Metal ions in aqueous solution

2246: 2426:

are also possible and the shell splits into two with differing distances from the central Ge. However, germanium(II) is readily oxidised to germanium(IV), for which only hydrolyzed species are expected. The important germanium(IV) species are anionic oxo-hydroxo mixed species, thus displaying intermediate behaviour between silicon and tin: the major species appear to be and the octameric , with occurring in smaller quantities.

867:

two metals. Other measures include the M–O vibration frequency and the M–O bond length. The strength of the M-O bond tends to increase with the charge and decrease as the size of the metal ion increases. In fact there is a very good linear correlation between hydration enthalpy and the ratio of charge squared to ionic radius, z/r. For ions in solution Shannon's "effective ionic radius" is the measure most often used.

842: 2501:, being strongly nonmetallic, prefer to form anions rather than cations in aqueous solution. Anion solvation is complicated because the water molecules point the other way: cations bind to the oxygen atom of water, with the hydrogens facing away, while anions prefer to bond asymmetrically to only one of the hydrogen atoms in a nearby water molecule. This results in significant water–water 1866: 830: 3838: 2309:(II) is a pseudo-Jahn-Teller-distorted octahedron. The bis aqua structure of the mercury(I) ion, , found in solid compounds, is not the same as that found in solution which involves three water molecules coordinated to each mercury completing a distorted tetrahedral arrangement. Another aqua species in which there is a metal-metal bond is the 2685: 2254: 2348:(III) is four-coordinate square planar in the solid state, and it is assumed to have the same structure in aqueous solution. Distortion occurs for low-coordinate metals with strong covalent tendencies due to the second-order Jahn-Teller effect. With oxidation state 4, however, the only unhydrolyzed species are the square antiprismatic 2677: 2448:(III) is eight-coordinate square antiprismatic in aqueous solution, though in the solid state it is nine-coordinate tricapped triangular prismatic. Although the structures for thallium(I), germanium(II), tin(II), lead(II), and antimony(III) are affected by the lone pairs, this is not so for bismuth(III). 4136:

There are very few oxo-aqua ions of metals in the oxidation state +5 or higher. Rather, the species found in aqueous solution are monomeric and polymeric oxyanions. Oxyanions can be viewed as the end products of hydrolysis, in which there are no water molecules attached to the metal, only oxide ions.

3857:

The hydrolysis of beryllium shows many of the characteristics typical of multiple hydrolysis reactions. The concentrations of various species, including polynuclear species with bridging hydroxide ions, change as a function of pH up to the precipitation of an insoluble hydroxide. Beryllium hydrolysis

1072:

is obtained as a ratio of peak areas. Here it refers to the number of water molecules in the first solvation shell. Molecules in the second solvation shell exchange rapidly with solvent molecules, giving rise to a small change in the chemical shift value of un-coordinated water molecules from that of

4324:

effects. Very fast and very slow reactions are difficult to study. The most information on the kinetics a water exchange comes from systems with a residence time between about 1 μs and 1 s. The enthalpy and entropy of activation, ΔH and ΔS can be obtained by observing the variation of rate constant

1668:

is not simple, the general conclusion that can be taken from these data is that the strength of the M-O bond increases with increasing ionic charge and decreasing ionic size. The M-O stretching frequency of an aqua ion in solution may be compared with its counterpart in a crystal of known structure.

1503:

Most of these data refer to concentrated solutions in which there are very few water molecules that are not in the primary hydration spheres of the cation or anion, which may account for some of the variation of solvation number with concentration even if there is no contact ion pairing. The angle θ

4636:

The ion is relatively inert to substitution reactions because its electrons are effectively in a closed shell electronic configuration, 3s3p, making dissociation an energy-expensive reaction. Cr, which has an octahedral structure and a d electronic configuration is also relatively inert, as are Rh

3588:

from potentiometric (pH) titration data. The process is far from straightforward for a variety of reasons. Sometimes the species in solution can be precipitated as salts and their structure confirmed by X-ray crystallography. In other cases, precipitated salts bear no relation to what is postulated

2425:

media. Quantum mechanical calculations suggests that the germanium(II) aqua ion shows extreme distortion of the first coordination sphere due to the high charge density and the stereochemically active lone pairs. The first shell is calculated to usually have a solvation number of 6, but numbers 4–7

1055:

Information obtained on the nature of ions in solution varies with the nature of the experimental method used. Some methods reveal properties of the cation directly, others reveal properties that depend on both cation and anion. Some methods supply information of a static nature, a kind of snapshot

870:

Water molecules in the first and second solvation shells can exchange places. The rate of exchange varies enormously, depending on the metal and its oxidation state. Metal aqua ions are always accompanied in solution by solvated anions, but much less is known about anion solvation than about cation

866:

The strength of the metal-oxygen bond can be estimated in various ways. The hydration enthalpy, though based indirectly on experimental measurements, is the most reliable measure. The scale of values is based on an arbitrarily chosen zero, but this does not affect differences between the values for

862:

to other water molecules. The latter are said to reside in the second coordination sphere. The second coordination sphere is not a well defined entity for ions with charge 1 or 2. In dilute solutions it merges into the water structure in which there is an irregular network of hydrogen bonds between

3711:

ions ion of post-transition metals. The ions which show the strongest tendency to hydrolyze for their charge and size are Pd, Sn and Hg. This is because of the low coordination numbers of ions in this part of the periodic table (also including Ag and Au), so that fewer water molecules are present

2928:

Single ion hydration entropy can be derived. Values are shown in the following table. The more negative the value, the more there is ordering in forming the aqua ion. It is notable that the heavy alkali metals have rather small entropy values which suggests that both the first and second solvation

1236:. In contrast to X-ray diffraction, neutrons are scattered by nuclei and there is no relationship with atomic number. Indeed, use can be made of the fact that different isotopes of the same element can have widely different scattering powers. In a classic experiment, measurements were made on four 4113:

because the concentration of water is assumed to be constant. This applies in general: any equilibrium constant is equally valid for a product with an oxide ion as for the product with two hydroxyl ions. The two possibilities can only be distinguished by determining the structure of a salt in the

1507:

The measured solvation number is a time-averaged value for the solution as a whole. When a measured primary solvation number is fractional there are two or more species with integral solvation numbers present in equilibrium with each other. This also applies to solvation numbers that are integral

4675:

When the water molecule(s) of the second hydration shell are replaced by ligands, the complex is said to be an outer-sphere complex, or solvent-shared ion pair. The formation of solvent-shared or contact ion pairs is particularly relevant to the determination of solvation numbers of aqua ions by

2913:

stabilization. The general trend is shown by the magenta line which passes through Ca, Mn and Zn, for which there is no stabilization in an octahedral crystal field. Hydration energy increases as size decreases. Crystal field splitting confers extra stability on the aqua ion. The maximum crystal

1555:

can be used to measure the M-O stretching frequency in metal aqua ions. Raman spectroscopy is particularly useful because the Raman spectrum of water is weak whereas the infrared spectrum of water is intense. Interpretation of the vibration frequencies is somewhat complicated by the presence, in

2211:(IV) is nine-coordinate tricapped trigonal prismatic, and it is assumed that the same is true for the other actinide(IV) cations in aqueous solutions (as that is also their solid-state configuration). Studies on coordination number and/or structure for actinides(III) to date stretch only to 2277:

distortion. In the copper case the two axial Cu−O distances are 238 pm, whereas the four equatorial Cu−O distances are 195 pm in the solid state. However, it is unclear whether Cu has a solvation number of 5 or 6 in aqueous solution, with conflicting experimental reports. The structure of

6620:

Lim, Len Herald V.; Bhattacharjee, Anirban; Asam, S. Sikander; Hofer, Thomas S.; Randolf, Bernhard R.; Rode, Bernd M. (2010). "Structural and Dynamical Aspects of the Unsymmetric Hydration of Sb(III): An ab initio Quantum Mechanical Charge Field Molecular Dynamics Simulation".

1689:

relate to the movement of ions through a solution. When an ion moves through a solution it tends to take both first and second solvation shells with it. Hence solvation numbers measured from dynamic properties tend to be much higher that those obtained from static properties.

825:

have been greyed out due to a lack of experimental data. For some highly radioactive elements, experimental chemistry has been done, and aqua cations may have been formed, but no experimental information is available regarding the structure of those putative aqua ions.

2161:(III) is tricapped triangular prismatic, but has a significant water deficit: one of the capping water molecules is significantly closer to the lutetium than the remaining ones and the average coordination number is only 8.2 rather than 9. Based on its ionic radius, 94:

with other water molecules in a secondary solvation shell. Water molecules in the first hydration shell exchange with molecules in the second solvation shell and molecules in the bulk liquid. The residence time of a molecule in the first shell varies among the

4667:

In reality this is a substitution reaction in which one or more water molecules from the first hydration shell of the metal ion are replaced by ligands, L. The complex is described as an inner-sphere complex. A complex such as may be described as a contact

2444:(III) aqua ions may exist in dilute solutions of antimony(III) in concentrated acids. Quantum mechanical calculations reveal a solvation number of 8, with the first coordination sphere splitting into two hydration hemispheres with 4 water molecules each. 863:

water molecules. With tripositive ions the high charge on the cation polarizes the water molecules in the first solvation shell to such an extent that they form strong enough hydrogen bonds with molecules in the second shell to form a more stable entity.

3728:

is close to zero. This is typical of reactions between a hard cation and a hard anion, such as the hydroxide ion. It means that the standard entropy charge is the major contributor to the standard free energy change and hence the equilibrium constant.

2672:

in water, which gives the sum of cation and anion solvation enthalpies. Then, by considering the data for different anions with the same cation and different cations with the same anion, single ion values relative to an arbitrary zero, are derived.

2505:

and network formation already within the first hydration shell, to an extent that does not occur for cation solvation. Such interactions are larger for the heavier and larger halides; the hydrogen bonding decreases in strength as one proceeds from

3830: 6181:

Frank, Patrick; Benfatto, Maurizio; Szilagyi, Robert K.; D'Angelo, Paola; Della Longa, Stefano; Hodgson, Keith O. (2005). "The Solution Structure of and Its Implications for Rack-Induced Bonding in Blue Copper Protein Active Sites".

2293:(II) in dilute solutions. In concentrated solutions the Zn ion may adopt a 4-coordinate, tetrahedral, structure, but the evidence is not conclusive because of the possibility of ion pairing and/or hydrolysis. The solvation number of 2533:

atoms in water appear to have a first hydration shell composed of 16±2 water molecules at a distance of 280–540 pm, and a weaker second hydration shell is found out to 800 pm. Similar hydration spheres have been found for

2356:(IV), , and even they are extremely prone to hydrolysis. Such a zirconium cation is only formed in dilute solutions of Zr in strong acid, and in practice the cationic species encountered of zirconium and hafnium are polynuclear. 3816: 2577:) of one oxide ion and 5 water molecules. Titanyl, TiO, has a similar structure. Vanadium(V) is believed to exist as the dioxo-ion at pH less than 2, but the evidence for this ion depends on the formation of complexes, such as 1876:

is not a metal, but like them it tends to lose its valence electron in chemical reactions, forming a cation H. In aqueous solution, this immediately attaches itself to a water molecule, forming a species generally symbolised as

2340:(II) aqua ions were originally thought to be square planar, but are actually strongly tetragonally elongated square-pyramidal or octahedral with the extra one or two water molecules extremely loosely bound. The structure of 5356:. For example, comparing the potentials for zinc (-0.75 V) with those of iron (Fe(II) -0.47 V, Fe(III) -0.06 V) it is seen that iron ions are more easily reduced than zinc ions. This is the basis for using zinc to provide 2192:

through lutetium with the average coordination number dropping to 8.2 at lutetium(III). The configuration is maintained despite the small size of the cations and the water deficit, probably due to strong hydrogen bonding.

3201: 1204:

This technique requires the use of relatively concentrated solutions. X-rays are scattered by electrons, so scattering power increases with atomic number. This makes hydrogen atoms all but invisible to X-ray scattering.

3858:

is unusual in that the concentration of is too low to be measured. Instead a trimer (. The reduction in effective charge releases free energy in the form of a decrease of the entropy of ordering at the charge centers.

6348:

Azam, S. S.; Lim, L.; Hofer, T. S.; Randolf, B. R.; Rode, B. M. (2009). "Hydrated Germanium (II): Irregular Structural and Dynamical Properties Revealed by a Quantum Mechanical Charge Field Molecular Dynamics Study".

3344: 1528:. This is particularly relevant when measurements are made on concentrated salt solutions. For example, a solvation number of 3 for a lithium chloride solution could be interpreted as being due to the equilibrium 845:

First and second solvation shells of an octahedral aqua ion. Up to 12 water molecules may be present in the second shell (only two are shown in this diagram) linked by hydrogen bonds to the molecules in the first

2904: 4271: 3715:

The standard enthalpy change for the first hydrolysis step is generally not very different from that of the dissociation of pure water. Consequently, the standard enthalpy change for the substitution reaction

1240:

solutions using the combinations of Ni, Ni, Cl and Cl isotopes to yield a very detailed picture of cation and anion solvation. Data for a number of metal salts show some dependence on the salt concentration.

4300:

2 / k. This quantity with the dimension of time is useful because it is independent of concentration. The quantity 1/k, also with dimension of time, equal to the half life divided by 0.6932, is known as the

1504:

gives the angle of tilt of the water molecules relative to a plane in the aqua ion. This angle is affected by the hydrogen bonds formed between water molecules in the primary and secondary solvation shells.

4684:

of the complex is about 1 but varies with ionic strength. The concentration of the rather weak complex increases from about 0.1% for a 10mM solution to about 70% for a 1M solution (1M = 1 mol dm).

1197:

A solution containing an aqua ion does not have the long-range order that would be present in a crystal containing the same ion, but there is short-range order. X-ray diffraction on solutions yields a

2440:(III) is calculated to form hydrolyzed species only. The stable cationic arsenic(III) species in water is calculated to be , though hydrolysis usually proceeds further to neutral and anionic species. 6674:

Ayala, Regla; Martínez, José Manuel; Pappalardo, Rafael R.; Sánchez Marcos, Enrique (2012). "Quantum-Mechanical Study on the Aquaions and Hydrolyzed Species of Po(IV), Te(IV), and Bi(III) in Water".

3615:

shows a linear relationship with the ratio of charge to M-O distance, z/d. Ions fall into four groups. The slope of the straight line is the same for all groups, but the intercept, A, is different.

2157:(III) are both eight-coordinate, but have different structures: scandium has an unusual dicapped triangular prismatic structure (with one cap location empty), while yttrium is square antiprismatic. 3712:

around the cation and they experience more electrostatic force than normal. A similar situation affects Be, the smallest aqua cation, which is also more acidic than would normally be expected.

2403:(III) are also six-coordinate octahedral. The coordination geometry of thallium(I) is not experimentally known, but it is likely to be hemidirected with a large gap in the coordination sphere. 2313:(II) species formulated as . Each molybdenum is surrounded by four water molecules in a square-planar arrangement, in a structure similar to that of the known structure of the chloro complex . 2522:

seems to be more metallic: a cationic astatine(I) species is inferred from trace-scale experiments in acidic solutions, and sometimes symbolised At, but its structure has not been determined.

6511:

Persson, Ingmar; Lyczko, Krzysztof; Lundberg, Daniel; Eriksson, Lars; Płaczek, Anna (2011). "Coordination Chemistry Study of Hydrated and Solvated Lead(II) Ions in Solution and Solid State".

3426: 1201:

from which the coordination number of the metal ion and metal-oxygen distance may be derived. With aqua ions of high charge some information is obtained about the second solvation shell.

2668:

The enthalpy for this reaction is not directly measurable, because all measurements use salt solutions that contain both cation and anion. Most experimental measurements relate to the

3549: 6255:

Finholt, James E.; Leupin, Peter; Sykes, A. Geoffrey (1983). "Kinetics and mechanism of substitution of the quadruply bonded molybdenum(II) aqua dimer with thiocyanate and oxalate".

4676:

methods that require the use of concentrated solutions of salts, as ion pairing is concentration-dependent. Consider, for example, the formation of the complex in solutions of MgCl

2434:(II) is not well-established and could be anywhere from five to seven. In practice these cations tend to be polynuclear. For tin(IV) and lead(IV) there are only hydrolyzed species. 2046: 5834:

Zundel, G.; Metzger, H. (1968). "Energiebänder der tunnelnden Überschuß-Protonen in flüssigen Säuren. Eine IR-spektroskopische Untersuchung der Natur der Gruppierungen H5O2+".

1208:

Large angle X-ray scattering has been used to characterize the second solvation shell with trivalent ions such as Cr and Rh. The second hydration shell of Cr was found to have

4487:

Note the general increase in the residence time from vanadium to nickel, which mirrors the decrease in ion size with increasing atomic number, which is a general trend in the

2914:

field stabilization energy occurs at Ni. The agreement of the hydration enthalpies with predictions provided one basis for the general acceptance of crystal field theory.

2494:(IV) should be similar to tellurium(IV), though a little weaker, in its tendency towards hydrolysis. The structure of polonium(II) does not appear to have been studied. 1669:

If the frequencies are very similar it can be concluded that the coordination number of the metal ion is the same in solution as it is in a compound in the solid state.

3575: 3821:

The change in ionic charge is responsible for the effect as the aqua ion has a greater ordering effect on the solution than the less highly charged hydroxo complex.

2328:(III), all octahedral. (Ruthenium and iridium structures have only been examined in the solid state, but it is assumed that they are the same in aqueous solution.) 1556:

octahedral and tetrahedral ions, of two vibrations, a symmetric one measured in the Raman spectrum and an anti-symmetric one, measured in the infrared spectrum.

4145:

A water molecule in the first solvation shell of an aqua ion may exchange places with a water molecule in the bulk solvent. It is usually assumed that the

2332:(III) is questionable (and may be strongly hydrolyzed in aqueous solution), and molybdenum(II) dimerises with each molybdenum binding four water molecules. 1948:

cation in water is probably tetrahedral and four-coordinated. There are most probably six water molecules in the primary solvation sphere of the octahedral

6546:

Bhattacharjee, Anirban; Hofer, Thomas S.; Pribil, Andreas B.; Randolf, Bernhard R.; Rode, Bernd M. (2009). "Hydrolysis of As(III): A femtosecond process".

3735: 3431:

In practice the first definition is more useful because equilibrium constants are determined from measurements of hydrogen ion concentrations. In general,

813:, are clearly metals, but form only covalent compounds in the highest oxidation states: their aqua cations are restricted to their lower oxidation states. 2219:(III) through lawrencium(III) are all nine-coordinate tricapped triangular prismatic with the capping positions fully occupied. No data is available for 5918: 3707:

pre-transition metal ions or lanthanide ions. The slightly less resistant group includes the transition metal ions. The third group contains mostly

3068: 5873: 5836: 4625:

Solvent exchange is generally slower for trivalent than for divalent ions, as the higher electrical charge on the cation makes for stronger M-OH

6321:

Pan, Kuan; Fu, Yi-Chang; Huang, Teh-Shoon (December 1964). "Polarographic Behavior of Germanium(II)‐Perchlorate in Perchloric Acid Solutions".

3585: 2114:

at 2.8 mol·dm. The enthalpy of solvation decreases with increasing ionic radius. Various solid hydrates are known with 8-coordination in

3224: 7190: 7171: 7152: 7133: 7114: 7063: 7021: 6955: 6746: 5751: 5680: 5610: 5577: 5525: 5479: 874:

Understanding of the nature of aqua ions is helped by having information on the nature of solvated cations in mixed solvents and non-aqueous

1888:

The solvation of H in water is not fully characterised and many different structures have been suggested. Two well-known structures are the

2834: 4183: 3589:

to be in solution, because a particular crystalline substances may have both low solubility and very low concentration in the solutions.

2518:

stemming from the higher electric fields, and increasing geometrical strain for the hydrogen bonding. The rare and extremely radioactive

2143: 5778: 5628: 7034: 6875: 5416:

Shannon, R.D. (1976). "Revised effective ionic radii and systematic studies of interatomic distances in halides and chalcogenides".

6471:"Hydrated and Solvated Tin(II) Ions in Solution and the Solid State, and a Coordination Chemistry Overview of the d10s2Metal Ions" 1073:

water itself. The main disadvantage of this method is that it requires fairly concentrated solutions, with the associated risk of

4650: 2652:

The main goal of thermodynamics in this context is to derive estimates of single-ion thermodynamic quantities such as hydration

2126:

are most probably eight-coordinate square antiprismatic (although seven-coordination for calcium cannot presently be excluded).

5805:

Hulthe, G.; Stenhagen, G.; Wennerström, O.; Ottosson, C-H. (1997). "Water cluster studied by electrospray mass spectrometry".

3846: 3050:

There are two ways of looking at an equilibrium involving hydrolysis of an aqua ion. Considering the dissociation equilibrium

7215: 2921:

ions show an increasingly negative values at atomic number increases, in line with the decrease in ionic radius known as the

6741:. Gmelin Handbook of Inorganic and Organometallic Chemistry. Vol. 8 (8th ed.). Springer-Verlag. pp. 220–221. 6593:

Jander, G.; Hartmann, H.-J. (1965). "Über Reaktionen von Antimon(III) in wäßriger Lösung. III: Polarographische Messungen".

2344:(I) is disputed: it may be two-coordinate, or it may be four-coordinate with two extra very loosely bound water molecules. 6184: 2824:

There is an excellent linear correlation between hydration enthalpy and the ratio of charge squared, z, to M-O distance, r

2409:

is likewise not a metal, and silicon(IV) is a strong enough acid to deprotonate bound OH. Thus various forms of hydrated

1224:. This implies that every molecule in the first hydration shell is hydrogen bonded to two molecules in the second shell. 5671:

Enderby, J.E. (1987). "Diffraction Studies of Aqueous Ionic Solutions". In Bellisent-Funel, M-C.; Neilson, G.W. (eds.).

4694: 1233: 1198: 2478:(IV) appears to be ; it predominates in dilute solutions below pH 2. Above pH 4, the dominating species becomes TeO(OH) 2430:(II) is 3-coordinate hemidirected with a very large gap in the coordination sphere of tin(II). The hydration number of 47:, determined by a variety of experimental methods is 4 for Li and Be and 6 for most elements in periods 3 and 4 of the 5807: 4302: 1678: 79:, increases. Aqua ions are subject to hydrolysis. The logarithm of the first hydrolysis constant is proportional to 6710:

Robertson, William H.; Johnson, Mark A. (2003). "Molecular Aspects of Halide Ion Hydration: The Cluster Approach".

6101: 2184:, the coordination number is maintained at 9 with a tricapped trigonal prismatic structure, although starting from 4320:) for Ir. It depends on factors such as the size and charge on the ion and, in the case of transition metal ions, 3363: 2130:

is not as well-studied: it seems to have a coordination number of either eight or nine. Theoretical simulation of

2316:

There are a few divalent and trivalent aqua ions of transition metals in the second and third transition series:

854:, also known as the first, or primary, solvation shell. The bond between a water molecule and the metal ion is a 851: 5871:

Wicke, E.; Eigen, M.; Ackermann, Th (1954). "Über den Zustand des Protons (Hydroniumions) in wäßriger Lösung".

4150: 3350: 858:, with the oxygen atom donating both electrons to the bond. Each coordinated water molecule may be attached by 758: 4114:

solid state. Oxo bridges tend to occur when the metal oxidation state is high. An example is provided by the

3437: 2282:(III) in aqueous solution has not been determined. Copper(I) is estimated to be four-coordinate tetrahedral. 1512:

solution could be interpreted as being due to presence of two different aqua ions with equal concentrations.

2669: 2558:(VI) ions. They can be viewed as particularly stable hydrolysis products in a hypothetical reaction such as 2550:

Some elements in oxidation states higher than 3 form stable, aquated, oxo ions. Well known examples are the

1933: 4492: 4177:

in a chemical reaction. The rate of this reaction is proportional to the concentration of the aqua ion, .

4122:

with an oxide bridge on each edge of the triangle and a fourth oxide which bridges to all three Mo atoms.

3059: 2922: 2177: 2021: 5743: 5353: 4146: 2571: 2384: 2367:

is not a metal, and boron(III) is too acidic for an aqua ion to exist: deprotonation proceeds as far as

1548: 7078: 4101:

However, the equilibrium constant for the loss of two protons applies equally well to the equilibrium

833:

Schematic representation of the aqua ion . The oxygen atoms are arranged at the vertices of a regular

7090: 6555: 6425: 5637: 5425: 4656: 4646: 3578: 2633: 2249:

Jahn-Teller distorted octahedral structure of found in the solid state and possibly also in solution

2188:

the capping water molecules are no longer equally strongly bounded. A water deficit then appears for

1753: 855: 850:

In aqueous solution the water molecules directly attached to the metal ion are said to belong to the

3554:

charges are omitted for the sake of generality and activities have been replaced by concentrations.

1524:

Another possibility is that there is interaction between a solvated cation and an anion, forming an

789:, are known. A few metallic elements that are commonly found only in high oxidation states, such as 1885:(sometimes loosely written H). Such hydration forms cations that can in essence be considered as . 1682: 1665: 6995:

A comprehensive database of published data on equilibrium constants of metal complexes and ligands

4633:

O. The values in the table show that this is due to both activation enthalpy and entropy factors.

2215:. However, since lawrencium(III) has a similar ionic radius to dysprosium(III), it is likely that 1068:

give separate peaks for molecules in the first solvation shell and for other water molecules. The

7230: 7051: 6374: 5853: 5653: 2240: 1552: 1492: 1009: 891: 887: 5626:

Neilson, G.W.; Enderby, J.E. (1983). "The Structure of an Aqueous Solution of Nickel Chloride".

2094:

is more complicated. Neutron diffraction data gave a solvation number for calcium chloride, CaCl

4629:

bonds and, in consequence, higher activation energy for the dissociative reaction step, → + H

4090:

formulated as is very well characterized and may be present in nature in water at pH ca. 5.4.

7211: 7186: 7167: 7148: 7129: 7110: 7059: 7030: 6951: 6871: 6742: 6723: 6638: 6528: 6493: 6470: 6451: 6366: 6201: 6163: 5945: 5747: 5676: 5606: 5597:. Advances in Inorganic Chemistry. Vol. 34. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 195–218. 5573: 5521: 5520:. Advances in Inorganic Chemistry. Vol. 39. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 161–232. 5475: 5357: 4898: 2306: 2294: 2265:

have a solvation number of 6. All have a regular octahedral structure except the aqua ions of

2245: 1603: 1005: 765:

to yield complexes that contain both water molecules and hydroxide or oxide ions, such as the

538: 5776:

Zavitsas, A. A. (2001). "Properties of water solutions of electrolytes and nonelectrolytes".

3557: 6719: 6683: 6630: 6602: 6563: 6520: 6485: 6441: 6433: 6358: 6330: 6264: 6193: 6153: 6143: 6110: 6019: 5935: 5927: 5882: 5845: 5816: 5787: 5735: 5645: 5598: 5550: 5433: 4174: 2601:(IV) ion , similar to the vanadium ion has been proposed on the basis of indirect evidence. 2529:

do not react with water, but their solubility in water increases when going down the group.

2515: 2115: 1696: 1509: 1069: 1065: 753:. Compounds of the metallic elements usually form simple aqua ions with the formula in low 746: 104: 96: 59:

aqua ions have higher solvation numbers (often 8 to 9), with the highest known being 11 for

40: 36: 2422: 2262: 1237: 1017: 754: 64: 902:

Aqua ions are present in most natural waters. Na, K, Mg and Ca are major constituents of

6559: 6429: 5641: 5429: 2165:(III) is probably nine-coordinate tricapped triangular prismatic with no water deficit. 6446: 6158: 6131: 5940: 5901: 5699: 5352:

As the standard electrode potential is more negative the aqua ion is more difficult to

4488: 3206:

The alternative is to write the equilibrium as a complexation or substitution reaction

1036: 879: 817:

is a semiconductor rather than a metal, but appears to form an aqua cation; similarly,

48: 6409:

Hofer, Thomas S.; Weiss, Alexander K.H.; Randolf, Bernhard R.; Rode, Bernd M. (2011).

5820: 5602: 7224: 5857: 5570:

X-ray diffraction of ions in aqueous solutions : hydration and complex formation

5361: 4496: 4321: 4306: 4286: 4282: 3811:{\displaystyle \Delta G^{\ominus }=-RT\ln K=\Delta H^{\ominus }-T\Delta S^{\ominus }} 2910: 2502: 2455: 1913: 1044: 859: 822: 91: 63:. The strength of the bonds between the metal ion and water molecules in the primary 6378: 5900:

Stoyanov, Evgenii S.; Stoyanova, Irina V.; Reed, Christopher A. (January 15, 2010).

5657: 4093:

The overall reaction for the loss of two protons from an aqua ion can be written as

3833:

Beryllium hydrolysis as a function of pH. Water molecules attached to Be are omitted

2379:(III) aqua ion, is very well characterized in solution and the solid state. The AlO 5084: 4980: 4708:) has been measured for all metals except for the heaviest trans-uranium elements. 2414: 2119: 1508:

numbers, within experimental error. For example, the solvation number of 5.5 for a

1056:

of average properties, others give information about the dynamics of the solution.

1029: 1021: 841: 774: 762: 595: 433: 72: 6567: 6437: 5849: 3584:

Modeling the hydrolysis reactions that occur in solution is usually based on the

6992: 5886: 5154: 5140: 5133: 3708: 3704: 2632:(aq) has five water molecules in the plane perpendicular to the O-U-O axis in a 2274: 2224: 2212: 1025: 645: 635: 630: 7079:

Standard Electrode Potentials and Temperature Coefficients in Water at 298.15 K

6410: 6148: 4505:

Kinetic parameters (at 25 °C) for water exchange - trivalent ions, M (aq)

4331:

Kinetic parameters (at 25 °C) for water exchange: divalent ions, M (aq)

2514:, because of increasing negative charge on the water molecules, the increasing 2142: 5518:

Structures of Compexes in Solution Derived from X-ray Diffraction Measurements

5437: 5029: 5015: 4994: 4949: 4119: 4115: 3850: 3196:{\displaystyle \{^{(z-1)+}\}=K_{1,-1}\{{\ce {M}}^{z+}\}\{{\ce {H}}^{+}\}^{-1}} 3045: 2918: 2368: 2329: 2310: 2181: 2162: 2078:

cation has a very well-defined primary solvation shell with a tetrahedral BeO

1040: 834: 655: 468: 458: 443: 346: 100: 52: 6606: 6115: 6096: 2285:

A solvation number of 6 with an octahedral structure is well established for

1964:

are probably eight-coordinate square antiprismatic. No data is available for

7026: 6097:"Hydrated metal ions in aqueous solution: How regular are their structures?" 5304: 5294: 5199: 5126: 5112: 5105: 5098: 5057: 4987: 4966: 4827: 4811: 4773: 4764: 4751: 4735: 4293: 4087: 2526: 2475: 2418: 2376: 2349: 2333: 2317: 2169: 2123: 2083: 2075: 1953: 1878: 1860: 1746: 1721: 1686: 1608: 1578: 1573: 1568: 1004:

Many other aqua ions are present in seawater in concentrations ranging from

952: 938: 814: 802: 625: 615: 610: 605: 488: 438: 423: 366: 356: 336: 324: 292: 257: 225: 193: 186: 142: 6642: 6532: 6497: 6489: 6455: 6370: 6334: 6205: 6167: 6024: 6007: 5949: 5649: 2684: 1865: 5541:

Ohtaki, H.; Radnai, T. (1993). "Structure and dynamics of hydrated ions".

4078:

Square of M ions with double hydroxide bridges on each side of the square

3829: 2680:

Minus hydration enthalpy for (octahedral) divalent transition metal M ions

1896:. The Eigen solvation structure has the hydronium ion at the center of an 5299: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5161: 5070: 5008: 5001: 4935: 4926: 4905: 4888: 4865: 4820: 4787: 4719: 4669: 4131: 4118:(IV) complex in which there is a triangle of molybdenum atoms joined by 3339:{\displaystyle \{^{(z-1)+}\}=K_{1,1}\{{\ce {M}}^{z+}\}\{{\ce {OH}}^{-}\}} 2653: 2641: 2598: 2567: 2519: 2511: 2491: 2451: 2441: 2400: 2337: 2266: 2228: 2204: 2194: 2185: 2173: 2158: 2150: 1965: 1957: 1873: 1741: 1525: 1074: 1016:

are similar to those of seawater. Blood also has lower concentrations of

913: 903: 883: 818: 810: 794: 770: 766: 650: 585: 575: 563: 558: 543: 528: 493: 453: 448: 391: 319: 252: 247: 242: 237: 123: 60: 56: 6268: 5554: 797:, are not known to form aqua cations; near the metal–nonmetal boundary, 6008:"Structures of Hydrated Metal Ions in Solid State and Aqueous Solution" 5568:

Magini, M.; Licheri, G.; Paschina, G.; Piccaluga,G.; Pinna, G. (1988).

5309: 5147: 5091: 5077: 5050: 5036: 5022: 4919: 4874: 4844: 4834: 4804: 4780: 4728: 3703:

The cations most resistant to hydrolysis for their size and charge are

2657: 2578: 2551: 2535: 2498: 2445: 2437: 2406: 2392: 2353: 2325: 2321: 2302: 2290: 2220: 2216: 2208: 2189: 2154: 2091: 1961: 1945: 1726: 1706: 1613: 966: 875: 798: 790: 640: 600: 590: 553: 523: 498: 483: 473: 463: 413: 376: 361: 331: 287: 230: 137: 6687: 6634: 6524: 6362: 6197: 5931: 5791: 5319: 5289: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5119: 5043: 4973: 4942: 4881: 4851: 4744: 4313: 3062:

of the hydrolysis product, omitting the water molecules, is given by

2644:

have the same structure. Nothing is known of actinide(V) structures.

2555: 2507: 2410: 2396: 2372: 2341: 2279: 2270: 2198: 2131: 2127: 1949: 1731: 1716: 1711: 1618: 1593: 1588: 924: 620: 580: 478: 428: 418: 381: 371: 277: 272: 267: 181: 28: 5360:

for large structures made of iron or to protect small structures by

5176:

Standard electrode potentials /V for 1st. row transition metal ions

4018:

Cube with alternate vertices of M and OH groups, one vertex missing

3349:

The concentration of hydrogen and hydroxide ions are related by the

2899:{\displaystyle \Delta H^{\ominus }=-69500\ \mathrm {z^{2}/r_{eff}} } 2253: 1012:. The concentrations of sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium in 829: 7164:

Aquatic Chemistry - Chemical Equilibria and Rates in Natural Waters

4266:{\displaystyle \mathrm {rate} =-\left({\frac {d}{dt}}\right)_{T}=k} 3837: 2676: 1560:

Symmetric M-O stretching vibrations of some aqua ions in solution

6823:

An introduction to transition-metal chemistry. Ligand field theory

3844: 3836: 3828: 2821:

Other values include Zn -2044.3, Cd -1805.8 and Ag -475.3 kJ mol.

2683: 2675: 2539: 2530: 2364: 2252: 2244: 2141: 2070:§ Values extrapolated from data for solid-state crystal structures 1864: 1013: 840: 828: 750: 32: 1932:

complex the proton is shared equally by two water molecules in a

1495:

on the last significant figure of the value. angle between a M-OH

5314: 5204: 4912: 4797: 4317: 3845: 2431: 2345: 2305:(II) may be in equilibrium between six- and seven-coordination. 2298: 2286: 1736: 1598: 1583: 1245:

Cation hydration in solution, determined by neutron diffraction

548: 533: 282: 262: 2935:

Single ion standard hydration entropy at 25 °C /J deg mol

2086:, is also a well-characterized species, with an octahedral MgO 16:

Properties and behavior of hydrated cations in aqueous solution

4858: 2427: 806: 386: 4499:

stabilization energy are superimposed on the periodic trend.

2168:

The trivalent lanthanide ions decrease steadily in size from

805:

are only known as hydrolysed species. Some elements, such as

6469:

Persson, Ingmar; d'Angelo, Paola; Lundberg, Daniel (2016).

4312:

The residence time for water exchange varies from about 10

3357:= {H} {OH} so the two equilibrium constants are related as 2257:

Proposed square pyramidal structure of in aqueous solution

821:

forms an aqua cation like metals, despite being a gas. The

741:* No experimental information regarding aqua ion structures 1664:

Although the relationship between vibration frequency and

5593:

Enderby, J.E.; Nielson, G.W. (1989). Sykes, A.G. (ed.).

757:. With the higher oxidation states the simple aqua ions 4655:

Metal aqua ions are often involved in the formation of

4491:, though given a specific name only in the case of the 7181:

Schweitzer, George K.; Pesterfield, Lester L. (2010).

1064:

Ions for which the water-exchange rate is slow on the

1035:

Magnesium and calcium ions are common constituents of

4186: 3738: 3560: 3440: 3366: 3227: 3071: 2837: 2024: 1916:

to three neighbouring water molecules. In the Zundel

4714:

Standard electrode potentials /V for couples M/M(s)

2688:

Hydration enthalpies of trivalent lanthanide Ln ions

2466:) below pH 2; at higher pH this deprotonates to HSeO 769:(IV) species . In the highest oxidation states only 103:to more than 200 years. Aqua ions are prominent in 6595:Zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie 5698: 4265: 3810: 3569: 3543: 3420: 3338: 3195: 2898: 2040: 3986:six-membered ring with alternate M and OH groups 3601:, for the removal of one proton from an aqua ion 2201:(IV) is hydrolysed to the oxygen-bridged dimer . 2134:suggests that its aqua cation is ten-coordinate. 1028:and also contains the minerals which are lost in 7091:Antimony - Physico-chemical properties - DACTARI 6132:"The Actinium Aqua Ion: A Century in the Making" 4289:for water exchange is usually taken as mol dms. 4048:Cube with alternate vertices of M and OH groups 2207:(III) is eleven-coordinate in aqueous solution. 2098:, which is strongly dependent on concentration: 1039:and are responsible for permanent and temporary 6001: 5999: 5997: 5995: 5993: 5991: 5989: 5987: 5985: 5983: 5981: 5979: 5284:Miscellaneous standard electrode potentials /V 2695:Single ion standard hydration enthalpy /kJ mol 5977: 5975: 5973: 5971: 5969: 5967: 5965: 5963: 5961: 5959: 5673:The Physics and Chemistry of Aqueous Solutions 4637:and Ir which have a low-spin d configuration. 7058:(92nd ed.). CRC Press. pp. 5–80–9. 6825:(2nd. ed.). London: Methuen. p. 76. 6579: 6577: 6390: 6388: 5675:. NATO ASI Series. Reidel. pp. 129–145. 2909:Values for transition metals are affected by 8: 7210:Springer; reprint of the 1973 edition, 2012 5516:Johansson, Georg (1992). Sykes, A.G. (ed.). 3956:double hydroxide bridge between two cations 3892:single hydroxide bridge between two cations 3421:{\displaystyle K_{1,-1}=K_{1,1}\times K_{w}} 3333: 3318: 3315: 3297: 3275: 3228: 3181: 3165: 3162: 3144: 3119: 3072: 2581:complexes which have been shown to have the 6130:Thierer, Laura M.; Tomson, Neil C. (2017). 1912:complex in which the hydronium is strongly 7005: 7003: 7001: 6974:Adapted from Burgess, Tables 11.4 and 11.5 6970: 6968: 6950:(8th. ed.). Oxford University Press. 6090: 6088: 6086: 6084: 6082: 6080: 6078: 6076: 6074: 2917:The hydration enthalpies of the trivalent 2660:. These quantities relate to the reaction 2261:The ions of these metals in the +2 and +3 7208:Aqueous Solutions of Simple Electrolytes, 6724:10.1146/annurev.physchem.54.011002.103801 6445: 6157: 6147: 6114: 6023: 5939: 4242: 4212: 4187: 4185: 3802: 3783: 3746: 3737: 3559: 3532: 3523: 3514: 3505: 3484: 3468: 3459: 3450: 3445: 3439: 3412: 3393: 3371: 3365: 3327: 3322: 3306: 3301: 3285: 3254: 3238: 3234: 3226: 3184: 3174: 3169: 3153: 3148: 3129: 3098: 3082: 3078: 3070: 2883: 2874: 2868: 2863: 2845: 2836: 2138:Group 3 metals, lanthanides and actinides 2032: 2023: 1499:bond and the plane of the water molecule. 7162:Stumm, Werner; Morgan, James J. (1995). 6870:. University Science Books. p. 68. 5919:Journal of the American Chemical Society 5282: 5174: 4712: 4503: 4329: 3862: 3841:trimeric hydrolysis product of beryllium 3619: 3544:{\displaystyle =\beta _{x,-y}*^{x}^{-y}} 2933: 2693: 2570:has a distorted octahedral environment ( 1975: 1919: 1899: 1694: 1558: 1540:lying wholly in favour of the ion pair. 1375: 1243: 1079: 1043:, respectively. They are often found in 910: 116: 71:, on the metal ion and decreases as its 6798: 6796: 6794: 6404: 6402: 6400: 6323:Journal of the Chinese Chemical Society 6307: 6305: 6046: 6044: 5372: 3597:The logarithm of hydrolysis constant, K 2301:(II) is six-coordinate octahedral, but 6852: 6850: 3586:determination of equilibrium constants 67:increases with the electrical charge, 7183:The Aqueous Chemistry of the Elements 7056:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 7022:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 3874: 3864:Some polynuclear hydrolysis products 7: 5902:"The Structure of the Hydrogen Ion ( 5874:Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie 5837:Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie 5493: 5491: 4697:for the half-cell equilibrium M + z 4316:for Cs to about 10 s (more than 200 2417:) form. There is some evidence that 2146:face-capped trigonal prism structure 1977:Group 2 cations in aqueous solution 1232:Diffraction by neutrons also give a 1216:molecules at an average distance of 1081:Solvation numbers determined by NMR 90:The aqua ion is associated, through 6946:Atkins, P.W.; de Paula, J. (2006). 6712:Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 6676:The Journal of Physical Chemistry B 5779:The Journal of Physical Chemistry B 5701:Metal-Ligand and Related Vibrations 2664:M (gas) + solvent → M (in solution) 2597:-VO bonds, in the solid state. The 2041:{\displaystyle \Delta H^{\ominus }} 7166:(3rd. ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. 7109:. Malabar, FL: Robert E. Krieger. 7105:Baes, C.F.; Mesmer, R.E. (1986) . 6737:Kugler, H. K.; Keller, C. (1985). 6411:"Hydration of highly charged ions" 6351:Journal of Computational Chemistry 5629:Proceedings of the Royal Society A 5595:The Coordination of Metal Aquaions 4285:at temperature T. The unit of the 4197: 4194: 4191: 4188: 4173:symbol signifies that this is the 3795: 3776: 3739: 2890: 2887: 2884: 2880: 2865: 2838: 2670:heat evolved when a salt dissolves 2025: 14: 7025:(87th ed.). Boca Raton, FL: 4659:. The reaction may be written as 4296:for this reaction is equal to log 4651:Stability constants of complexes 2929:shells are somewhat indistinct. 2122:geometry. In water, calcium and 2106:at 1 mol·dm, decreasing to 1850:Solvation numbers and structures 1060:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) 118:Elements that form aqua cations 7054:. In Haynes, William M. (ed.). 2482:, and above pH 8 it becomes TeO 111:Introduction to metal aqua ions 6899:Baes&Mesmer, section 18.2. 6478:Chemistry - A European Journal 5572:. Boca Raton, Fla: CRC Press. 4277:The proportionality constant, 4260: 4254: 4224: 4218: 3656:Be, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd 3529: 3520: 3511: 3502: 3474: 3465: 3456: 3441: 3267: 3255: 3251: 3245: 3239: 3231: 3111: 3099: 3095: 3089: 3083: 3075: 2383:core has octahedral symmetry, 2197:(II) is seven-coordinate, and 1: 7128:. Chichester: Ellis Horwood. 6739:'At, Astatine', System No. 8a 5821:10.1016/S0021-9673(97)00486-X 5603:10.1016/S0898-8838(08)60017-3 3825:Multiple hydrolysis reactions 3658:Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Fe, Rh, Ga, In 2297:(II) is most likely to be 6. 21:metal ion in aqueous solution 7019:Lide, David R., ed. (2006). 6935:Richens, Figure 6.26, p. 295 6908:Baes&Mesmer, Table 18.3. 6568:10.1016/j.cplett.2009.03.011 6438:10.1016/j.cplett.2011.05.060 5850:10.1524/zpch.1968.58.5_6.225 4695:standard electrode potential 1699:measured by dynamic methods 1234:radial distribution function 1199:radial distribution function 7206:H. L. Friedman, F. Franks, 7143:Richens, David. T. (1997). 6844:Baes&Mesmer, chapter 3. 5887:10.1524/zpch.1954.1.5_6.340 5808:Journal of Chromatography A 5470:Chipperfield, John (1999). 2421:(II) aqua ions can form in 837:centered on the sodium ion. 7247: 7145:The Chemistry of Aqua Ions 7081:, Steven G. Bratsch (NIST) 6802:Data from Burgess, p. 182. 6149:10.1021/acscentsci.7b00074 6102:Pure and Applied Chemistry 4644: 4281:, is called a first-order 4129: 4086:The hydrolysis product of 3043: 2454:(IV) is mostly present as 2375:, and hydroxyborates. The 2273:(II) which are subject to 2238: 1861:Hydronium § Solvation 1858: 1077:formation with the anion. 328: 234: 190: 146: 127: 7107:The Hydrolysis of Cations 5740:Chemistry of the Elements 5738:; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). 5438:10.1107/S0567739476001551 4680:. The formation constant 3593:First hydrolysis constant 2620:structure. The aqua ion 2176:, an effect known as the 1956:is seven-coordinate, and 1261: 1255: 1252: 852:first coordination sphere 7052:"Electrochemical Series" 6926:Baes&Mesmer, p. 420. 6866:Wulfsberg, Gary (2000). 6821:Orgel, Lesie E. (1966). 6607:10.1002/zaac.19653390505 6548:Chemical Physics Letters 6418:Chemical Physics Letters 6116:10.1351/PAC-CON-09-10-22 6095:Persson, Ingmar (2010). 6006:Persson, Ingmar (2022). 5705:. London: Edward Arnold. 3351:self-ionization of water 2636:structure, point group D 2090:core. The situation for 1491:Figures in brackets are 1449:Cation hydration number 1305:Cation hydration number 6890:Baes&Mesmer, p 409. 6655:Baes and Mesmer, p. 385 3570:{\displaystyle \beta *} 3040:Hydrolysis of aqua ions 1934:symmetric hydrogen bond 1193:X-ray diffraction (XRD) 1020:such as iron and zinc. 912:Aqua ions in seawater ( 7126:Metal Ions in Solution 7124:Burgess, John (1978). 7050:Vanýsek, Petr (2011). 6490:10.1002/chem.201603904 6335:10.1002/jccs.196400020 6218:Richens, chapters 4-12 6025:10.3390/liquids2030014 5650:10.1098/rspa.1983.0136 5442:. Richens, Appendix 2. 4641:Formation of complexes 4493:lanthanide contraction 4267: 3854: 3842: 3834: 3812: 3660:Ce, Th, Pa, U, Np, Pu, 3581:hydrolysis constants. 3571: 3545: 3422: 3340: 3197: 2923:lanthanide contraction 2900: 2689: 2681: 2258: 2250: 2178:lanthanide contraction 2147: 2042: 1870: 847: 838: 6856:Baes&Mesmer, p407 6059:Richens, section 2.3. 5744:Butterworth-Heinemann 5736:Greenwood, Norman N. 5379:Burgess, Section 1.2. 4376:Residence time (μs) 4268: 4151:dissociation reaction 4147:rate-determining step 3848: 3840: 3832: 3813: 3572: 3546: 3423: 3341: 3198: 2901: 2687: 2679: 2256: 2248: 2145: 2043: 1972:Alkaline earth metals 1868: 844: 832: 6811:Richens, Figure 1.2. 6700:Richens, pp. 161–162 6664:Richens, pp. 159–160 6311:Richens, pp. 151–152 6299:Richens, pp. 141–143 6290:Richens, pp. 215–220 5697:Adams, D.M. (1967). 5472:Non-Aqueous Solvents 5451:Burgess, chapter 11. 4647:Coordination complex 4538:residence time (μs) 4184: 3736: 3558: 3438: 3364: 3225: 3069: 2835: 2634:pentagonal bipyramid 2360:Group 13-18 elements 2180:. From lanthanum to 2022: 1754:Ion transport number 1051:Experimental methods 898:Occurrence in nature 856:dative covalent bond 87:for most aqua ions. 6868:Inorganic Chemistry 6682:(51): 14903–14914. 6623:Inorganic Chemistry 6560:2009CPL...473..176B 6513:Inorganic Chemistry 6484:(51): 18583–18592. 6430:2011CPL...512..139H 6269:10.1021/ic00164a027 6257:Inorganic Chemistry 6185:Inorganic Chemistry 5642:1983RSPSA.390..353N 5555:10.1021/cr00019a014 5460:Burgess, Chapter 6. 5430:1976AcCrA..32..751S 5418:Acta Crystallogr. A 5285: 5177: 4715: 4506: 4332: 3914:Al, Sc, Ln, Ti, Cr 3865: 3626: 2936: 2696: 2391:. The aqua ions of 2048:solvation (kJ mol) 1978: 1700: 1683:electrical mobility 1561: 1544:Vibrational spectra 1493:standard deviations 1378: 1246: 1228:Neutron diffraction 1082: 917: 119: 7009:Burgess, Table 8.1 6948:Physical Chemistry 5746:. pp. 36–37. 5283: 5175: 4713: 4504: 4330: 4325:with temperature. 4263: 4045:Mg, Co, Ni, Cd, Pb 3863: 3855: 3853:(IV) oxo-aqua ion 3843: 3835: 3808: 3620: 3567: 3541: 3418: 3336: 3193: 2934: 2896: 2694: 2690: 2682: 2259: 2251: 2241:Metal aquo complex 2148: 2038: 1999:M-O distance (pm) 1976: 1871: 1695: 1559: 1376: 1244: 1080: 1024:is designed to be 1018:essential elements 911: 894:to mention a few. 892:dimethyl sulfoxide 888:dimethyl formamide 848: 839: 117: 7192:978-0-19-539335-4 7173:978-0-471-51185-4 7154:978-0-471-97058-3 7135:978-0-85312-027-8 7116:978-0-89874-892-5 7065:978-1-4398-5512-6 6993:IUPAC SC-Database 6957:978-0-19-870072-2 6748:978-3-540-93516-2 6688:10.1021/jp309439f 6635:10.1021/ic901737y 6525:10.1021/ic1017714 6394:Richens, p. 152–4 6363:10.1002/jcc.21315 6263:(22): 3315–3333. 6198:10.1021/ic0400639 6109:(10): 1901–1917. 5932:10.1021/ja9101826 5792:10.1021/jp011053l 5786:(32): 7805–7815. 5753:978-0-08-037941-8 5682:978-90-277-2534-9 5636:(1799): 353–371. 5612:978-0-12-023634-3 5579:978-0-8493-6945-2 5527:978-0-12-023639-8 5481:978-0-19-850259-3 5358:anodic protection 5348: 5347: 5277: 5276: 5169: 5168: 4621: 4620: 4495:. The effects of 4483: 4482: 4236: 4141:Exchange kinetics 4082: 4081: 3699: 3698: 3526: 3508: 3462: 3448: 3325: 3304: 3244: 3237: 3172: 3151: 3088: 3081: 3035: 3034: 2862: 2817: 2816: 2235:Group 4-12 metals 2067: 2066: 1845: 1844: 1697:Hydration numbers 1662: 1661: 1488: 1487: 1429:Molality of salt 1374: 1373: 1270:Molality of salt 1190: 1189: 1000: 999: 747:chemical elements 736: 735: 97:chemical elements 7238: 7196: 7177: 7158: 7139: 7120: 7093: 7088: 7082: 7076: 7070: 7069: 7047: 7041: 7040: 7016: 7010: 7007: 6996: 6990: 6984: 6983:Burgess, p. 326. 6981: 6975: 6972: 6963: 6961: 6942: 6936: 6933: 6927: 6924: 6918: 6917:Richens, p. 145. 6915: 6909: 6906: 6900: 6897: 6891: 6888: 6882: 6881: 6863: 6857: 6854: 6845: 6842: 6836: 6835:Burgess, p. 187. 6833: 6827: 6826: 6818: 6812: 6809: 6803: 6800: 6789: 6788:Richens, p. 278. 6786: 6780: 6777: 6771: 6768: 6762: 6759: 6753: 6752: 6734: 6728: 6727: 6707: 6701: 6698: 6692: 6691: 6671: 6665: 6662: 6656: 6653: 6647: 6646: 6629:(5): 2132–2140. 6617: 6611: 6610: 6601:(5–6): 256–261. 6590: 6584: 6581: 6572: 6571: 6554:(1–3): 176–178. 6543: 6537: 6536: 6519:(3): 1058–1072. 6508: 6502: 6501: 6475: 6466: 6460: 6459: 6449: 6424:(4–6): 139–145. 6415: 6406: 6395: 6392: 6383: 6382: 6345: 6339: 6338: 6318: 6312: 6309: 6300: 6297: 6291: 6288: 6282: 6281:Richens, p. 282. 6279: 6273: 6272: 6252: 6246: 6243: 6237: 6236:Richens, p. 555. 6234: 6228: 6227:Richens, p. 544. 6225: 6219: 6216: 6210: 6209: 6192:(6): 1922–1933. 6178: 6172: 6171: 6161: 6151: 6127: 6121: 6120: 6118: 6092: 6069: 6068:Richens, p. 185. 6066: 6060: 6057: 6051: 6050:Richens, p. 129. 6048: 6039: 6036: 6030: 6029: 6027: 6003: 5954: 5953: 5943: 5926:(5): 1484–1485. 5913: 5912: 5911: 5897: 5891: 5890: 5881:(5_6): 340–364. 5868: 5862: 5861: 5844:(5_6): 225–245. 5831: 5825: 5824: 5802: 5796: 5795: 5773: 5767: 5764: 5758: 5757: 5742:(2nd ed.). 5732: 5726: 5723: 5717: 5714: 5708: 5706: 5704: 5694: 5688: 5686: 5668: 5662: 5661: 5623: 5617: 5616: 5590: 5584: 5583: 5565: 5559: 5558: 5549:(3): 1157–1204. 5538: 5532: 5531: 5513: 5507: 5504: 5498: 5497:Stumm&Morgan 5495: 5486: 5485: 5467: 5461: 5458: 5452: 5449: 5443: 5441: 5413: 5407: 5406:Burgess, p. 181. 5404: 5398: 5395: 5389: 5386: 5380: 5377: 5286: 5178: 4716: 4700: 4689:Electrochemistry 4507: 4333: 4272: 4270: 4269: 4264: 4247: 4246: 4241: 4237: 4235: 4227: 4213: 4200: 4175:transition state 4172: 4160: 4072: 4071: 4070: 4062: 4061: 4042: 4041: 4040: 4032: 4031: 4010: 4009: 4001: 4000: 3999: 3980: 3979: 3978: 3970: 3969: 3953: 3952: 3951: 3941: 3940: 3939: 3929: 3928: 3927: 3909: 3908: 3866: 3817: 3815: 3814: 3809: 3807: 3806: 3788: 3787: 3751: 3750: 3720:+OH ⇌ : + H 3687: 3685: 3669: 3667: 3649: 3647: 3627: 3576: 3574: 3573: 3568: 3550: 3548: 3547: 3542: 3540: 3539: 3527: 3524: 3519: 3518: 3509: 3506: 3498: 3497: 3473: 3472: 3463: 3460: 3455: 3454: 3449: 3446: 3427: 3425: 3424: 3419: 3417: 3416: 3404: 3403: 3385: 3384: 3345: 3343: 3342: 3337: 3332: 3331: 3326: 3323: 3314: 3313: 3305: 3302: 3296: 3295: 3274: 3273: 3249: 3248: 3242: 3235: 3210:+OH ⇌ : + H 3202: 3200: 3199: 3194: 3192: 3191: 3179: 3178: 3173: 3170: 3161: 3160: 3152: 3149: 3143: 3142: 3118: 3117: 3093: 3092: 3086: 3079: 2937: 2905: 2903: 2902: 2897: 2895: 2894: 2893: 2878: 2873: 2872: 2860: 2850: 2849: 2697: 2631: 2630: 2629: 2615: 2614: 2613: 2604:The uranyl ion, 2592: 2591: 2590: 2546:Oxo-aqua-cations 2542:atoms in water. 2516:inductive effect 2503:hydrogen bonding 2320:(II) and (III), 2263:oxidation states 2116:square antiprism 2113: 2111: 2105: 2103: 2047: 2045: 2044: 2039: 2037: 2036: 1979: 1931: 1930: 1929: 1926: 1911: 1910: 1909: 1906: 1701: 1562: 1549:Infrared spectra 1510:lithium chloride 1379: 1247: 1223: 1221: 1215: 1213: 1083: 1070:solvation number 976: 975: 974: 962: 961: 960: 948: 947: 946: 934: 933: 932: 918: 788: 787: 786: 755:oxidation states 732: 727: 722: 717: 712: 707: 702: 697: 692: 687: 682: 677: 672: 667: 662: 570: 520: 515: 510: 505: 408: 403: 398: 353: 343: 314: 309: 304: 299: 220: 215: 210: 205: 200: 176: 171: 166: 161: 156: 151: 132: 120: 105:electrochemistry 92:hydrogen bonding 41:solvation number 37:chemical formula 7246: 7245: 7241: 7240: 7239: 7237: 7236: 7235: 7221: 7220: 7203: 7201:Further reading 7193: 7185:. Oxford: OUP. 7180: 7174: 7161: 7155: 7142: 7136: 7123: 7117: 7104: 7101: 7096: 7089: 7085: 7077: 7073: 7066: 7049: 7048: 7044: 7037: 7018: 7017: 7013: 7008: 6999: 6991: 6987: 6982: 6978: 6973: 6966: 6958: 6945: 6943: 6939: 6934: 6930: 6925: 6921: 6916: 6912: 6907: 6903: 6898: 6894: 6889: 6885: 6878: 6865: 6864: 6860: 6855: 6848: 6843: 6839: 6834: 6830: 6820: 6819: 6815: 6810: 6806: 6801: 6792: 6787: 6783: 6779:Richens, p. 240 6778: 6774: 6770:Richens, p. 236 6769: 6765: 6761:Richens, p. 163 6760: 6756: 6749: 6736: 6735: 6731: 6709: 6708: 6704: 6699: 6695: 6673: 6672: 6668: 6663: 6659: 6654: 6650: 6619: 6618: 6614: 6592: 6591: 6587: 6583:Richens, p. 155 6582: 6575: 6545: 6544: 6540: 6510: 6509: 6505: 6473: 6468: 6467: 6463: 6413: 6408: 6407: 6398: 6393: 6386: 6347: 6346: 6342: 6320: 6319: 6315: 6310: 6303: 6298: 6294: 6289: 6285: 6280: 6276: 6254: 6253: 6249: 6245:Richens, p. 551 6244: 6240: 6235: 6231: 6226: 6222: 6217: 6213: 6180: 6179: 6175: 6129: 6128: 6124: 6094: 6093: 6072: 6067: 6063: 6058: 6054: 6049: 6042: 6038:Richens, p. 127 6037: 6033: 6005: 6004: 5957: 5910: 5907: 5906: 5905: 5903: 5899: 5898: 5894: 5870: 5869: 5865: 5833: 5832: 5828: 5804: 5803: 5799: 5775: 5774: 5770: 5766:Richens, p. 123 5765: 5761: 5754: 5734: 5733: 5729: 5725:Richens, p. 40. 5724: 5720: 5716:Burgess, p. 85. 5715: 5711: 5696: 5695: 5691: 5683: 5670: 5669: 5665: 5625: 5624: 5620: 5613: 5592: 5591: 5587: 5580: 5567: 5566: 5562: 5540: 5539: 5535: 5528: 5515: 5514: 5510: 5506:Burgess, p. 53. 5505: 5501: 5496: 5489: 5482: 5474:. Oxford: OUP. 5469: 5468: 5464: 5459: 5455: 5450: 5446: 5415: 5414: 5410: 5405: 5401: 5397:Richens, p. 25. 5396: 5392: 5388:Burgess, p. 20. 5387: 5383: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5164: 5157: 5150: 5143: 5136: 5129: 5122: 5115: 5108: 5101: 5094: 5087: 5080: 5073: 5060: 5053: 5046: 5039: 5032: 5025: 5018: 5011: 5004: 4997: 4990: 4983: 4976: 4969: 4952: 4945: 4938: 4929: 4922: 4915: 4908: 4901: 4891: 4884: 4877: 4868: 4861: 4854: 4847: 4837: 4830: 4823: 4814: 4807: 4800: 4790: 4783: 4776: 4767: 4754: 4747: 4738: 4731: 4722: 4698: 4691: 4679: 4663:pM(aq) + qL → 4653: 4645:Main articles: 4643: 4632: 4628: 4371: 4299: 4228: 4214: 4208: 4207: 4182: 4181: 4170: 4164: 4158: 4143: 4134: 4128: 4108: 4069: 4066: 4065: 4064: 4060: 4057: 4056: 4055: 4053: 4039: 4036: 4035: 4034: 4030: 4027: 4026: 4025: 4023: 4014: 4008: 4005: 4004: 4003: 3998: 3995: 3994: 3993: 3991: 3977: 3974: 3973: 3972: 3968: 3965: 3964: 3963: 3961: 3950: 3947: 3946: 3945: 3943: 3938: 3935: 3934: 3933: 3931: 3926: 3923: 3922: 3921: 3919: 3917: 3915: 3913: 3907: 3904: 3903: 3902: 3900: 3888: 3887:Be, Mn, Co, Ni 3883: 3869:Species formula 3827: 3798: 3779: 3742: 3734: 3733: 3723: 3683: 3681: 3677: 3675: 3665: 3663: 3659: 3657: 3655: 3645: 3643: 3639: 3638:Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba 3625:= A + 11.0 z/d 3624: 3611: 3600: 3595: 3556: 3555: 3528: 3510: 3480: 3464: 3444: 3436: 3435: 3408: 3389: 3367: 3362: 3361: 3356: 3321: 3300: 3281: 3250: 3223: 3222: 3213: 3180: 3168: 3147: 3125: 3094: 3067: 3066: 3048: 3042: 3025: 3020: 3015: 3008: 2998: 2993: 2986: 2976: 2971: 2964: 2955: 2950: 2941: 2879: 2864: 2841: 2833: 2832: 2827: 2812: 2807: 2799: 2794: 2789: 2782: 2777: 2769: 2764: 2759: 2752: 2744: 2739: 2734: 2727: 2718: 2713: 2706: 2701: 2650: 2640:. Neptunyl and 2639: 2628: 2625: 2624: 2623: 2621: 2612: 2609: 2608: 2607: 2605: 2589: 2586: 2585: 2584: 2582: 2575: 2548: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2423:perchloric acid 2390: 2382: 2362: 2243: 2237: 2140: 2109: 2107: 2101: 2099: 2097: 2089: 2081: 2028: 2020: 2019: 1974: 1942: 1927: 1924: 1923: 1921: 1917: 1914:hydrogen-bonded 1907: 1904: 1903: 1901: 1897: 1882: 1863: 1857: 1852: 1675: 1673:Dynamic methods 1625:wavenumber /cm 1546: 1535: 1519: 1498: 1424: 1418: 1412: 1408: 1402: 1398: 1392: 1388: 1265: 1259: 1238:nickel chloride 1230: 1219: 1217: 1211: 1209: 1195: 1062: 1053: 983: 973: 971: 970: 969: 967: 959: 957: 956: 955: 953: 945: 943: 942: 941: 939: 931: 929: 928: 927: 925: 900: 785: 782: 781: 780: 778: 730: 725: 720: 715: 710: 705: 700: 695: 690: 685: 680: 675: 670: 665: 660: 568: 518: 513: 508: 503: 406: 401: 396: 351: 341: 312: 307: 302: 297: 218: 213: 208: 203: 198: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 149: 130: 113: 99:from about 100 65:solvation shell 31:, dissolved in 17: 12: 11: 5: 7244: 7242: 7234: 7233: 7223: 7222: 7219: 7218: 7202: 7199: 7198: 7197: 7191: 7178: 7172: 7159: 7153: 7140: 7134: 7121: 7115: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7094: 7083: 7071: 7064: 7042: 7035: 7011: 6997: 6985: 6976: 6964: 6956: 6937: 6928: 6919: 6910: 6901: 6892: 6883: 6876: 6858: 6846: 6837: 6828: 6813: 6804: 6790: 6781: 6772: 6763: 6754: 6747: 6729: 6718:(1): 173–213. 6702: 6693: 6666: 6657: 6648: 6612: 6585: 6573: 6538: 6503: 6461: 6396: 6384: 6357:(2): 278–285. 6340: 6329:(4): 176–184. 6313: 6301: 6292: 6283: 6274: 6247: 6238: 6229: 6220: 6211: 6173: 6142:(3): 153–155. 6122: 6070: 6061: 6052: 6040: 6031: 6018:(3): 210–242. 5955: 5908: 5892: 5863: 5826: 5797: 5768: 5759: 5752: 5727: 5718: 5709: 5689: 5681: 5663: 5618: 5611: 5585: 5578: 5560: 5533: 5526: 5508: 5499: 5487: 5480: 5462: 5453: 5444: 5424:(5): 751–767. 5408: 5399: 5390: 5381: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5350: 5349: 5346: 5345: 5342: 5339: 5336: 5333: 5330: 5327: 5323: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5279: 5278: 5275: 5274: 5271: 5268: 5265: 5262: 5259: 5256: 5252: 5251: 5248: 5245: 5242: 5239: 5236: 5233: 5230: 5227: 5223: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5171: 5170: 5167: 5166: 5159: 5152: 5145: 5138: 5131: 5124: 5117: 5110: 5103: 5096: 5089: 5082: 5075: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5062: 5055: 5048: 5041: 5034: 5027: 5020: 5013: 5006: 4999: 4992: 4985: 4978: 4971: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4958: 4955: 4954: 4947: 4940: 4932: 4931: 4924: 4917: 4910: 4903: 4896: 4893: 4886: 4879: 4871: 4870: 4863: 4856: 4849: 4842: 4839: 4832: 4825: 4817: 4816: 4809: 4802: 4795: 4792: 4785: 4778: 4770: 4769: 4762: 4760: 4758: 4756: 4749: 4741: 4740: 4733: 4725: 4724: 4690: 4687: 4677: 4665: 4664: 4642: 4639: 4630: 4626: 4623: 4622: 4619: 4618: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4608: 4605: 4602: 4599: 4596: 4595:ΔS (J degmol) 4592: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4583: 4580: 4577: 4574: 4571: 4568: 4564: 4563: 4560: 4557: 4554: 4551: 4548: 4545: 4542: 4539: 4535: 4534: 4531: 4528: 4525: 4522: 4519: 4516: 4513: 4510: 4489:periodic table 4485: 4484: 4481: 4480: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4470: 4467: 4464: 4461: 4458: 4455: 4452: 4450: 4449:ΔS (J degmol) 4446: 4445: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4435: 4432: 4429: 4426: 4423: 4420: 4417: 4415: 4411: 4410: 4407: 4404: 4401: 4398: 4395: 4392: 4389: 4386: 4383: 4380: 4377: 4373: 4372: 4369: 4366: 4363: 4360: 4357: 4354: 4351: 4348: 4345: 4342: 4339: 4336: 4303:residence time 4297: 4275: 4274: 4262: 4259: 4256: 4253: 4250: 4245: 4240: 4234: 4231: 4226: 4223: 4220: 4217: 4211: 4206: 4203: 4199: 4196: 4193: 4190: 4167: 4166: 4162: 4142: 4139: 4130:Main article: 4127: 4124: 4111: 4110: 4106: 4099: 4098: 4084: 4083: 4080: 4079: 4076: 4073: 4067: 4058: 4050: 4049: 4046: 4043: 4037: 4028: 4020: 4019: 4016: 4015:Al, Cr, Fe, In 4011: 4006: 3996: 3988: 3987: 3984: 3981: 3975: 3966: 3958: 3957: 3954: 3948: 3936: 3924: 3910: 3905: 3898: 3894: 3893: 3890: 3889:Zn, Cd, Hg, Pb 3885: 3881: 3877: 3876: 3873: 3870: 3826: 3823: 3819: 3818: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3794: 3791: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3775: 3772: 3769: 3766: 3763: 3760: 3757: 3754: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3726: 3725: 3721: 3701: 3700: 3697: 3696: 3693: 3689: 3688: 3679: 3671: 3670: 3661: 3651: 3650: 3641: 3635: 3634: 3631: 3622: 3613: 3612: 3609: 3606: 3598: 3594: 3591: 3566: 3563: 3552: 3551: 3538: 3535: 3531: 3522: 3517: 3513: 3504: 3501: 3496: 3493: 3490: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3476: 3471: 3467: 3458: 3453: 3443: 3429: 3428: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3402: 3399: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3383: 3380: 3377: 3374: 3370: 3354: 3347: 3346: 3335: 3330: 3320: 3317: 3312: 3309: 3299: 3294: 3291: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3277: 3272: 3269: 3266: 3263: 3260: 3257: 3253: 3247: 3241: 3233: 3230: 3218:In which case 3216: 3215: 3211: 3204: 3203: 3190: 3187: 3183: 3177: 3167: 3164: 3159: 3156: 3146: 3141: 3138: 3135: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3121: 3116: 3113: 3110: 3107: 3104: 3101: 3097: 3091: 3085: 3077: 3074: 3056: 3055: 3041: 3038: 3037: 3036: 3033: 3032: 3030: 3027: 3022: 3017: 3011: 3010: 3005: 3002: 3000: 2995: 2989: 2988: 2983: 2980: 2978: 2973: 2967: 2966: 2961: 2959: 2957: 2952: 2946: 2945: 2943: 2907: 2906: 2892: 2889: 2886: 2882: 2877: 2871: 2867: 2859: 2856: 2853: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2825: 2819: 2818: 2815: 2814: 2809: 2804: 2801: 2796: 2791: 2785: 2784: 2779: 2774: 2771: 2766: 2761: 2755: 2754: 2749: 2746: 2741: 2736: 2730: 2729: 2724: 2722: 2720: 2715: 2709: 2708: 2703: 2666: 2665: 2656:and hydration 2649: 2648:Thermodynamics 2646: 2637: 2626: 2610: 2587: 2573: 2564: 2563: 2547: 2544: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2388: 2380: 2361: 2358: 2236: 2233: 2139: 2136: 2095: 2087: 2079: 2072: 2071: 2065: 2064: 2061: 2058: 2055: 2052: 2049: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2016: 2015: 2012: 2009: 2006: 2003: 2000: 1996: 1995: 1992: 1989: 1986: 1984: 1982: 1973: 1970: 1941: 1938: 1880: 1859:Main article: 1856: 1853: 1851: 1848: 1847: 1846: 1843: 1842: 1839: 1836: 1833: 1830: 1827: 1824: 1821: 1818: 1815: 1811: 1810: 1808: 1806: 1803: 1800: 1797: 1794: 1792: 1789: 1786: 1782: 1781: 1779: 1777: 1774: 1771: 1768: 1765: 1762: 1759: 1756: 1750: 1749: 1744: 1739: 1734: 1729: 1724: 1719: 1714: 1709: 1704: 1674: 1671: 1666:force constant 1660: 1659: 1656: 1653: 1650: 1647: 1644: 1641: 1638: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1626: 1622: 1621: 1616: 1611: 1606: 1601: 1596: 1591: 1586: 1581: 1576: 1571: 1566: 1545: 1542: 1538: 1537: 1533: 1522: 1521: 1517: 1501: 1500: 1496: 1486: 1485: 1482: 1479: 1476: 1473: 1470: 1466: 1465: 1462: 1459: 1456: 1453: 1450: 1446: 1445: 1442: 1439: 1436: 1433: 1430: 1426: 1425: 1422: 1419: 1416: 1413: 1410: 1406: 1403: 1400: 1396: 1393: 1390: 1386: 1383: 1372: 1371: 1368: 1365: 1362: 1359: 1356: 1353: 1350: 1347: 1344: 1341: 1337: 1336: 1333: 1330: 1327: 1324: 1321: 1318: 1315: 1312: 1309: 1306: 1302: 1301: 1298: 1295: 1292: 1289: 1286: 1283: 1280: 1277: 1274: 1271: 1267: 1266: 1263: 1260: 1257: 1254: 1251: 1229: 1226: 1194: 1191: 1188: 1187: 1184: 1181: 1178: 1175: 1172: 1169: 1166: 1163: 1160: 1157: 1153: 1152: 1149: 1146: 1143: 1140: 1137: 1134: 1131: 1128: 1125: 1122: 1118: 1117: 1114: 1111: 1108: 1105: 1102: 1099: 1096: 1093: 1090: 1087: 1066:NMR time-scale 1061: 1058: 1052: 1049: 1037:domestic water 1002: 1001: 998: 997: 994: 991: 988: 985: 982:Concentration 979: 978: 972: 964: 958: 950: 944: 936: 930: 922: 899: 896: 880:liquid ammonia 860:hydrogen bonds 823:transactinides 783: 773:, such as the 743: 742: 738: 737: 734: 733: 728: 723: 718: 713: 708: 703: 698: 693: 688: 683: 678: 673: 668: 663: 658: 653: 648: 643: 638: 633: 628: 623: 618: 613: 608: 603: 598: 593: 588: 583: 578: 572: 571: 566: 561: 556: 551: 546: 541: 536: 531: 526: 521: 516: 511: 506: 501: 496: 491: 486: 481: 476: 471: 466: 461: 456: 451: 446: 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 416: 410: 409: 404: 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 374: 369: 364: 359: 354: 349: 344: 339: 334: 329: 327: 322: 316: 315: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 285: 280: 275: 270: 265: 260: 255: 250: 245: 240: 235: 233: 228: 222: 221: 216: 211: 206: 201: 196: 191: 189: 184: 178: 177: 172: 167: 162: 157: 152: 147: 145: 140: 134: 133: 128: 126: 112: 109: 49:periodic table 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7243: 7232: 7229: 7228: 7226: 7217: 7213: 7209: 7205: 7204: 7200: 7194: 7188: 7184: 7179: 7175: 7169: 7165: 7160: 7156: 7150: 7146: 7141: 7137: 7131: 7127: 7122: 7118: 7112: 7108: 7103: 7102: 7098: 7092: 7087: 7084: 7080: 7075: 7072: 7067: 7061: 7057: 7053: 7046: 7043: 7038: 7036:0-8493-0487-3 7032: 7028: 7024: 7023: 7015: 7012: 7006: 7004: 7002: 6998: 6994: 6989: 6986: 6980: 6977: 6971: 6969: 6965: 6959: 6953: 6949: 6941: 6938: 6932: 6929: 6923: 6920: 6914: 6911: 6905: 6902: 6896: 6893: 6887: 6884: 6879: 6877:9781891389016 6873: 6869: 6862: 6859: 6853: 6851: 6847: 6841: 6838: 6832: 6829: 6824: 6817: 6814: 6808: 6805: 6799: 6797: 6795: 6791: 6785: 6782: 6776: 6773: 6767: 6764: 6758: 6755: 6750: 6744: 6740: 6733: 6730: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6706: 6703: 6697: 6694: 6689: 6685: 6681: 6677: 6670: 6667: 6661: 6658: 6652: 6649: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6632: 6628: 6624: 6616: 6613: 6608: 6604: 6600: 6597:(in German). 6596: 6589: 6586: 6580: 6578: 6574: 6569: 6565: 6561: 6557: 6553: 6549: 6542: 6539: 6534: 6530: 6526: 6522: 6518: 6514: 6507: 6504: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6487: 6483: 6479: 6472: 6465: 6462: 6457: 6453: 6448: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6431: 6427: 6423: 6419: 6412: 6405: 6403: 6401: 6397: 6391: 6389: 6385: 6380: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6364: 6360: 6356: 6352: 6344: 6341: 6336: 6332: 6328: 6324: 6317: 6314: 6308: 6306: 6302: 6296: 6293: 6287: 6284: 6278: 6275: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6251: 6248: 6242: 6239: 6233: 6230: 6224: 6221: 6215: 6212: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6195: 6191: 6187: 6186: 6177: 6174: 6169: 6165: 6160: 6155: 6150: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6136:ACS Cent. Sci 6133: 6126: 6123: 6117: 6112: 6108: 6104: 6103: 6098: 6091: 6089: 6087: 6085: 6083: 6081: 6079: 6077: 6075: 6071: 6065: 6062: 6056: 6053: 6047: 6045: 6041: 6035: 6032: 6026: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6002: 6000: 5998: 5996: 5994: 5992: 5990: 5988: 5986: 5984: 5982: 5980: 5978: 5976: 5974: 5972: 5970: 5968: 5966: 5964: 5962: 5960: 5956: 5951: 5947: 5942: 5937: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5921: 5920: 5915: 5896: 5893: 5888: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5875: 5867: 5864: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5838: 5830: 5827: 5822: 5818: 5814: 5810: 5809: 5801: 5798: 5793: 5789: 5785: 5781: 5780: 5772: 5769: 5763: 5760: 5755: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5731: 5728: 5722: 5719: 5713: 5710: 5703: 5702: 5693: 5690: 5684: 5678: 5674: 5667: 5664: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5630: 5622: 5619: 5614: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5589: 5586: 5581: 5575: 5571: 5564: 5561: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5537: 5534: 5529: 5523: 5519: 5512: 5509: 5503: 5500: 5494: 5492: 5488: 5483: 5477: 5473: 5466: 5463: 5457: 5454: 5448: 5445: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5419: 5412: 5409: 5403: 5400: 5394: 5391: 5385: 5382: 5376: 5373: 5367: 5365: 5363: 5362:galvanization 5359: 5355: 5343: 5340: 5337: 5334: 5331: 5328: 5325: 5324: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5287: 5281: 5280: 5272: 5269: 5266: 5263: 5260: 5257: 5254: 5253: 5249: 5246: 5243: 5240: 5237: 5234: 5231: 5228: 5225: 5224: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5180: 5179: 5173: 5172: 5163: 5160: 5156: 5153: 5149: 5146: 5142: 5139: 5135: 5132: 5128: 5125: 5121: 5118: 5114: 5111: 5107: 5104: 5100: 5097: 5093: 5090: 5086: 5083: 5079: 5076: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5065: 5064: 5059: 5056: 5052: 5049: 5045: 5042: 5038: 5035: 5031: 5028: 5024: 5021: 5017: 5014: 5010: 5007: 5003: 5000: 4996: 4993: 4989: 4986: 4982: 4979: 4975: 4972: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4961: 4960: 4957: 4956: 4951: 4948: 4944: 4941: 4937: 4934: 4933: 4928: 4925: 4921: 4918: 4914: 4911: 4907: 4904: 4900: 4897: 4894: 4890: 4887: 4883: 4880: 4876: 4873: 4872: 4867: 4864: 4860: 4857: 4853: 4850: 4846: 4843: 4840: 4836: 4833: 4829: 4826: 4822: 4819: 4818: 4813: 4810: 4806: 4803: 4799: 4796: 4793: 4789: 4786: 4782: 4779: 4775: 4772: 4771: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4759: 4757: 4753: 4750: 4746: 4743: 4742: 4737: 4734: 4730: 4727: 4726: 4721: 4718: 4717: 4711: 4710: 4709: 4707: 4703: 4696: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4673: 4671: 4662: 4661: 4660: 4658: 4652: 4648: 4640: 4638: 4634: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4609: 4606: 4603: 4600: 4597: 4594: 4593: 4590: 4587: 4584: 4581: 4578: 4575: 4572: 4569: 4566: 4565: 4561: 4558: 4555: 4552: 4549: 4546: 4543: 4540: 4537: 4536: 4532: 4529: 4526: 4523: 4520: 4517: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4508: 4502: 4501: 4500: 4498: 4497:crystal field 4494: 4490: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4471: 4468: 4465: 4462: 4459: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4436: 4433: 4430: 4427: 4424: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4412: 4408: 4405: 4402: 4399: 4396: 4393: 4390: 4387: 4384: 4381: 4378: 4375: 4374: 4367: 4364: 4361: 4358: 4355: 4352: 4349: 4346: 4343: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4334: 4328: 4327: 4326: 4323: 4322:crystal field 4319: 4315: 4310: 4308: 4307:time constant 4304: 4295: 4290: 4288: 4287:reaction rate 4284: 4283:rate constant 4280: 4257: 4251: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4232: 4229: 4221: 4215: 4209: 4204: 4201: 4180: 4179: 4178: 4176: 4156: 4155: 4154: 4152: 4148: 4140: 4138: 4133: 4125: 4123: 4121: 4117: 4104: 4103: 4102: 4096: 4095: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4077: 4074: 4052: 4051: 4047: 4044: 4022: 4021: 4017: 4012: 3990: 3989: 3985: 3982: 3960: 3959: 3955: 3911: 3896: 3895: 3891: 3886: 3879: 3878: 3871: 3868: 3867: 3861: 3860: 3859: 3852: 3847: 3839: 3831: 3824: 3822: 3803: 3799: 3792: 3789: 3784: 3780: 3773: 3770: 3767: 3764: 3761: 3758: 3755: 3752: 3747: 3743: 3732: 3731: 3730: 3719: 3718: 3717: 3713: 3710: 3706: 3694: 3691: 3690: 3680: 3673: 3672: 3662: 3653: 3652: 3642: 3637: 3636: 3632: 3629: 3628: 3618: 3617: 3616: 3607: 3604: 3603: 3602: 3592: 3590: 3587: 3582: 3580: 3564: 3561: 3536: 3533: 3515: 3499: 3494: 3491: 3488: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3469: 3451: 3434: 3433: 3432: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3400: 3397: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3381: 3378: 3375: 3372: 3368: 3360: 3359: 3358: 3352: 3328: 3310: 3307: 3292: 3289: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3270: 3264: 3261: 3258: 3221: 3220: 3219: 3209: 3208: 3207: 3188: 3185: 3175: 3157: 3154: 3139: 3136: 3133: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3114: 3108: 3105: 3102: 3065: 3064: 3063: 3061: 3053: 3052: 3051: 3047: 3039: 3031: 3028: 3023: 3018: 3013: 3012: 3006: 3003: 3001: 2996: 2991: 2990: 2984: 2981: 2979: 2974: 2969: 2968: 2962: 2960: 2958: 2953: 2948: 2947: 2944: 2939: 2938: 2932: 2931: 2930: 2926: 2924: 2920: 2915: 2912: 2911:crystal field 2875: 2869: 2857: 2854: 2851: 2846: 2842: 2831: 2830: 2829: 2822: 2810: 2805: 2802: 2797: 2792: 2787: 2786: 2780: 2775: 2772: 2767: 2762: 2757: 2756: 2750: 2747: 2742: 2737: 2732: 2731: 2725: 2723: 2721: 2716: 2711: 2710: 2704: 2699: 2698: 2692: 2691: 2686: 2678: 2674: 2671: 2663: 2662: 2661: 2659: 2655: 2647: 2645: 2643: 2635: 2619: 2602: 2600: 2596: 2580: 2576: 2572:point group C 2569: 2561: 2560: 2559: 2557: 2553: 2545: 2543: 2541: 2537: 2532: 2528: 2523: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2504: 2500: 2495: 2493: 2477: 2457: 2456:selenous acid 2453: 2449: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2433: 2429: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2386: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2359: 2357: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2314: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2283: 2281: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2255: 2247: 2242: 2234: 2232: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2200: 2196: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2166: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2144: 2137: 2135: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2093: 2085: 2077: 2069: 2068: 2062: 2059: 2056: 2053: 2050: 2033: 2029: 2018: 2017: 2013: 2010: 2007: 2004: 2001: 1998: 1997: 1993: 1990: 1987: 1985: 1983: 1981: 1980: 1971: 1969: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1944:The hydrated 1940:Alkali metals 1939: 1937: 1935: 1915: 1895: 1891: 1890:Zundel cation 1886: 1884: 1875: 1869:Zundel cation 1867: 1862: 1854: 1849: 1840: 1837: 1834: 1831: 1828: 1825: 1822: 1819: 1816: 1813: 1812: 1809: 1807: 1804: 1801: 1798: 1795: 1793: 1790: 1787: 1784: 1783: 1780: 1778: 1775: 1772: 1769: 1766: 1763: 1760: 1757: 1755: 1752: 1751: 1748: 1745: 1743: 1740: 1738: 1735: 1733: 1730: 1728: 1725: 1723: 1720: 1718: 1715: 1713: 1710: 1708: 1705: 1703: 1702: 1698: 1693: 1692: 1691: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1677:Data such as 1672: 1670: 1667: 1657: 1654: 1651: 1648: 1645: 1642: 1639: 1636: 1633: 1630: 1627: 1624: 1623: 1620: 1617: 1615: 1612: 1610: 1607: 1605: 1602: 1600: 1597: 1595: 1592: 1590: 1587: 1585: 1582: 1580: 1577: 1575: 1572: 1570: 1567: 1564: 1563: 1557: 1554: 1553:Raman spectra 1550: 1543: 1541: 1531: 1530: 1529: 1527: 1515: 1514: 1513: 1511: 1505: 1494: 1490: 1489: 1483: 1480: 1477: 1474: 1471: 1468: 1467: 1463: 1460: 1457: 1454: 1451: 1448: 1447: 1443: 1440: 1437: 1434: 1431: 1428: 1427: 1420: 1414: 1404: 1394: 1384: 1381: 1380: 1369: 1366: 1363: 1360: 1357: 1354: 1351: 1348: 1345: 1342: 1339: 1338: 1334: 1331: 1328: 1325: 1322: 1319: 1316: 1313: 1310: 1307: 1304: 1303: 1299: 1296: 1293: 1290: 1287: 1284: 1281: 1278: 1275: 1272: 1269: 1268: 1249: 1248: 1242: 1239: 1235: 1227: 1225: 1206: 1202: 1200: 1192: 1185: 1182: 1179: 1176: 1173: 1170: 1167: 1164: 1161: 1158: 1155: 1154: 1150: 1147: 1144: 1141: 1138: 1135: 1132: 1129: 1126: 1123: 1120: 1119: 1115: 1112: 1109: 1106: 1103: 1100: 1097: 1094: 1091: 1088: 1085: 1084: 1078: 1076: 1071: 1067: 1059: 1057: 1050: 1048: 1046: 1045:mineral water 1042: 1038: 1033: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 995: 992: 989: 986: 981: 980: 977: 965: 963: 951: 949: 937: 935: 923: 920: 919: 915: 909: 908: 907: 905: 897: 895: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 872: 868: 864: 861: 857: 853: 843: 836: 831: 827: 824: 820: 816: 812: 808: 804: 800: 796: 792: 776: 772: 768: 764: 763:hydrogen ions 760: 756: 752: 748: 740: 739: 729: 724: 719: 714: 709: 704: 699: 694: 689: 684: 679: 674: 669: 664: 659: 657: 654: 652: 649: 647: 644: 642: 639: 637: 634: 632: 629: 627: 624: 622: 619: 617: 614: 612: 609: 607: 604: 602: 599: 597: 594: 592: 589: 587: 584: 582: 579: 577: 574: 573: 567: 565: 562: 560: 557: 555: 552: 550: 547: 545: 542: 540: 537: 535: 532: 530: 527: 525: 522: 517: 512: 507: 502: 500: 497: 495: 492: 490: 487: 485: 482: 480: 477: 475: 472: 470: 467: 465: 462: 460: 457: 455: 452: 450: 447: 445: 442: 440: 437: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 411: 405: 400: 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 363: 360: 358: 355: 350: 348: 345: 340: 338: 335: 333: 330: 326: 323: 321: 318: 317: 311: 306: 301: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 284: 281: 279: 276: 274: 271: 269: 266: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 232: 229: 227: 224: 223: 217: 212: 207: 202: 197: 195: 192: 188: 185: 183: 180: 179: 173: 168: 163: 158: 153: 148: 144: 141: 139: 136: 135: 129: 125: 122: 121: 115: 114: 110: 108: 106: 102: 98: 93: 88: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 54: 50: 46: 42: 38: 34: 30: 26: 22: 7207: 7182: 7163: 7144: 7125: 7106: 7099:Bibliography 7086: 7074: 7055: 7045: 7020: 7014: 6988: 6979: 6947: 6940: 6931: 6922: 6913: 6904: 6895: 6886: 6867: 6861: 6840: 6831: 6822: 6816: 6807: 6784: 6775: 6766: 6757: 6738: 6732: 6715: 6711: 6705: 6696: 6679: 6675: 6669: 6660: 6651: 6626: 6622: 6615: 6598: 6594: 6588: 6551: 6547: 6541: 6516: 6512: 6506: 6481: 6477: 6464: 6421: 6417: 6354: 6350: 6343: 6326: 6322: 6316: 6295: 6286: 6277: 6260: 6256: 6250: 6241: 6232: 6223: 6214: 6189: 6183: 6176: 6139: 6135: 6125: 6106: 6100: 6064: 6055: 6034: 6015: 6011: 5923: 5917: 5895: 5878: 5872: 5866: 5841: 5835: 5829: 5812: 5806: 5800: 5783: 5777: 5771: 5762: 5739: 5730: 5721: 5712: 5700: 5692: 5672: 5666: 5633: 5627: 5621: 5594: 5588: 5569: 5563: 5546: 5542: 5536: 5517: 5511: 5502: 5471: 5465: 5456: 5447: 5421: 5417: 5411: 5402: 5393: 5384: 5375: 5351: 4705: 4701: 4692: 4681: 4674: 4666: 4654: 4635: 4624: 4567:ΔH (kJ mol) 4486: 4414:ΔH (kJ mol) 4311: 4291: 4278: 4276: 4168: 4144: 4135: 4112: 4100: 4092: 4085: 3856: 3820: 3727: 3714: 3702: 3614: 3596: 3583: 3553: 3430: 3348: 3217: 3205: 3057: 3049: 2927: 2916: 2908: 2823: 2820: 2667: 2651: 2617: 2603: 2594: 2565: 2549: 2524: 2496: 2470:and then SeO 2450: 2436: 2415:silicic acid 2405: 2363: 2352:(IV), , and 2315: 2284: 2260: 2203: 2167: 2149: 2120:dodecahedral 2073: 1943: 1894:Eigen cation 1893: 1889: 1887: 1872: 1785:Ion mobility 1679:conductivity 1676: 1663: 1547: 1539: 1523: 1506: 1502: 1377:(continued) 1231: 1207: 1203: 1196: 1063: 1054: 1034: 1030:perspiration 1022:Sports drink 1003: 901: 873: 869: 865: 849: 775:permanganate 744: 89: 84: 80: 76: 73:ionic radius 68: 44: 24: 20: 18: 6962:Chapter 22. 5914:) in Water" 5815:: 155–165. 4105:- 2 H⇌ + H 2593:unit, with 2527:noble gases 2474:. Cationic 2385:point group 2324:(III), and 2275:Jahn-Teller 2225:mendelevium 2213:californium 1532:+ Cl ⇌ + H 871:solvation. 777:(VII) ion, 101:picoseconds 7216:1468429574 5368:References 4116:molybdenum 3875:structure 3851:molybdenum 3692:Sn, Hg, Pd 3579:cumulative 3046:Hydrolysis 3044:See also: 2919:lanthanide 2399:(III) and 2369:boric acid 2330:Molybdenum 2311:molybdenum 2239:See also: 2182:dysprosium 2163:lawrencium 2153:(III) and 2082:core. For 1565:metal ion 1222:20 pm 878:, such as 835:octahedron 759:dissociate 53:Lanthanide 7231:Solutions 7147:. Wiley. 7027:CRC Press 5858:101048854 5543:Chem. Rev 4657:complexes 4294:half-life 4205:− 4126:Oxyanions 4088:aluminium 3804:⊖ 3796:Δ 3790:− 3785:⊖ 3777:Δ 3768:⁡ 3756:− 3748:⊖ 3740:Δ 3654:Li, Na, K 3640:Al, Y, La 3565:∗ 3562:β 3534:− 3500:∗ 3492:− 3482:β 3406:× 3379:− 3329:− 3262:− 3186:− 3137:− 3106:− 2855:− 2847:⊖ 2839:Δ 2554:(IV) and 2476:tellurium 2419:germanium 2377:aluminium 2350:zirconium 2336:(II) and 2334:Palladium 2318:ruthenium 2289:(II) and 2269:(II) and 2227:(II), or 2170:lanthanum 2124:strontium 2084:magnesium 2076:beryllium 2034:⊖ 2026:Δ 1954:Potassium 1814:Diffusion 1687:diffusion 984:(mol kg) 815:Germanium 803:tellurium 771:oxyanions 7225:Category 6643:20121188 6533:21226482 6498:27862415 6456:22298911 6379:22766649 6371:19479764 6206:15762718 6168:28386590 5950:20078058 5658:95824687 4670:ion pair 4132:oxyanion 4120:σ- bonds 3060:activity 2813:-1479.9 2783:-1554.4 2753:-4684.8 2728:-4659.7 2707:-2487.0 2654:enthalpy 2642:plutonyl 2616:, has a 2599:chromium 2568:vanadium 2520:astatine 2512:fluoride 2499:halogens 2492:Polonium 2452:Selenium 2442:Antimony 2401:thallium 2338:platinum 2267:chromium 2229:nobelium 2205:Actinium 2195:Europium 2186:samarium 2174:lutetium 2159:Lutetium 2151:Scandium 1966:francium 1958:rubidium 1892:and the 1874:Hydrogen 1855:Hydrogen 1526:ion pair 1464:7.4 (5) 1335:6.8 (8) 1323:10.0 (6) 1156:Nucleus 1075:ion-pair 1041:hardness 1026:isotonic 914:salinity 904:seawater 884:methanol 876:solvents 819:hydrogen 811:antimony 795:tantalum 767:vanadium 751:metallic 57:actinide 25:aqua ion 6556:Bibcode 6447:3268562 6426:Bibcode 6159:5364445 6012:Liquids 5941:2946644 5687:p. 138. 5638:Bibcode 5426:Bibcode 5320:Ce / Ce 5315:Au / Au 5310:Hf / Hf 5305:Zr / Zr 5300:Pt / Pt 5295:Pd / Pd 5290:Ag / Ag 5250:+0.345 4699: 4385:0.00013 4097:- 2 H⇌ 4013:Sn, Pb 3912:Cu, Sn 3872:cations 3695:ca. 12 3678:Ti, Bi, 3021:-159.0 3009:-426.8 2987:-510.4 2965:-464.4 2808:-4184.0 2800:-3282.8 2795:-1303.7 2778:-4108.7 2770:-3620.0 2765:-1444.7 2745:-3960.2 2740:-1592.4 2719:-1922.1 2658:entropy 2579:oxalate 2562:→ + 2H 2552:vanadyl 2536:krypton 2446:Bismuth 2438:Arsenic 2407:Silicon 2395:(III), 2393:gallium 2373:borates 2354:hafnium 2326:iridium 2322:rhodium 2307:Mercury 2303:cadmium 2295:mercury 2291:cadmium 2221:fermium 2217:uranium 2209:Thorium 2190:holmium 2155:yttrium 2092:calcium 1994:Ba(aq) 1962:caesium 1946:lithium 1652:520-526 1646:385-400 1631:360-365 1628:530-543 1484:17 (3) 1469:θ /deg 1461:8.5 (2) 1458:5.0 (2) 1455:4.9 (3) 1452:5.8 (2) 1370:0 (20) 1367:17 (10) 1364:27 (10) 1340:θ /deg 1332:6.8 (8) 1329:6.6 (5) 1326:5.8 (2) 1320:7.2 (2) 1317:6.4 (3) 1314:5.5 (3) 1311:3.0 (5) 1308:2.3 (2) 1121:Number 996:0.0103 993:0.0528 990:0.0102 799:arsenic 791:niobium 761:losing 7214: 7189: 7170: 7151: 7132: 7113: 7062: 7033: 6954: 6874: 6745: 6641: 6531: 6496: 6454: 6444: 6377: 6369: 6204: 6166: 6156: 5948: 5938: 5856: 5750: 5707:p.254. 5679: 5656: 5609: 5576: 5524: 5478: 5354:reduce 5344:−1.32 5329:+0.915 5326:+0.799 5273:+0.41 5247:−0.228 5241:−0.473 5181:Couple 5165:−1.20 5130:−2.03 5109:−1.80 5061:−2.23 5047:−2.33 5026:−2.27 5005:−2.28 4953:−1.96 4930:+0.76 4916:−0.126 4902:−0.854 4892:−2.25 4885:−2.912 4878:−3.026 4869:+0.15 4862:−0.136 4855:−0.342 4848:−0.403 4838:−2.37 4831:−2.899 4801:−0.751 4791:−2.90 4784:−2.868 4777:−2.931 4768:−1.66 4755:−2.372 4739:−1.85 4732:−3.040 4562:0.050 4556:3.2×10 4547:2.0×10 4541:6.3×10 4403:0.0005 4391:0.0316 4388:0.0032 4075:Zr, Th 3983:Be, Hg 3674:Ag, Tl 3630:cation 3605:- H ⇌ 3026:-368.2 2999:-205.0 2977:-209.2 2956:-267.8 2942:-118.8 2861: 2790:-263.2 2760:-296.2 2735:-320.9 2714:-404.6 2702:-514.6 2556:uranyl 2508:iodide 2411:silica 2397:indium 2342:silver 2280:cobalt 2271:copper 2231:(II). 2223:(II), 2199:cerium 2132:radium 2128:Barium 1991:Sr(aq) 1988:Ca(aq) 1950:sodium 1516:⇌ + H 1481:24 (4) 1478:22 (4) 1475:38 (6) 1472:42 (8) 1395:Cu(ClO 1385:Ni(ClO 1361:42 (8) 1358:38 (9) 1355:34 (9) 1352:34 (9) 1349:40 (5) 1346:52 (5) 1343:75 (5) 1300:0.086 987:0.469 916:= 35) 846:shell. 39:. The 29:cation 6474:(PDF) 6414:(PDF) 6375:S2CID 5854:S2CID 5654:S2CID 5341:+1.50 5338:−1.70 5335:−1.53 5332:+1.18 5270:−0.06 5267:−0.28 5264:−0.74 5261:−0.87 5258:−1.37 5255:M / M 5244:−0.28 5238:−1.18 5235:−0.91 5232:−1.18 5229:−1.63 5226:M / M 5158:−1.65 5151:−1.97 5144:−1.99 5137:−2.01 5123:−2.07 5116:−2.06 5102:−1.33 5095:−1.51 5088:−1.46 5081:−1.83 5074:−2.18 5054:−2.30 5040:−2.37 5033:−2.32 5019:−2.27 5012:−1.98 4998:−2.30 4991:−2.32 4984:−2.34 4977:−2.32 4970:−2.52 4923:+0.16 4909:+0.73 4824:−2.98 4815:+0.1 4808:−0.53 4748:−2.71 4406:0.032 4379:0.001 4149:is a 3682:−15.9 3664:−19.8 3644:−22.0 3621:log K 3608:] = K 3054:- H⇌ 3016:-36.8 2994:-40.2 2972:-51.9 2951:-87.4 2858:69500 2618:trans 2540:xenon 2531:Argon 2365:Boron 2063:1305 1952:ion. 1805:10-13 1796:10-13 1776:10-13 1767:12-14 1758:13-22 1444:2.38 1405:Fe(NO 1273:27.77 1014:blood 745:Most 35:, of 33:water 27:is a 7212:ISBN 7187:ISBN 7168:ISBN 7149:ISBN 7130:ISBN 7111:ISBN 7060:ISBN 7031:ISBN 6952:ISBN 6872:ISBN 6743:ISBN 6639:PMID 6529:PMID 6494:PMID 6452:PMID 6367:PMID 6202:PMID 6164:PMID 5946:PMID 5748:ISBN 5677:ISBN 5607:ISBN 5574:ISBN 5522:ISBN 5476:ISBN 4946:−2.8 4939:−2.9 4704:⇌ M( 4693:The 4649:and 4409:1.3 4397:0.79 4394:0.32 4292:The 4169:The 4063:(OH) 4033:(OH) 4002:(OH) 3971:(OH) 3918:VO, 3901:(OH) 3884:(OH) 3849:The 3709:soft 3705:hard 3623:1,-1 3610:1,-1 3599:1,-1 3577:are 3058:the 2566:The 2538:and 2525:The 2497:The 2486:(OH) 2432:lead 2346:Gold 2299:Zinc 2287:zinc 2118:and 2100:10.0 2074:The 2060:1443 2057:1577 2054:1921 2051:2494 2014:281 1960:and 1799:7-11 1791:2-10 1788:3-21 1770:8-12 1761:7-13 1685:and 1658:400 1643:440 1551:and 1441:2.85 1435:2.00 1432:3.80 1421:DyCl 1415:NdCl 1382:Salt 1297:0.46 1294:0.85 1291:3.05 1285:2.80 1282:4.49 1279:3.57 1276:9.95 1262:NiCl 1256:CaCl 1253:LiCl 1250:Salt 1168:H O 1086:Ion 921:Ion 890:and 809:and 801:and 793:and 749:are 55:and 6720:doi 6684:doi 6680:116 6631:doi 6603:doi 6599:339 6564:doi 6552:473 6521:doi 6486:doi 6442:PMC 6434:doi 6422:512 6359:doi 6331:doi 6265:doi 6194:doi 6154:PMC 6144:doi 6111:doi 6020:doi 5936:PMC 5928:doi 5924:132 5883:doi 5846:doi 5817:doi 5813:512 5788:doi 5784:105 5646:doi 5634:390 5599:doi 5551:doi 5434:doi 4895:... 4841:... 4794:... 4610:-92 4607:-54 4601:-63 4598:117 4585:134 4576:109 4553:501 4550:316 4533:La 4472:-22 4469:-17 4466:-13 4460:-13 4305:or 4161:+ H 3944:PuO 3932:NpO 3916:Th 3648:0.5 3353:, K 3029:... 3004:... 2982:... 2826:eff 2803:... 2773:... 2748:... 2595:cis 2510:to 2462:SeO 2428:Tin 2172:to 2112:0.3 2108:6.4 2104:0.6 2011:263 2008:242 2005:209 2002:167 1841:13 1802:5-9 1773:3-5 1655:475 1649:380 1640:405 1637:389 1634:395 1438:2.0 1288:1.0 1218:402 1180:H O 1159:H O 1116:Th 1101:In 1010:ppt 1008:to 1006:ppm 807:tin 779:MnO 656:Lr* 651:No* 646:Md* 641:Fm* 636:Es* 581:Ra* 576:Fr* 564:At* 559:Po* 392:Sb* 293:Ge* 23:or 7227:: 7029:. 7000:^ 6967:^ 6849:^ 6793:^ 6716:54 6714:. 6678:. 6637:. 6627:49 6625:. 6576:^ 6562:. 6550:. 6527:. 6517:50 6515:. 6492:. 6482:22 6480:. 6476:. 6450:. 6440:. 6432:. 6420:. 6416:. 6399:^ 6387:^ 6373:. 6365:. 6355:31 6353:. 6327:11 6325:. 6304:^ 6261:22 6259:. 6200:. 6190:44 6188:. 6162:. 6152:. 6138:. 6134:. 6107:82 6105:. 6099:. 6073:^ 6043:^ 6014:. 6010:. 5958:^ 5944:. 5934:. 5922:. 5916:. 5909:aq 5877:. 5852:. 5842:58 5840:. 5811:. 5782:. 5652:. 5644:. 5632:. 5605:. 5547:93 5545:. 5490:^ 5432:. 5422:32 5420:. 5364:. 5220:Cu 5215:Ni 5210:Co 5205:Fe 5200:Mn 5195:Cr 5185:Ti 5162:No 5155:Md 5148:Fm 5141:Es 5134:Cf 5127:Bk 5120:Cm 5113:Am 5106:Pu 5099:Np 5085:Pa 5078:Th 5071:Ac 5058:Yb 5051:Tm 5044:Er 5037:Ho 5030:Dy 5023:Tb 5016:Gd 5009:Eu 5002:Sm 4995:Pm 4988:Nd 4981:Pr 4974:Ce 4967:La 4950:Lr 4943:Ra 4936:Fr 4927:Po 4920:Bi 4913:Pb 4906:Tl 4899:Hg 4889:Lu 4882:Ba 4875:Cs 4866:Sb 4859:Sn 4852:In 4845:Cd 4828:Sr 4821:Rb 4812:Ge 4805:Ga 4798:Zn 4788:Sc 4781:Ca 4765:Al 4752:Mg 4745:Na 4736:Be 4729:Li 4723:0 4672:. 4613:59 4588:17 4582:26 4579:37 4573:26 4570:11 4559:50 4544:16 4530:In 4527:Rh 4524:Ga 4521:Fe 4518:Cr 4515:Ti 4512:Al 4475:25 4463:12 4457:21 4440:23 4437:43 4434:33 4431:32 4428:34 4425:13 4422:69 4419:43 4400:40 4368:UO 4365:Zn 4362:Cu 4359:Ni 4356:Co 4353:Fe 4350:Mn 4347:Cr 4341:Mg 4338:Be 4309:. 4157:→ 4153:. 3942:, 3930:, 3920:UO 3765:ln 3676:Pb 3633:A 3461:OH 3324:OH 3243:OH 3087:OH 3024:La 3019:Ba 3014:Cs 3007:In 2997:Sr 2992:Rb 2985:Ga 2975:Ca 2963:Al 2954:Mg 2949:Na 2940:Li 2925:. 2828:. 2811:Pb 2806:Tl 2798:La 2793:Ba 2788:Cs 2781:Sn 2776:In 2763:Sr 2758:Rb 2751:Ga 2743:Sc 2738:Ca 2726:Al 2717:Mg 2712:Na 2705:Be 2700:Li 2638:5h 2622:UO 2606:UO 2583:VO 2574:4v 2490:. 2458:(H 2371:, 1968:. 1936:. 1838:17 1835:11 1747:Al 1742:Cr 1737:Zn 1732:Ba 1727:Ca 1722:Mg 1717:Cs 1712:Na 1707:Li 1681:, 1619:In 1614:Ga 1609:Al 1604:Hg 1599:Zn 1594:Cu 1589:Ni 1584:Fe 1579:Mn 1574:Mg 1569:Be 1210:13 1186:H 1151:9 1113:Zn 1110:Ni 1107:Co 1104:Fe 1098:Ga 1095:Al 1092:Mg 1089:Be 1047:. 1032:. 968:Ca 954:Mg 926:Na 906:. 886:, 882:, 731:Og 726:Ts 721:Lv 716:Mc 711:Fl 706:Nh 701:Cn 696:Rg 691:Ds 686:Mt 681:Hs 676:Bh 671:Sg 666:Db 661:Rf 631:Cf 626:Bk 621:Cm 616:Am 611:Pu 606:Np 596:Pa 591:Th 586:Ac 569:Rn 554:Bi 549:Pb 544:Tl 539:Hg 534:Au 529:Pt 524:Ir 519:Os 514:Re 504:Ta 499:Hf 494:Lu 489:Yb 484:Tm 479:Er 474:Ho 469:Dy 464:Tb 459:Gd 454:Eu 449:Sm 444:Pm 439:Nd 434:Pr 429:Ce 424:La 419:Ba 414:Cs 407:Xe 397:Te 387:Sn 382:In 377:Cd 372:Ag 367:Pd 362:Rh 357:Ru 352:Tc 347:Mo 342:Nb 337:Zr 325:Sr 320:Rb 313:Kr 308:Br 303:Se 298:As 288:Ga 283:Zn 278:Cu 273:Ni 268:Co 263:Fe 258:Mn 253:Cr 243:Ti 238:Sc 231:Ca 219:Ar 214:Cl 199:Si 194:Al 187:Mg 182:Na 175:Ne 143:Be 138:Li 131:He 107:. 75:, 61:Ac 51:. 43:, 19:A 7195:. 7176:. 7157:. 7138:. 7119:. 7068:. 7039:. 6960:. 6944:* 6880:. 6751:. 6726:. 6722:: 6690:. 6686:: 6645:. 6633:: 6609:. 6605:: 6570:. 6566:: 6558:: 6535:. 6523:: 6500:. 6488:: 6458:. 6436:: 6428:: 6381:. 6361:: 6337:. 6333:: 6271:. 6267:: 6208:. 6196:: 6170:. 6146:: 6140:3 6119:. 6113:: 6028:. 6022:: 6016:2 5952:. 5930:: 5904:H 5889:. 5885:: 5879:1 5860:. 5848:: 5823:. 5819:: 5794:. 5790:: 5756:. 5685:. 5660:. 5648:: 5640:: 5615:. 5601:: 5582:. 5557:. 5553:: 5530:. 5484:. 5440:. 5436:: 5428:: 5190:V 5092:U 4835:Y 4774:K 4720:H 4706:s 4702:e 4682:K 4678:2 4631:2 4627:2 4604:0 4454:8 4382:2 4370:2 4344:V 4318:y 4314:s 4298:e 4279:k 4273:. 4261:] 4258:A 4255:[ 4252:k 4249:= 4244:T 4239:) 4233:t 4230:d 4225:] 4222:A 4219:[ 4216:d 4210:( 4202:= 4198:e 4195:t 4192:a 4189:r 4171:* 4165:O 4163:2 4159:* 4109:O 4107:2 4068:8 4059:4 4054:M 4038:4 4029:4 4024:M 4007:4 3997:3 3992:M 3976:3 3967:3 3962:M 3949:2 3937:2 3925:2 3906:2 3899:2 3897:M 3882:2 3880:M 3800:S 3793:T 3781:H 3774:= 3771:K 3762:T 3759:R 3753:= 3744:G 3724:O 3722:2 3686:1 3684:± 3668:1 3666:± 3646:± 3537:y 3530:] 3525:H 3521:[ 3516:x 3512:] 3507:M 3503:[ 3495:y 3489:, 3486:x 3478:= 3475:] 3470:y 3466:) 3457:( 3452:x 3447:M 3442:[ 3414:w 3410:K 3401:1 3398:, 3395:1 3391:K 3387:= 3382:1 3376:, 3373:1 3369:K 3355:w 3334:} 3319:{ 3316:} 3311:+ 3308:z 3303:M 3298:{ 3293:1 3290:, 3287:1 3283:K 3279:= 3276:} 3271:+ 3268:) 3265:1 3259:z 3256:( 3252:] 3246:) 3240:( 3236:M 3232:[ 3229:{ 3214:O 3212:2 3189:1 3182:} 3176:+ 3171:H 3166:{ 3163:} 3158:+ 3155:z 3150:M 3145:{ 3140:1 3134:, 3131:1 3127:K 3123:= 3120:} 3115:+ 3112:) 3109:1 3103:z 3100:( 3096:] 3090:) 3084:( 3080:M 3076:[ 3073:{ 2970:K 2891:f 2888:f 2885:e 2881:r 2876:/ 2870:2 2866:z 2852:= 2843:H 2768:Y 2733:K 2627:2 2611:2 2588:2 2488:2 2484:2 2480:3 2472:3 2468:3 2464:3 2460:2 2413:( 2389:h 2387:O 2381:6 2110:± 2102:± 2096:2 2088:6 2080:4 2030:H 1928:2 1925:+ 1922:O 1920:5 1918:H 1908:4 1905:+ 1902:O 1900:9 1898:H 1883:O 1881:3 1879:H 1832:8 1829:9 1826:9 1823:1 1820:3 1817:5 1764:4 1536:O 1534:2 1520:O 1518:2 1497:2 1423:3 1417:3 1411:3 1409:) 1407:3 1401:2 1399:) 1397:4 1391:2 1389:) 1387:4 1264:2 1258:2 1220:± 1214:1 1212:± 1183:H 1177:H 1174:O 1171:H 1165:H 1162:H 1148:6 1145:6 1142:6 1139:6 1136:6 1133:6 1130:6 1127:6 1124:4 940:K 784:4 601:U 509:W 402:I 332:Y 248:V 226:K 209:S 204:P 170:F 165:O 160:N 155:C 150:B 124:H 85:r 83:/ 81:z 77:r 69:z 45:n

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Knowledge (XXG)

Metal ions in aqueous solution

Index