632:. These models are based on the assumption that metabolism is proportional to the rate at which an organism's distribution networks (such as circulatory systems in animals or xylem and phloem in plants) deliver nutrients and energy to body tissues. Larger organisms are necessarily less efficient because more resource is in transport at any one time than in smaller organisms: size of the organism and length of the network imposes an inefficiency due to size. It therefore takes somewhat longer for large organisms to distribute nutrients throughout the body and thus they have a slower mass-specific metabolic rate. An organism that is twice as large cannot metabolize twice the energy—it simply has to run more slowly because more energy and resources are wasted being in transport, rather than being processed. Nonetheless, natural selection appears to have minimized this inefficiency by favoring resource transport networks that maximize rate of delivery of resources to the end points such as cells and organelles. This selection to maximize metabolic rate and energy dissipation results in the allometric exponent that tends to
796:. The average production to biomass ratio of organisms is higher in small organisms than large ones. This relationship is further regulated by temperature, and the rate of production increases with temperature. As production consistently scales with body mass, MTE provides a framework to assess the relative importance of organismal size, temperature, functional traits, soil and climate on variation in rates of production within and across ecosystems. Metabolic theory shows that variation in ecosystem production is characterized by a common scaling relationship, suggesting that global change models can incorporate the mechanisms governing this relationship to improve predictions of future ecosystem function.
593:– 1, depending on the organism's developmental stage, basic body plan and resource density. DEB is an alternative to metabolic scaling theory, developed before the MTE. DEB also provides a basis for population, community and ecosystem level processes to be studied based on energetics of the constituent organisms. In this theory, the biomass of the organism is separated into structure (what is built during growth) and reserve (a pool of polymers generated by assimilation). DEB is based on the first principles dictated by the kinetics and thermodynamics of energy and material fluxes, has a similar number of parameters per process as MTE, and the parameters have been estimated for over 3000 animal species
109:
composition of an organism would be different from the exterior environment. Through metabolism, body size can affect stoichiometry. For example, small organism tend to store most of their phosphorus in rRNA due to their high metabolic rate, whereas large organisms mostly invest this element inside the skeletal structure. Thus, concentration of elements to some extent can limit the rate of biological processes. Inside an ecosystem, the rate of flux and turn over of elements by inhabitants, combined with the influence of abiotic factors, determine the concentration of elements.
780:
heterogeneity, and habitat factors better predicted the observed pattern. Extensions of metabolic theory to diversity that include eco-evolutionary theory show that an elaborated metabolic theory can account for differences in diversity gradients by including feedbacks between ecological interactions (size-dependent competition and predation) and
557:. Past debates on the exact value of the exponent are settled in part because the observed variability in the metabolic scaling exponent is consistent with a 'relaxed' version of metabolic scaling theory where additional selective pressures lead to a constrained set of variation around the predicted optimal
373:
According to this relationship, metabolic rate is a function of an organism's body mass and body temperature. By this equation, large organisms have higher metabolic rates (in watts) than small organisms, and organisms at high body temperatures have higher metabolic rates than those that exist at low
759:
Observed patterns of diversity can be similarly explained by MTE. It has long been observed that there are more small species than large species. In addition, there are more species in the tropics than at higher latitudes. Classically, the latitudinal gradient in species diversity has been explained
574:
surface area of three-dimensional organisms is the key factor driving the relationship between metabolic rate and body size. The surface area in question may be skin, lungs, intestines, or, in the case of unicellular organisms, cell membranes. In general, the surface area (SA) of a three dimensional
755:
Regarding density, MTE predicts carrying capacity of populations to scale as M, and to exponentially decrease with increasing temperature. The fact that larger organisms reach carrying capacity sooner than smaller one is intuitive, however, temperature can also decrease carrying capacity due to the
282:
in the previous equation is mass-independent, it is not explicitly independent of temperature. To explain the relationship between body mass and temperature, building on earlier work showing that the effects of both body mass and temperature could be combined multiplicatively in a single equation,
50:
of organisms is the fundamental biological rate that governs most observed patterns in ecology. MTE is part of a larger set of theory known as metabolic scaling theory that attempts to provide a unified theory for the importance of metabolism in driving pattern and process in biology from the level
512:
w, or whether either of these can even be considered a universal exponent. In addition to debates concerning the exponent, some researchers also disagree about the underlying mechanisms generating the scaling exponent. Various authors have proposed at least eight different types of mechanisms that
779:
to see whether the geographical distribution of species fit within the predictions of MTE (i.e. more species in warmer areas). They found that the observed pattern of diversity could not be explained by temperature alone, and that other spatial factors such as primary productivity, topographic
674:, and ecosystem processes could be explained by the relationship between metabolic rate, body size, and body temperature. While different underlying mechanisms make somewhat different predictions, the following provides an example of some of the implications of the metabolism of individuals.
108:
From the ecological perspective, stoichiometry is concerned with the proportion of elements in both living organisms and their environment. In order to survive and maintain metabolism, an organism must be able to obtain crucial elements and excrete waste products. As a result, the elemental
2932:
Ernest S.K.M.; Enquist B.J.; Brown J.H.; Charnov E.L.; Gillooly J.F.; Savage V.M.; White E.P.; Smith F.A.; Hadly E.A.; Haskell J.P.; Lyons S.K.; Maurer B.A.; Niklas K.J.; Tiffney B. (2003). "Thermodynamic and metabolic effects on the scaling of production and population energy use".
751:
across taxonomic groups. The optimal population growth rate for a species is therefore thought to be determined by the allometric constraints outlined by the MTE, rather than strictly as a life history trait that is selected for based on environmental conditions.
648:
Despite past debates over the value of the exponent, the implications of metabolic scaling theory and the extensions of the theory to ecology (metabolic theory of ecology) the theory might remain true regardless of its precise numerical value.
62:
or by living in warm environments tend towards higher metabolic rates than organisms that operate at colder temperatures. This pattern is consistent from the unicellular level up to the level of the largest animals and plants on the planet.
607:
While some of these alternative models make several testable predictions, others are less comprehensive and of these proposed models only DEB can make as many predictions with a minimal set of assumptions as metabolic scaling theory.
644:
is the primary dimension of the system. A three dimensional system, such as an individual, tends to scale to the 3/4 power, whereas a two dimensional network, such as a river network in a landscape, tends to scale to the 2/3 power.
1389:
Elser, J. J.; Sterner, R. W.; Gorokhova, E.; Fagan, W. F.; Markow, T. A.; Cotner, J. B.; Harrison, J. F.; Hobbie, S. E.; Odell, G. M.; Weider, L. W. (2000-11-23). "Biological stoichiometry from genes to ecosystems".
686:
traits are constrained by metabolism. An organism's metabolic rate determines its rate of food consumption, which in turn determines its rate of growth. This increased growth rate produces trade-offs that accelerate
669:
on metabolic rate, provide the fundamental constraints by which ecological processes are governed. If this holds true from the level of the individual up to ecosystem level processes, then life history attributes,
66:
In MTE, this relationship is considered to be the primary constraint that influences biological processes (via their rates and times) at all levels of organization (from individual up to ecosystem level). MTE is a
756:
fact that in warmer environments, higher metabolic rate of organisms demands a higher rate of supply. Empirical evidence in terrestrial plants, also suggests that density scales as -3/4 power of the body size.
480:
96:. According to MTE, both body size and temperature affect the metabolic rate of an organism. Metabolic rate scales as 3/4 power of body size, and its relationship with temperature is described by the
735:). MTE explains this diversity of reproductive strategies as a consequence of the metabolic constraints of organisms. Small organisms and organisms that exist at high body temperatures tend to be
760:
by factors such as higher productivity or reduced seasonality. In contrast, MTE explains this pattern as being driven by the kinetic constraints imposed by temperature on metabolism. The rate of
368:
58:
across all organisms. Small-bodied organisms tend to have higher mass-specific metabolic rates than larger-bodied organisms. Furthermore, organisms that operate at warm temperatures through
764:
scales with metabolic rate, such that organisms with higher metabolic rates show a higher rate of change at the molecular level. If a higher rate of molecular evolution causes increased
270:
492:
Researchers have debated two main aspects of this theory, the pattern and the mechanism. Past debated have focused on the question whether metabolic rate scales to the power of
547:
exponent is indeed the mean observed exponent within and across taxa, there is intra- and interspecific variability in the exponent that can include shallower exponents such as
189:
2883:
2815:
2752:
2699:
2583:
2355:
2242:
2169:
2093:
2025:
1955:
1784:
1711:
1646:
1588:
1479:
1030:
961:
895:
3732:
2985:
3876:
2832:
Michaletz, S. T., Cheng, D., Kerkhoff, A. J., & Enquist, B. J. (2014). "Convergence of terrestrial plant production across global climate gradients".
3946:
768:
rates, then adaptation and ultimately speciation may occur more quickly in warm environments and in small bodied species, ultimately explaining observed
747:
selected. The relationship between body size and rate of population growth has been demonstrated empirically, and in fact has been shown to scale to
703:
and ultimately death. Selection favors organisms which best propagate given these constraints. As a result, smaller, shorter lived organisms tend to
3483:
3956:
3684:
84:
Metabolic pathways consist of complex networks, which are responsible for the processing of both energy and material. The metabolic rate of a
3961:
1166:
Farquhar, G. D.; von
Caemmerer, S.; Berry, J. A. (1980). "A biochemical model of photosynthetic CO2 assimilation in leaves of C 3 species".
3518:
2042:
West, G.B., Brown, J.H., & Enquist, B.J. (1999). "The fourth dimension of life: Fractal geometry and allometric scaling of organisms".
775:
MTE's ability to explain patterns of diversity remains controversial. For example, researchers analyzed patterns of diversity of New World
4149:
1452:
Robinson, W. R., Peters, R. H., & Zimmermann, J. (1983). "The effects of body size and temperature on metabolic rate of organisms".
3566:
3902:
3725:
2978:
570:
Much of past debate have focused on two particular types of mechanisms. One of these assumes energy or resource transport across the
136:
is a mass-independent normalization constant (given in a unit of power divided by a unit of mass. In this case, watts per kilogram):
3238:
2446:
Allen A.P., Brown J.H. & Gillooly J.F. (2002). "Global biodiversity, biochemical kinetics, and the energetic-equivalence rule".
2378:
1436:
1236:
379:
830:
1354:
Sutcliffe Jr., W. H. (1970-03-01). "Relationship
Between Growth Rate and Ribonucleic Acid Concentration in Some Invertebrates".
918:
West, G. B., Brown, J. H., & Enquist, B. J. (1997). "A general model for the origin of allometric scaling laws in biology".
3981:
3694:
3561:
3273:
2497:
Enquist, Brian J.; Brown, James H.; West, Geoffrey B. (1998). "Allometric scaling of plant energetics and population density".
1836:
Kooijman, S. A. L. M. (2010). "Dynamic energy budget theory for metabolic organisation". Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.
1493:
Tilman, David; HilleRisLambers, Janneke; Harpole, Stan; Dybzinski, Ray; Fargione, Joe; Clark, Chris; Lehman, Clarence (2004).
4239:
860:
Brown, J. H., Gillooly, J. F., Allen, A. P., Savage, V. M., & G. B. West (2004). "Toward a metabolic theory of ecology".
4366:
4011:
1660:
Vasseur, F., Exposito-Alonso, M., Ayala-Garay, O.J., Wang, G., Enquist, B.J., Vile, D., Violle, C. & Weigel, D. (2018).
1609:"Body shape shifting during growth permits tests that distinguish between competing geometric theories of metabolic scaling"
1218:
4412:
3966:
3718:
2971:
2262:
296:
3844:
4542:
4537:
815:
2548:
Hutchinson, G., MacArthur, R. (1959). "A theoretical ecological model of size distributions among species of animals".
4201:
2897:
Banse K. & Mosher S. (1980). "Adult body mass and annual production/biomass relationships of field populations".
1426:
4266:
3986:
3190:
3087:
769:
4447:
4059:
3951:
3809:
3794:
3789:
3180:
88:
is defined as the rate of respiration in which energy is obtained by oxidation of a carbon compound. The rate of
4206:
2827:
2825:
4437:
4432:
4402:
3669:
3551:
39:
1974:
Banavar, J. R., Maritan, A., & Rinaldo, A. (1999). "Size and form in efficient transportation networks".
4281:
4144:
4054:
3922:
3804:
3774:
3631:
3596:
3316:
3283:
3258:
1873:"What is the status of metabolic theory one century after PĂĽtter invented the von Bertalanffy growth curve?"
825:
727:
selected (where populations tend to grow exponentially, and are ultimately limited by extrinsic factors) or
232:
4427:
4371:
4306:
4169:
4104:
4039:
3699:
3601:
3389:
3097:
3077:
720:
4331:
4276:
4139:
4124:
3907:
3864:
3854:
3849:
3606:
3586:
3442:
3432:
3374:
3369:
3205:
3057:
2877:
2809:
2746:
2693:
2577:
2349:
2236:
2163:
2087:
2019:
1949:
1841:
1778:
1705:
1640:
1582:
1473:
1024:
955:
889:
580:
743:
selection is a consequence of metabolic rate. Conversely, larger and cooler bodied animals tend to be
142:
4457:
4422:
4417:
4341:
4336:
4291:
4189:
4159:
4154:
4006:
3869:
3859:
3404:
3243:
3032:
2841:
2726:
2653:
2506:
2455:
2321:
2196:
2123:
2051:
1983:
1807:
1738:
1302:
1122:
1061:
988:
47:
2963:
2715:"Spatial patterns of species richness in New World coral snakes and the metabolic theory of ecology"
194:
At increased temperatures, chemical reactions proceed faster. This relationship is described by the
4507:
4482:
4346:
4316:
4261:
4174:
4064:
4049:
3996:
3829:
3764:
3646:
3576:
3107:
2371:
Understanding the process of ages : the roles of mitochondria, free radicals, and antioxidants
761:
692:
683:
671:
3710:
2597:
Rohde, K. (1992). "Latitudinal gradients in species-diversity: the search for the primary cause".
792:
At the ecosystem level, MTE explains the relationship between temperature and production of total
4518:
4467:
4462:
4271:
4234:
3932:
3897:
3754:
3679:
3581:
3513:
3503:
3437:
3384:
3195:
3140:
3102:
3027:
2950:
2914:
2865:
2797:
2622:
2614:
2565:
2530:
2479:
2337:
2290:
2075:
2007:
1336:
1199:
1148:
1087:
1012:
943:
877:
810:
682:
Small animals tend to grow fast, breed early, and die young. According to MTE, these patterns in
514:
223:
97:
3976:
54:
MTE is based on an interpretation of the relationships between body size, body temperature, and
662:
4407:
4376:
4164:
3991:
3799:
3664:
3641:
3498:
3379:
3155:
3067:
3052:
3037:
3017:
2857:
2789:
2681:
2522:
2471:
2425:
2374:
2282:
2224:
2151:
2067:
1999:
1904:
1766:
1693:
1628:
1570:
1516:
1432:
1407:
1371:
1328:
1275:
1267:
1232:
1191:
1183:
1140:
1079:
1004:
935:
793:
781:
732:
716:
625:
203:
595:
4361:
4224:
4216:
4134:
4016:
4001:
3937:
3917:
3834:
3824:
3819:
3784:
3616:
3556:
3427:
3228:
3170:
3082:
3042:
2942:
2906:
2849:
2779:
2734:
2671:
2661:
2606:
2557:
2514:
2463:
2415:
2407:
2329:
2274:
2214:
2204:
2141:
2131:
2059:
1991:
1935:
1894:
1884:
1815:
1756:
1746:
1683:
1673:
1620:
1560:
1550:
1506:
1461:
1399:
1363:
1318:
1310:
1224:
1175:
1130:
1069:
996:
927:
869:
666:
195:
118:
43:
17:
4497:
4356:
4326:
4321:
4311:
4244:
4229:
4109:
4089:
3971:
3839:
3745:
3636:
3546:
3488:
3473:
3072:
2998:
1854:
1106:
1045:
283:
the two equations above can be combined to produce the primary equation of the MTE, where
1258:
Redfield, A. C. (1960). "The biological control of chemical factors in the environment".
2845:
2730:
2657:
2642:"The rate of DNA evolution: Effects of body size and temperature on the molecular clock"
2510:
2459:
2325:
2200:
2183:
Rinaldo, A., Rigon, R., Banavar, J. R., Maritan, A., & Rodriguez-Iturbe, I. (2014).
2127:
2055:
1987:
1811:
1742:
1306:
1126:
1065:
992:
4477:
4301:
4254:
4184:
4179:
4074:
3941:
3814:
3621:
3611:
3591:
3468:
3394:
3359:
3298:
3175:
3130:
3022:
2420:
2395:
2219:
2184:
1761:
1726:
1688:
1661:
658:
621:
89:
2676:
2641:
2146:
2111:
1819:
1608:
1565:
1538:
4531:
4502:
3478:
3452:
3409:
3399:
3354:
3341:
3321:
3213:
3047:
3002:
2946:
2784:
2767:
2534:
2483:
2011:
1403:
1016:
2954:
2801:
2626:
2569:
2079:
1203:
4487:
4472:
4129:
4099:
4044:
3927:
3892:
3769:
3268:
2869:
2341:
2294:
1340:
1323:
1152:
1091:
947:
374:
body temperatures. However, specific metabolic rate (SMR, in watts/kg) is given by
207:
117:
Metabolic rate scales with the mass of an organism of a given species according to
68:
59:
2063:
881:
931:
3779:
3508:
3326:
3288:
3263:
3253:
3218:
3165:
3145:
2738:
2310:"Allometric scaling of production and life-history variation in vascular plants"
2309:
1798:
Kooijman, S. A. L. M. (1986). "Energy budgets can explain body size relations".
1662:"Adaptive diversification of growth allometry in the plant Arabidopsis thaliana"
776:
696:
85:
2714:
4492:
4069:
4034:
3674:
3626:
3571:
3541:
3447:
3364:
3308:
3185:
3135:
2185:"Evolution and selection of river networks: Statics, dynamics, and complexity"
765:
700:
688:
628:
are distributed via some optimized network to all resource consuming cells or
55:
2526:
2396:"Life history correlates of maximum population growth rates in marine fishes"
1520:
1411:
1375:
1332:
1271:
1228:
1187:
290:
is a normalization constant that is independent of body size or temperature:
4397:
4351:
4079:
3523:
3493:
3293:
3248:
3223:
3160:
3150:
3125:
3117:
3062:
2666:
2467:
2209:
1940:
1923:
1751:
1678:
805:
704:
629:
93:
2861:
2793:
2685:
2475:
2429:
2411:
2286:
2228:
2155:
2136:
2071:
2003:
1924:"Dynamic Energy Budget Theory: An efficient and general theory for ecology"
1908:
1770:
1727:"A general model for allometric covariation in botanical form and function"
1697:
1632:
1574:
1555:
1279:
1195:
1144:
1495:"Does Metabolic Theory Apply to Community Ecology? It's a Matter of Scale"
1083:
1008:
939:
4452:
4381:
3912:
3419:
3331:
3278:
3233:
2853:
2308:
Enquist, B. J., West, G. B., Charnov, E. L., & Brown, J. H. (1999).
2261:
Savage V.M.; Gillooly J.F.; Brown J.H.; West G.B.; Charnov E.L. (2004).
1899:
1135:
1110:
1074:
1049:
976:
4442:
4249:
4119:
4114:
3741:
3689:
3349:
2994:
2918:
2618:
1179:
820:
1889:
1872:
1624:
1314:
731:
selected (where population size is limited by density-dependence and
2910:
2610:
1511:
1494:
1465:
1367:
873:
125:
is whole organism metabolic rate (in watts or other unit of power),
2640:
Gillooly, J.F., Allen, A.P., West, G.B., & Brown, J.H. (2005).
2561:
2278:
2110:
Banavar, J. R., Damuth, J., Maritan, A., & Rinaldo, A. (2002).
2518:
2333:
1995:
1000:
211:
3714:
2967:
977:"Allometric scaling of plant energetics and population density"
484:
Hence SMR for large organisms are lower than small organisms.
1217:
Thompson, D'Arcy
Wentworth (1992). Bonner, John Tyler (ed.).
1105:
Enquist, B. J.; Economo, E. P.; Huxman, T. E.; Allen, A. P.;
475:{\displaystyle SMR=(B/M)=b_{o}M^{-1/4}e^{-{\frac {E}{k\,T}}}}
27:
Theory concerning metabolism and observed patterns in ecology
2263:"Effects of body size and temperature on population growth"
657:
The metabolic theory of ecology's main implication is that
71:
theory that aims to be universal in scope and application.
2766:
Stegen, J. C., Enquist, B. J., & Ferriere, R. (2009).
695:
as a by-product of energy production. These in turn cause
624:
are based on resource transport network models, where the
1607:
Hirst, A. G., Glazier, D. S., & Atkinson, D. (2014).
1044:
Enquist, B.J.; Economo, E.P.; Huxman, T.E.; Allen, A.P.;
715:
MTE has profound implications for the interpretation of
975:
Enquist, B.J., Brown, J. H., & West, G. B. (1998).
488:
Past debate over mechanisms and the allometric exponent
723:. Classically, species are thought of as being either
92:
on the other hand, indicates the metabolic rate of an
2394:
Denney N.H., Jennings S. & Reynolds J.D. (2002).
1725:
Price, C.A. Enquist, B.J. & Savage, V.M. (2007).
382:
299:
235:
145:
363:{\displaystyle B=b_{o}M^{3/4}e^{-{\frac {E}{k\,T}}}}
4390:
4290:
4215:
4088:
4025:
3885:
3753:
3655:
3534:
3461:
3418:
3340:
3307:
3204:
3116:
3010:
2713:Terribile, L.C., & Diniz-Filho, J.A.F. (2009).
2105:
2103:
1969:
1967:
1965:
1425:Sterner, Robert W.; Elser, James J. (2002-11-17).
474:
362:
264:
183:
38:) is the ecological component of the more general
1356:Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada
1111:"Scaling metabolism from organisms to ecosystems"
1050:"Scaling metabolism from organisms to ecosystems"
2768:"Advancing the metabolic theory of biodiversity"
1922:Kearney, M.R., Domingos, T., Nisbet, R. (2014).
1602:
1600:
1598:
2189:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2116:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1831:
1829:
1866:
1864:
1539:"Metabolic scaling: consensus or controversy?"
739:selected, which fits with the prediction that
3726:
2979:
2369:Enrique Cadenas; Lester Packer, eds. (1999).
2112:"Supply-demand balance and metabolic scaling"
579:, where c is a proportionality constant. The
8:
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960:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
894:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2256:
2254:
2252:
691:. For example, metabolic processes produce
583:model predicts exponents that vary between
3947:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
3733:
3719:
3711:
2986:
2972:
2964:
2783:
2675:
2665:
2419:
2218:
2208:
2145:
2135:
2037:
2035:
1939:
1898:
1888:
1760:
1750:
1687:
1677:
1564:
1554:
1543:Theoretical Biology and Medical Modelling
1510:
1322:
1134:
1073:
855:
853:
851:
849:
847:
845:
463:
454:
450:
436:
429:
419:
401:
381:
351:
342:
338:
324:
320:
310:
298:
253:
244:
240:
234:
180:
170:
166:
156:
144:
3845:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
3484:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
913:
911:
909:
907:
905:
218:is absolute temperature in kelvins, and
3877:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
841:
51:of cells all the way to the biosphere.
3685:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
2875:
2807:
2744:
2691:
2575:
2347:
2234:
2161:
2085:
2017:
1947:
1850:
1839:
1776:
1703:
1638:
1580:
1537:Agutter, P.S., Wheatley, D.N. (2004).
1471:
1022:
953:
887:
770:patterns of diversity across body size
537:. The majority view is that while the
265:{\displaystyle e^{-{\frac {E}{k\,T}}}}
2441:
2439:
575:object scales with its volume (V) as
7:
3700:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
4150:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
100:over the range of 0 to 40 °C.
3903:Ecological effects of biodiversity
25:
3239:Generalist and specialist species
707:earlier in their life histories.
611:In contrast, the arguments for a
3962:Occupancy–abundance relationship
2947:10.1046/j.1461-0248.2003.00526.x
2785:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01358.x
1404:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2000.00185.x
1293:"Elements of Physical Biology".
831:Occupancy-abundance relationship
184:{\displaystyle B=B_{o}M^{3/4}\,}
3982:Relative abundance distribution
3695:Plant defense against herbivory
3562:Competitive exclusion principle
3274:Mesopredator release hypothesis
3567:Consumer–resource interactions
1800:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1431:. Princeton University Press.
711:Population and community level
409:
395:
129:is organism mass (in kg), and
1:
4413:Biological data visualization
4240:Environmental niche modelling
3967:Population viability analysis
2064:10.1126/science.284.5420.1677
1820:10.1016/s0022-5193(86)80107-2
784:(speciation and extinction)
98:Van't Hoff-Arrhenius equation
3898:Density-dependent inhibition
932:10.1126/science.276.5309.122
816:Dynamic energy budget theory
697:damage at the cellular level
4367:Liebig's law of the minimum
4202:Resource selection function
3093:Metabolic theory of ecology
2739:10.1016/j.actao.2008.09.006
2373:. New York: Marcel Dekker.
1454:Canadian Journal of Zoology
75:Fundamental concepts in MTE
32:metabolic theory of ecology
18:Metabolic Theory of Ecology
4559:
4267:Niche apportionment models
3987:Relative species abundance
3191:Primary nutritional groups
3088:List of feeding behaviours
1109:; Gillooly, J. F. (2003).
653:Implications of the theory
4516:
4448:Ecosystem based fisheries
4060:Interspecific competition
3952:Minimum viable population
3810:Maximum sustainable yield
3795:Intraspecific competition
3790:Effective population size
3670:Anti-predator adaptations
3181:Photosynthetic efficiency
1048:; Gillooly, J.F. (1997).
4438:Ecological stoichiometry
4403:Alternative stable state
2646:Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
1428:Ecological Stoichiometry
1229:10.1017/cbo9781107325852
40:Metabolic Scaling Theory
4282:Ontogenetic niche shift
4145:Ideal free distribution
4055:Ecological facilitation
3805:Malthusian growth model
3775:Consumer-resource model
3632:Paradox of the plankton
3597:Energy systems language
3317:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
3284:Optimal foraging theory
3259:Heterotrophic nutrition
2667:10.1073/pnas.0407735101
2468:10.1126/science.1072380
2210:10.1073/pnas.1322700111
1752:10.1073/pnas.0702242104
1679:10.1073/pnas.1709141115
1324:2027/mdp.39015078668525
826:Evolutionary physiology
661:, and the influence of
4428:Ecological forecasting
4372:Marginal value theorem
4170:Landscape epidemiology
4105:Cross-boundary subsidy
4040:Biological interaction
3390:Microbial intelligence
3078:Green world hypothesis
2412:10.1098/rspb.2002.2138
2137:10.1073/pnas.162216899
1871:Kearney, M.R. (2022).
1849:Cite journal requires
1556:10.1186/1742-4682-1-13
476:
364:
266:
185:
113:Theoretical background
4433:Ecological humanities
4332:Ecological energetics
4277:Niche differentiation
4140:Habitat fragmentation
3908:Ecological extinction
3855:Small population size
3607:Feed conversion ratio
3587:Ecological succession
3519:San Francisco Estuary
3433:Ecological efficiency
3375:Microbial cooperation
1941:10.1093/biosci/biv013
1737:(32): 313204–132091.
581:Dynamic Energy Budget
477:
365:
267:
186:
46:. It posits that the
4458:Evolutionary ecology
4423:Ecological footprint
4418:Ecological economics
4342:Ecological threshold
4337:Ecological indicator
4207:Source–sink dynamics
4160:Land change modeling
4155:Insular biogeography
4007:Species distribution
3746:Modelling ecosystems
3405:Microbial metabolism
3244:Intraguild predation
3033:Biogeochemical cycle
2999:Modelling ecosystems
380:
297:
233:
143:
4543:Theoretical ecology
4538:Ecological theories
4508:Theoretical ecology
4483:Natural environment
4347:Ecosystem diversity
4317:Ecological collapse
4307:Bateman's principle
4262:Limiting similarity
4175:Landscape limnology
3997:Species homogeneity
3835:Population modeling
3830:Population dynamics
3647:Trophic state index
2854:10.1038/nature13470
2846:2014Natur.512...39M
2731:2009AcO....35..163T
2658:2005PNAS..102..140G
2511:1998Natur.395..163E
2460:2002Sci...297.1545A
2326:1999Natur.401..907E
2267:American Naturalist
2201:2014PNAS..111.2417R
2128:2002PNAS...9910506B
2122:(16): 10506–10509.
2056:1999Sci...284.1677W
1988:1999Natur.399..130B
1812:1986JThBi.121..269K
1743:2007PNAS..10413204P
1307:1925Natur.116R.461.
1301:(2917): 461. 1925.
1136:10.1038/nature01671
1127:2003Natur.423..639E
1075:10.1038/nature01671
1066:2003Natur.423..639E
993:1998Natur.395..163E
788:Ecosystem processes
762:molecular evolution
721:community diversity
672:population dynamics
517:exponent of either
4519:Outline of ecology
4468:Industrial ecology
4463:Functional ecology
4327:Ecological deficit
4272:Niche construction
4235:Ecosystem engineer
4012:Species–area curve
3933:Introduced species
3748:: Other components
3680:Deimatic behaviour
3582:Ecological network
3514:North Pacific Gyre
3499:hydrothermal vents
3438:Ecological pyramid
3385:Microbial food web
3196:Primary production
3141:Foundation species
1877:Biological Reviews
1223:. Cambridge Core.
1220:On Growth and Form
1180:10.1007/BF00386231
811:Constructal theory
782:evolutionary rates
626:limiting resources
515:allometric scaling
472:
360:
262:
224:Boltzmann constant
181:
4525:
4524:
4408:Balance of nature
4165:Landscape ecology
4050:Community ecology
3992:Species diversity
3928:Indicator species
3923:Gradient analysis
3800:Logistic function
3708:
3707:
3665:Animal coloration
3642:Trophic mutualism
3380:Microbial ecology
3171:Photoheterotrophs
3156:Myco-heterotrophy
3068:Ecosystem ecology
3053:Carrying capacity
3018:Abiotic component
2778:(10): 1001–1015.
2505:(6698): 163–165.
2406:(1506): 2229–37.
2320:(6756): 907–911.
1982:(6732): 130–132.
1890:10.1111/brv.12668
1672:(13): 3416–3421.
1625:10.1111/ele.12334
1619:(10): 1274–1281.
1121:(6940): 639–642.
1060:(6940): 639–642.
987:(6698): 163–165.
733:carrying capacity
717:population growth
699:, which promotes
468:
356:
258:
204:activation energy
16:(Redirected from
4550:
4225:Ecological niche
4197:selection theory
4017:Umbrella species
4002:Species richness
3938:Invasive species
3918:Flagship species
3825:Population cycle
3820:Overexploitation
3785:Ecological yield
3735:
3728:
3721:
3712:
3617:Mesotrophic soil
3557:Climax community
3489:Marine food webs
3428:Biomagnification
3229:Chemoorganotroph
3083:Keystone species
3043:Biotic component
2988:
2981:
2974:
2965:
2959:
2958:
2929:
2923:
2922:
2894:
2888:
2887:
2881:
2873:
2829:
2820:
2819:
2813:
2805:
2787:
2763:
2757:
2756:
2750:
2742:
2710:
2704:
2703:
2697:
2689:
2679:
2669:
2637:
2631:
2630:
2594:
2588:
2587:
2581:
2573:
2556:(869): 117–125.
2545:
2539:
2538:
2494:
2488:
2487:
2454:(5586): 1545–8.
2443:
2434:
2433:
2423:
2391:
2385:
2384:
2366:
2360:
2359:
2353:
2345:
2305:
2299:
2298:
2258:
2247:
2246:
2240:
2232:
2222:
2212:
2195:(7): 2417–2424.
2180:
2174:
2173:
2167:
2159:
2149:
2139:
2107:
2098:
2097:
2091:
2083:
2050:(5420): 1677–9.
2039:
2030:
2029:
2023:
2015:
1971:
1960:
1959:
1953:
1945:
1943:
1919:
1913:
1912:
1902:
1892:
1868:
1859:
1858:
1852:
1847:
1845:
1837:
1833:
1824:
1823:
1795:
1789:
1788:
1782:
1774:
1764:
1754:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1709:
1701:
1691:
1681:
1657:
1651:
1650:
1644:
1636:
1604:
1593:
1592:
1586:
1578:
1568:
1558:
1534:
1525:
1524:
1514:
1505:(7): 1797–1799.
1490:
1484:
1483:
1477:
1469:
1449:
1443:
1442:
1422:
1416:
1415:
1386:
1380:
1379:
1351:
1345:
1344:
1326:
1315:10.1038/116461b0
1290:
1284:
1283:
1260:Science Progress
1255:
1249:
1248:
1246:
1245:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1138:
1102:
1096:
1095:
1077:
1041:
1035:
1034:
1028:
1020:
972:
966:
965:
959:
951:
915:
900:
899:
893:
885:
857:
620:
619:
615:
606:
604:
602:
592:
591:
587:
566:
565:
561:
556:
555:
551:
546:
545:
541:
536:
535:
531:
526:
525:
521:
511:
510:
506:
501:
500:
496:
481:
479:
478:
473:
471:
470:
469:
467:
455:
445:
444:
440:
424:
423:
405:
369:
367:
366:
361:
359:
358:
357:
355:
343:
333:
332:
328:
315:
314:
271:
269:
268:
263:
261:
260:
259:
257:
245:
226:in eV/K or J/K:
196:Boltzmann factor
190:
188:
187:
182:
179:
178:
174:
161:
160:
21:
4558:
4557:
4553:
4552:
4551:
4549:
4548:
4547:
4528:
4527:
4526:
4521:
4512:
4498:Systems ecology
4386:
4357:Extinction debt
4322:Ecological debt
4312:Bioluminescence
4293:
4286:
4255:marine habitats
4230:Ecological trap
4211:
4091:
4084:
4027:
4021:
3977:Rapoport's rule
3972:Priority effect
3913:Endemic species
3881:
3840:Population size
3756:
3749:
3739:
3709:
3704:
3657:
3651:
3637:Trophic cascade
3547:Bioaccumulation
3530:
3457:
3414:
3336:
3303:
3200:
3112:
3073:Ecosystem model
3006:
2992:
2962:
2935:Ecology Letters
2931:
2930:
2926:
2911:10.2307/2937256
2896:
2895:
2891:
2874:
2831:
2830:
2823:
2806:
2772:Ecology Letters
2765:
2764:
2760:
2743:
2719:Acta Oecologica
2712:
2711:
2707:
2690:
2639:
2638:
2634:
2611:10.2307/3545569
2596:
2595:
2591:
2574:
2547:
2546:
2542:
2496:
2495:
2491:
2445:
2444:
2437:
2393:
2392:
2388:
2381:
2368:
2367:
2363:
2346:
2307:
2306:
2302:
2260:
2259:
2250:
2233:
2182:
2181:
2177:
2160:
2109:
2108:
2101:
2084:
2041:
2040:
2033:
2016:
1973:
1972:
1963:
1946:
1921:
1920:
1916:
1870:
1869:
1862:
1848:
1838:
1835:
1834:
1827:
1797:
1796:
1792:
1775:
1724:
1723:
1719:
1702:
1659:
1658:
1654:
1637:
1613:Ecology Letters
1606:
1605:
1596:
1579:
1536:
1535:
1528:
1512:10.1890/03-0725
1492:
1491:
1487:
1470:
1466:10.1139/z83-037
1451:
1450:
1446:
1439:
1424:
1423:
1419:
1392:Ecology Letters
1388:
1387:
1383:
1368:10.1139/f70-065
1353:
1352:
1348:
1292:
1291:
1287:
1257:
1256:
1252:
1243:
1241:
1239:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1165:
1164:
1160:
1104:
1103:
1099:
1043:
1042:
1038:
1021:
974:
973:
969:
952:
917:
916:
903:
886:
874:10.1890/03-9000
859:
858:
843:
839:
802:
790:
713:
680:
655:
617:
613:
612:
600:
598:
594:
589:
585:
584:
563:
559:
558:
553:
549:
548:
543:
539:
538:
533:
529:
528:
523:
519:
518:
508:
504:
503:
498:
494:
493:
490:
459:
446:
425:
415:
378:
377:
347:
334:
316:
306:
295:
294:
289:
281:
249:
236:
231:
230:
162:
152:
141:
140:
135:
115:
106:
82:
77:
69:macroecological
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4556:
4554:
4546:
4545:
4540:
4530:
4529:
4523:
4522:
4517:
4514:
4513:
4511:
4510:
4505:
4500:
4495:
4490:
4485:
4480:
4478:Microecosystem
4475:
4470:
4465:
4460:
4455:
4450:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4394:
4392:
4388:
4387:
4385:
4384:
4379:
4377:Thorson's rule
4374:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4329:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4304:
4302:Assembly rules
4298:
4296:
4288:
4287:
4285:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4258:
4257:
4247:
4242:
4237:
4232:
4227:
4221:
4219:
4213:
4212:
4210:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4187:
4185:Patch dynamics
4182:
4180:Metapopulation
4177:
4172:
4167:
4162:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4096:
4094:
4086:
4085:
4083:
4082:
4077:
4075:Storage effect
4072:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4031:
4029:
4023:
4022:
4020:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3994:
3989:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3959:
3957:Neutral theory
3954:
3949:
3944:
3942:Native species
3935:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3889:
3887:
3883:
3882:
3880:
3879:
3874:
3873:
3872:
3867:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3815:Overpopulation
3812:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3761:
3759:
3751:
3750:
3740:
3738:
3737:
3730:
3723:
3715:
3706:
3705:
3703:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3661:
3659:
3653:
3652:
3650:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3622:Nutrient cycle
3619:
3614:
3612:Feeding frenzy
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3592:Energy quality
3589:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3552:Cascade effect
3549:
3544:
3538:
3536:
3532:
3531:
3529:
3528:
3527:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3465:
3463:
3459:
3458:
3456:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3424:
3422:
3416:
3415:
3413:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3395:Microbial loop
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3360:Lithoautotroph
3357:
3352:
3346:
3344:
3342:Microorganisms
3338:
3337:
3335:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3313:
3311:
3305:
3304:
3302:
3301:
3299:Prey switching
3296:
3291:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3271:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3210:
3208:
3202:
3201:
3199:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3176:Photosynthesis
3173:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3131:Chemosynthesis
3128:
3122:
3120:
3114:
3113:
3111:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3023:Abiotic stress
3020:
3014:
3012:
3008:
3007:
2993:
2991:
2990:
2983:
2976:
2968:
2961:
2960:
2924:
2905:(3): 355–379.
2889:
2821:
2758:
2725:(2): 163–173.
2705:
2632:
2605:(3): 514–527.
2589:
2562:10.1086/282063
2540:
2489:
2435:
2386:
2379:
2361:
2300:
2279:10.1086/381872
2273:(3): 429–441.
2248:
2175:
2099:
2031:
1961:
1914:
1883:(2): 557–575.
1860:
1851:|journal=
1825:
1806:(3): 269–282.
1790:
1717:
1652:
1594:
1526:
1485:
1460:(2): 281–288.
1444:
1437:
1417:
1398:(6): 540–550.
1381:
1362:(3): 606–609.
1346:
1285:
1250:
1237:
1209:
1158:
1097:
1036:
967:
926:(7): 122–126.
901:
868:(7): 1771–89.
840:
838:
835:
834:
833:
828:
823:
818:
813:
808:
801:
798:
789:
786:
772:and latitude.
712:
709:
679:
678:Organism level
676:
659:metabolic rate
654:
651:
622:scaling factor
489:
486:
466:
462:
458:
453:
449:
443:
439:
435:
432:
428:
422:
418:
414:
411:
408:
404:
400:
397:
394:
391:
388:
385:
371:
370:
354:
350:
346:
341:
337:
331:
327:
323:
319:
313:
309:
305:
302:
287:
279:
273:
272:
256:
252:
248:
243:
239:
192:
191:
177:
173:
169:
165:
159:
155:
151:
148:
133:
114:
111:
105:
102:
90:photosynthesis
81:
78:
76:
73:
56:metabolic rate
48:metabolic rate
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4555:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4535:
4533:
4520:
4515:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4503:Urban ecology
4501:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4464:
4461:
4459:
4456:
4454:
4451:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4395:
4393:
4389:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4362:Kleiber's law
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4299:
4297:
4295:
4289:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4256:
4253:
4252:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4228:
4226:
4223:
4222:
4220:
4218:
4214:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4186:
4183:
4181:
4178:
4176:
4173:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4161:
4158:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4135:Foster's rule
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4097:
4095:
4093:
4087:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4032:
4030:
4024:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3890:
3888:
3884:
3878:
3875:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3862:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3762:
3760:
3758:
3752:
3747:
3743:
3736:
3731:
3729:
3724:
3722:
3717:
3716:
3713:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3662:
3660:
3654:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3539:
3537:
3533:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3491:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3466:
3464:
3460:
3454:
3453:Trophic level
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3421:
3417:
3411:
3410:Phage ecology
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3400:Microbial mat
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3355:Bacteriophage
3353:
3351:
3348:
3347:
3345:
3343:
3339:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3322:Decomposition
3320:
3318:
3315:
3314:
3312:
3310:
3306:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3269:Mesopredators
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3214:Apex predator
3212:
3211:
3209:
3207:
3203:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3123:
3121:
3119:
3115:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3048:Biotic stress
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3015:
3013:
3009:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2989:
2984:
2982:
2977:
2975:
2970:
2969:
2966:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2941:(11): 990–5.
2940:
2936:
2928:
2925:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2893:
2890:
2885:
2879:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2840:(39): 39–44.
2839:
2835:
2828:
2826:
2822:
2817:
2811:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2762:
2759:
2754:
2748:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2709:
2706:
2701:
2695:
2687:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2636:
2633:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2593:
2590:
2585:
2579:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2544:
2541:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2519:10.1038/25977
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2493:
2490:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2442:
2440:
2436:
2431:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2390:
2387:
2382:
2380:0-8247-1723-6
2376:
2372:
2365:
2362:
2357:
2351:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2334:10.1038/44819
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2304:
2301:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2257:
2255:
2253:
2249:
2244:
2238:
2230:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2179:
2176:
2171:
2165:
2157:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2106:
2104:
2100:
2095:
2089:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2027:
2021:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1996:10.1038/20144
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1970:
1968:
1966:
1962:
1957:
1951:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1918:
1915:
1910:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1867:
1865:
1861:
1856:
1843:
1832:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1794:
1791:
1786:
1780:
1772:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1721:
1718:
1713:
1707:
1699:
1695:
1690:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1656:
1653:
1648:
1642:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1595:
1590:
1584:
1576:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1533:
1531:
1527:
1522:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1489:
1486:
1481:
1475:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1448:
1445:
1440:
1438:9780691074917
1434:
1430:
1429:
1421:
1418:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1385:
1382:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1350:
1347:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1289:
1286:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1254:
1251:
1240:
1238:9780521437769
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1221:
1213:
1210:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1162:
1159:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1137:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1107:Ignace, D. D.
1101:
1098:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1040:
1037:
1032:
1026:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
1001:10.1038/25977
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
971:
968:
963:
957:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
914:
912:
910:
908:
906:
902:
897:
891:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
856:
854:
852:
850:
848:
846:
842:
836:
832:
829:
827:
824:
822:
819:
817:
814:
812:
809:
807:
804:
803:
799:
797:
795:
787:
785:
783:
778:
773:
771:
767:
763:
757:
753:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
710:
708:
706:
702:
698:
694:
693:free radicals
690:
685:
677:
675:
673:
668:
664:
660:
652:
650:
646:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
609:
597:
582:
578:
573:
568:
516:
487:
485:
482:
464:
460:
456:
451:
447:
441:
437:
433:
430:
426:
420:
416:
412:
406:
402:
398:
392:
389:
386:
383:
375:
352:
348:
344:
339:
335:
329:
325:
321:
317:
311:
307:
303:
300:
293:
292:
291:
286:
278:
254:
250:
246:
241:
237:
229:
228:
227:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
208:electronvolts
205:
201:
197:
175:
171:
167:
163:
157:
153:
149:
146:
139:
138:
137:
132:
128:
124:
120:
119:Kleiber's law
112:
110:
104:Stoichiometry
103:
101:
99:
95:
91:
87:
79:
74:
72:
70:
64:
61:
57:
52:
49:
45:
44:Kleiber's law
41:
37:
33:
19:
4488:Regime shift
4473:Macroecology
4194:
4190:
4130:Edge effects
4100:Biogeography
4045:Commensalism
3893:Biodiversity
3770:Allee effect
3509:kelp forests
3462:Example webs
3327:Detritivores
3166:Organotrophs
3146:Kinetotrophs
3098:Productivity
3092:
2938:
2934:
2927:
2902:
2899:Ecol. Monogr
2898:
2892:
2878:cite journal
2837:
2833:
2810:cite journal
2775:
2771:
2761:
2747:cite journal
2722:
2718:
2708:
2694:cite journal
2652:(1): 140–5.
2649:
2645:
2635:
2602:
2598:
2592:
2578:cite journal
2553:
2549:
2543:
2502:
2498:
2492:
2451:
2447:
2403:
2399:
2389:
2370:
2364:
2350:cite journal
2317:
2313:
2303:
2270:
2266:
2237:cite journal
2192:
2188:
2178:
2164:cite journal
2119:
2115:
2088:cite journal
2047:
2043:
2020:cite journal
1979:
1975:
1950:cite journal
1931:
1927:
1917:
1900:11343/275140
1880:
1876:
1842:cite journal
1803:
1799:
1793:
1779:cite journal
1734:
1730:
1720:
1706:cite journal
1669:
1665:
1655:
1641:cite journal
1616:
1612:
1583:cite journal
1546:
1542:
1502:
1498:
1488:
1474:cite journal
1457:
1453:
1447:
1427:
1420:
1395:
1391:
1384:
1359:
1355:
1349:
1298:
1294:
1288:
1263:
1259:
1253:
1242:. Retrieved
1219:
1212:
1174:(1): 78–90.
1171:
1167:
1161:
1118:
1114:
1100:
1057:
1053:
1046:Ignace, D.D.
1039:
1025:cite journal
984:
980:
970:
956:cite journal
923:
919:
890:cite journal
865:
861:
791:
777:coral snakes
774:
758:
754:
748:
744:
740:
736:
728:
724:
714:
684:life history
681:
656:
647:
641:
637:
633:
610:
599:. Retrieved
596:"Add my Pet"
576:
571:
569:
491:
483:
376:
372:
284:
276:
274:
219:
215:
199:
193:
130:
126:
122:
116:
107:
83:
65:
53:
35:
31:
29:
4125:Disturbance
4028:interaction
3850:Recruitment
3780:Depensation
3572:Copiotrophs
3443:Energy flow
3365:Lithotrophy
3309:Decomposers
3289:Planktivore
3264:Insectivore
3254:Heterotroph
3219:Bacterivore
3186:Phototrophs
3136:Chemotrophs
3108:Restoration
3058:Competition
1266:: 150–170.
667:temperature
513:predict an
86:heterotroph
4532:Categories
4493:Sexecology
4070:Parasitism
4035:Antibiosis
3870:Resistance
3865:Resilience
3755:Population
3675:Camouflage
3627:Oligotroph
3542:Ascendency
3504:intertidal
3494:cold seeps
3448:Food chain
3249:Herbivores
3224:Carnivores
3151:Mixotrophs
3126:Autotrophs
3005:components
1934:(4): 341.
1928:BioScience
1244:2019-11-09
837:References
766:speciation
701:senescence
689:senescence
630:organelles
567:exponent.
80:Metabolism
60:endothermy
4398:Allometry
4352:Emergence
4080:Symbiosis
4065:Mutualism
3860:Stability
3765:Abundance
3577:Dominance
3535:Processes
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3420:Food webs
3294:Predation
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