2582:Humanistic 2567:Democratic 2546:Ideologies 2381:Schumpeter 2127:Monetarist 2058:Chartalism 2005:Regulatory 1980:Neoliberal 1933:Humanistic 1716:Capitalism 1693:Trade wars 1502:Royal Navy 1478:common law 1436:New France 1424:New France 1414:Colbertism 1381:Colbertism 1270:monopolies 1249:Adam Smith 1209:Cameralism 1190:Jean Bodin 1163:Thomas Mun 1090:Transition 1050:Plantation 958:Indicative 820:Transition 670:East Asian 441:Religious 417:Democratic 390:Neoliberal 375:Democratic 365:Capitalist 333:Capitalism 297:free trade 277:Adam Smith 257:Colbertism 223:Thomas Mun 177:Fiat money 169:bullionism 150:empiricism 5493:Economics 5428:Stockholm 5303:Keynesian 5268:Cracovian 5217:(20th and 5206:Socialist 5189:Mutualism 5132:Ricardian 5127:Classical 4760:750831024 4684:154149792 4384:(1980) , 3706:Hill 1980 3379:, p. 204. 2637:Third Way 2627:Privatism 2587:Inclusive 2572:Dirigisme 2366:von Mises 2253:Illiberal 2233:Corporate 2228:Community 2175:Feudalism 2085:Keynesian 2075:Classical 1918:Corporate 1730:Austerity 1622:Ibrahim I 1605:from the 1474:Continent 1198:Misselden 1055:Plutonomy 936:Regulated 765:Voluntary 691:European 544:Feudalism 489:Mutualist 479:Communist 469:Socialist 450:Christian 370:Corporate 343:Communism 338:Socialism 289:Corn Laws 229:), which 50:one-sided 46:resources 5518:Degrowth 5453:Virginia 5293:Freiburg 5288:Feminist 5241:Carnegie 5231:Buddhist 5199:Lausanne 5154:Georgism 5117:Austrian 4861:Archived 4716:(2008). 4701:Newsweek 4567:(2006), 4438:(1936), 4414:: 1–17, 4295:(1987), 4193:(1996), 3994:, ch. 8. 3510:and Sir 3508:John Law 3461:(1998). 3109:See also 3052:Newsweek 2927:Much of 2880:Voltaire 2713:Mirabeau 2464:Cronyism 2376:Rothbard 2351:Marshall 2336:Friedman 2268:Merchant 2223:Consumer 2218:Advanced 2053:Austrian 2048:American 1975:National 1970:Monopoly 1923:Dirigist 1825:Investor 1735:Business 1724:Concepts 1708:a series 1706:Part of 1674:colonies 1645:and the 1614:Philip V 1538:The Fens 1403:Flanders 1315:Policies 943:Planning 594:Informal 579:Dirigist 432:Georgist 427:Feminist 312:a series 310:Part of 285:Napoleon 128:and the 52:trade. 5471:Related 5258:Chicago 4724:(ed.). 4676:1928178 4630:History 4465:(ed.). 3500:14 June 3301:Reuters 3115:Autarky 3087:statism 2816:Puritan 2592:Liberal 2552:Anarcho 2489:History 2321:Malthus 2316:Ricardo 2278:Rentier 2263:Marxist 2243:Finance 2154:Origins 2122:Marxist 2070:Chicago 2030:Welfare 1990:Private 1945:Liberal 1765:Company 1750:Capital 1699:Origins 1661:or the 1630:Peter I 1591:Prussia 1329:tariffs 1301:markets 1194:Colbert 985:Sharing 948:In kind 896:Marxist 788:Commons 755:Private 744:Sectors 715:Rhenish 685:Keralan 675:Chinese 649:Virtual 629:Sharing 619:Planned 609:Natural 574:Digital 462:Islamic 422:Fascist 410:Welfare 152:of the 146:bullion 109:History 80:tariffs 5349:Market 4829: 4811: 4793: 4775: 4758: 4748: 4682: 4674: 4634:online 4611: 4593: 4575: 4554: 4532: 4514: 4496: 4477: 4392: 4367:online 4341: 4323: 4305: 4282: 4264: 4246: 4012: 3882: 3761: 3469: 3441: 3416: 3320:Forbes 3231:(2008) 3197:p. 37. 2995:Legacy 2770:feudal 2711:, but 2391:Weaver 2386:Veblen 2361:Walras 2356:Pareto 2346:Keynes 2248:Global 2015:Social 1985:Nordic 1955:Market 1865:Profit 1667:Canada 1628:under 1626:Russia 1577:, and 1466:Stuart 1375:France 1305:armies 1274:quotas 1156:German 1045:Palace 921:Market 916:Barter 760:Public 720:Soviet 705:Nordic 700:German 666:Asian 599:Market 303:Theory 291:under 251:, his 185:specie 140:, and 134:Venice 119:Venice 5325:Post- 4720:. 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