673:
294:, the enzyme responsible for reading DNA during replication, can slip while moving along the template strand and continue at the wrong nucleotide. DNA polymerase slippage is more likely to occur when a repetitive sequence (such as CGCGCG) is replicated. Because microsatellites consist of such repetitive sequences, DNA polymerase may make errors at a higher rate in these sequence regions. Several studies have found evidence that slippage is the cause of microsatellite mutations. Typically, slippage in each microsatellite occurs about once per 1,000 generations. Thus, slippage changes in repetitive DNA are three orders of magnitude more common than
395:. Evolutionary changes from replication slippage also occur in simpler organisms. For example, microsatellite length changes are common within surface membrane proteins in yeast, providing rapid evolution in cell properties. Specifically, length changes in the FLO1 gene control the level of adhesion to substrates. Short sequence repeats also provide rapid evolutionary change to surface proteins in pathenogenic bacteria; this may allow them to keep up with immunological changes in their hosts. Length changes in short sequence repeats in a fungus (
768:
262:
970:) is a general term for a genome region between microsatellite loci. The complementary sequences to two neighboring microsatellites are used as PCR primers; the variable region between them gets amplified. The limited length of amplification cycles during PCR prevents excessive replication of overly long contiguous DNA sequences, so the result will be a mix of a variety of amplified DNA strands which are generally short but vary much in length.
660:(SNP) platforms led to the era of the SNP for genome scans, microsatellites remain highly informative measures of genomic variation for linkage and association studies. Their continued advantage lies in their greater allelic diversity than biallelic SNPs, thus microsatellites can differentiate alleles within a SNP-defined linkage disequilibrium block of interest. Thus, microsatellites have successfully led to discoveries of type 2 diabetes (
948:. This process involves significant trial and error on the part of researchers, as microsatellite repeat sequences must be predicted and primers that are randomly isolated may not display significant polymorphism. Microsatellite loci are widely distributed throughout the genome and can be isolated from semi-degraded DNA of older specimens, as all that is needed is a suitable substrate for amplification through PCR.
888:
955:). The oligonucleotide probe hybridizes with the repeat in the microsatellite, and the probe/microsatellite complex is then pulled out of solution. The enriched DNA is then cloned as normal, but the proportion of successes will now be much higher, drastically reducing the time required to develop the regions for use. However, which probes to use can be a trial and error process in itself.
556:
440:(a type of painful bone cancer in young humans), a point mutation has created an extended GGAA microsatellite which binds a transcription factor, which in turn activates the EGR2 gene which drives the cancer. In addition, other GGAA microsatellites may influence the expression of genes that contribute to the clinical outcome of Ewing sarcoma patients.
266:
STR locus has proceeded without a mutation. (b) Replication of the STR locus has led to a gain of one unit owing to a loop in the new strand; the aberrant loop is stabilized by flanking units complementary to the opposite strand. (c) Replication of the STR locus has led to a loss of one unit owing to a loop in the template strand. (Forster et al. 2015)
160:
using the amplification of microsatellites as genetic markers for forensic medicine, for paternity testing, and for positional cloning to find the gene underlying a trait or disease. Prominent early applications include the identifications by microsatellite genotyping of the eight-year-old skeletal remains of a
British murder victim (
1003:
sister chromosome), and the individual may then falsely appear to be homozygous. This can cause confusion in paternity casework. It may then be necessary to amplify the microsatellite using a different set of primers. Null alleles are caused especially by mutations at the 3' section, where extension commences.
1006:
In species or population analysis, for example in conservation work, PCR primers which amplify microsatellites in one individual or species can work in other species. However, the risk of applying PCR primers across different species is that null alleles become likely, whenever sequence divergence is
302:
Another possible cause of microsatellite mutations are point mutations, where only one nucleotide is incorrectly copied during replication. A study comparing human and primate genomes found that most changes in repeat number in short microsatellites appear due to point mutations rather than slippage.
201:
have microsatellites, with the notable exception of some yeast species. Microsatellites are distributed throughout the genome. The human genome for example contains 50,000–100,000 dinucleotide microsatellites, and lesser numbers of tri-, tetra- and pentanucleotide microsatellites. Many are located in
799:
tracts. A variety of software approaches have been created for the analysis or raw nextgen DNA sequencing reads to determine the genotype and variants at repetitive loci. Microsatellites can be analysed and verified by established PCR amplification and amplicon size determination, sometimes followed
265:
DNA strand slippage during replication of an STR locus. Boxes symbolize repetitive DNA units. Arrows indicate the direction in which a new DNA strand (white boxes) is being replicated from the template strand (black boxes). Three situations during DNA replication are depicted. (a) Replication of the
180:
A microsatellite is a tract of tandemly repeated (i.e. adjacent) DNA motifs that range in length from one to six or up to ten nucleotides (the exact definition and delineation to the longer minisatellites varies from author to author), and are typically repeated 5–50 times. For example, the sequence
360:
encoded by short sequence repeats. Most of the short sequence repeats within protein-coding portions of the genome have a repeating unit of three nucleotides, since that length will not cause frame-shifts when mutating. Each trinucleotide repeating sequence is transcribed into a repeating series of
159:
refers to the early observation that centrifugation of genomic DNA in a test tube separates a prominent layer of bulk DNA from accompanying "satellite" layers of repetitive DNA. The increasing availability of DNA amplification by PCR at the beginning of the 1990s triggered a large number of studies
1002:
Occasionally, within a sample of individuals such as in paternity testing casework, a mutation in the DNA flanking the microsatellite can prevent the PCR primer from binding and producing an amplicon (creating a "null allele" in a gel assay), thus only one allele is amplified (from the non-mutated
456:. Tandem repeats in the first intron of the Asparagine synthetase gene are linked to acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. A repeat polymorphism in the fourth intron of the NOS3 gene is linked to hypertension in a Tunisian population. Reduced repeat lengths in the EGFR gene are linked with osteosarcomas.
298:
in other parts of the genome. Most slippage results in a change of just one repeat unit, and slippage rates vary for different allele lengths and repeat unit sizes, and within different species. If there is a large size difference between individual alleles, then there may be increased instability
3618:
Boland CR, Thibodeau SN, Hamilton SR, Sidransky D, Eshleman JR, Burt RW, et al. (November 1998). "A National Cancer
Institute Workshop on Microsatellite Instability for cancer detection and familial predisposition: development of international criteria for the determination of microsatellite
587:
The microsatellites in use today for forensic analysis are all tetra- or penta-nucleotide repeats, as these give a high degree of error-free data while being short enough to survive degradation in non-ideal conditions. Even shorter repeat sequences would tend to suffer from artifacts such as PCR
3455:
Wistuba II, Behrens C, Virmani AK, Mele G, Milchgrub S, Girard L, et al. (April 2000). "High resolution chromosome 3p allelotyping of human lung cancer and preneoplastic/preinvasive bronchial epithelium reveals multiple, discontinuous sites of 3p allele loss and three regions of frequent
993:
methods, which struggle with homopolymeric tracts. Therefore, microsatellites are normally analysed by conventional PCR amplification and amplicon size determination. The use of PCR means that microsatellite length analysis is prone to PCR limitations like any other PCR-amplified DNA locus. A
943:
bacteria. Colonies are then developed, and screened with fluorescently–labelled oligonucleotide sequences that will hybridize to a microsatellite repeat, if present on the DNA segment. If positive clones can be obtained from this procedure, the DNA is sequenced and PCR primers are chosen from
327:
Microsatellite mutation rates vary with base position relative to the microsatellite, repeat type, and base identity. Mutation rate rises specifically with repeat number, peaking around six to eight repeats and then decreasing again. Increased heterozygosity in a population will also increase
883:
gels; only small amounts of DNA are needed for amplification because in this way thermocycling creates an exponential increase in the replicated segment. With the abundance of PCR technology, primers that flank microsatellite loci are simple and quick to use, but the development of correctly
487:
Almost 50% of the human genome is contained in various types of transposable elements (also called transposons, or 'jumping genes'), and many of them contain repetitive DNA. It is probable that short sequence repeats in those locations are also involved in the regulation of gene expression.
318:, the microsatellite mutation rate was estimated at 2.1 × 10 per generation per locus. The microsatellite mutation rate in human male germ lines is five to six times higher than in female germ lines and ranges from 0 to 7 × 10 per locus per gamete per generation. In the nematode
282:
is expected to differ from other mutation rates, such as base substitution rates. The mutation rate at microsatellite loci depends on the repeat motif sequence, the number of repeated motif units and the purity of the canonical repeated sequence. A variety of mechanisms for mutation of
433:, by altering promoter spacing. Dinucleotide microsatellites are linked to abundant variation in cis-regulatory control regions in the human genome. Microsatellites in control regions of the Vasopressin 1a receptor gene in voles influence their social behavior, and level of monogamy.
3837:"Establishment of complete and mixed donor chimerism after allogeneic lymphohematopoietic transplantation: recommendations from a workshop at the 2001 Tandem Meetings of the International Bone Marrow Transplant Registry and the American Society of Blood and Marrow Transplantation"
552:. Microsatellites analyzed in primary tissue therefore been routinely used in cancer diagnosis to assess tumour progression. Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) have been used to identify microsatellite biomarkers as a source of genetic predisposition in a variety of cancers.
2711:
Utsch B, Becker K, Brock D, Lentze MJ, Bidlingmaier F, Ludwig M (May 2002). "A novel stable polyalanine expansion in the HOXA13 gene associated with hand-foot-genital syndrome: proper function of poly(A)-harbouring transcription factors depends on a critical repeat length?".
1007:
too great for the primers to bind. The species may then artificially appear to have a reduced diversity. Null alleles in this case can sometimes be indicated by an excessive frequency of homozygotes causing deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium expectations.
694:
became ubiquitous in laboratories researchers were able to design primers and amplify sets of microsatellites at low cost. Their uses are wide-ranging. A microsatellite with a neutral evolutionary history makes it applicable for measuring or inferring
364:
Mutations in these repeating segments can affect the physical and chemical properties of proteins, with the potential for producing gradual and predictable changes in protein action. For example, length changes in tandemly repeating regions in the
213:
against; this allows them to accumulate mutations unhindered over the generations and gives rise to variability that can be used for DNA fingerprinting and identification purposes. Other microsatellites are located in regulatory flanking or
3265:
Jemaa R, Ben Ali S, Kallel A, Feki M, Elasmi M, Taieb SH, et al. (June 2009). "Association of a 27-bp repeat polymorphism in intron 4 of endothelial constitutive nitric oxide synthase gene with hypertension in a
Tunisian population".
758:
variation) linked to a trait of interest (e.g. productivity, disease resistance, stress tolerance, and quality), rather than on the trait itself. Microsatellites have been proposed to be used as such markers to assist plant breeding.
348: – microsatellite mutations in such cases can lead to phenotypic changes and diseases. A genome-wide study estimates that microsatellite variation contributes 10–15% of heritable gene expression variation in humans.
981:; sequence diversity is lower than in SSR-PCR, but still higher than in actual gene sequences. In addition, microsatellite sequencing and ISSR sequencing are mutually assisting, as one produces primers for the other.
5420:
244:
on the end of a shoelace) during successive rounds of cell division due to the "end replication problem". In white blood cells, the gradual shortening of telomeric DNA has been shown to inversely correlate with
651:
During the 1990s and the first several years of this millennium, microsatellites were the workhorse genetic markers for genome-wide scans to locate any gene responsible for a given phenotype or disease, using
421:
can change gene expression quickly, between generations. The human genome contains many (>16,000) short sequence repeats in regulatory regions, which provide 'tuning knobs' on the expression of many genes.
897:
amplified using polymerase chain reaction with primers targeting a variable simple sequence repeat (SSR, a.k.a. microsatellite) locus. Samples were run on a 5% polyacrylamide gel and visualized using silver
973:
Sequences amplified by ISSR-PCR can be used for DNA fingerprinting. Since an ISSR may be a conserved or nonconserved region, this technique is not useful for distinguishing individuals, but rather for
827:, which will allow the analyst to determine how many repeats of the microsatellites sequence in question there are. If the DNA was resolved by gel electrophoresis, the DNA can be visualized either by
843:(highly sensitive, safe, expensive). Instruments built to resolve microsatellite fragments by capillary electrophoresis also use fluorescent dyes. Forensic profiles are stored in major databanks. The
452:
also influence phenotype, through means that are not currently understood. For example, a GAA triplet expansion in the first intron of the X25 gene appears to interfere with transcription, and causes
463:
is known to use microsatellite sequences within intronic mRNA for the removal of introns in the absence of U2AF2 and other splicing machinery. It is theorized that these sequences form highly stable
1409:
Chistiakov DA, Hellemans B, Volckaert FA (2006-05-31). "Microsatellites and their genomic distribution, evolution, function and applications: A review with special reference to fish genetics".
4270:
Waits L, Taberlet P, Swenson JE, Sandegren F, Franzén R (April 2000). "Nuclear DNA microsatellite analysis of genetic diversity and gene flow in the
Scandinavian brown bear (Ursus arctos)".
375:), with an association between longer sequence lengths and longer faces. This association also applies to a wider range of Carnivora species. Length changes in polyalanine tracts within the
1847:
Klintschar M, Dauber EM, Ricci U, Cerri N, Immel UD, Kleiber M, Mayr WR (October 2004). "Haplotype studies support slippage as the mechanism of germline mutations in short tandem repeats".
2168:
Amos W (September 2010). "Mutation biases and mutation rate variation around very short human microsatellites revealed by human-chimpanzee-orangutan genomic sequence alignments".
672:
108:
refers to the early observation that centrifugation of genomic DNA in a test tube separates a prominent layer of bulk DNA from accompanying "satellite" layers of repetitive DNA.
274:, which affect only a single nucleotide, microsatellite mutations lead to the gain or loss of an entire repeat unit, and sometimes two or more repeats simultaneously. Thus, the
911:, primers can be designed manually. This involves searching the genomic DNA sequence for microsatellite repeats, which can be done by eye or by using automated tools such as
596:
must be respected, so that forensic STRs are chosen which are non-coding, do not influence gene regulation, and are not usually trinucleotide STRs which could be involved in
5105:
Müller KJ, Romano N, Gerstner O, Garcia-Maroto F, Pozzi C, Salamini F, Rohde W (April 1995). "The barley Hooded mutation caused by a duplication in a homeobox gene intron".
4415:
5417:
951:
More recent techniques involve using oligonucleotide sequences consisting of repeats complementary to repeats in the microsatellite to "enrich" the DNA extracted (
855:. The Americans increased this number to 13 loci. The Australian database is called the NCIDD, and since 2013 it has been using 18 core markers for DNA profiling.
2668:
Sears KE, Goswami A, Flynn JJ, Niswander LA (2007). "The correlated evolution of Runx2 tandem repeats, transcriptional activity, and facial length in carnivora".
283:
microsatellite loci have been reviewed, and their resulting polymorphic nature has been quantified. The actual cause of mutations in microsatellites is debated.
588:
stutter and preferential amplification, while longer repeat sequences would suffer more highly from environmental degradation and would amplify less well by
3303:"Biological importance of a polymorphic CA sequence within intron 1 of the epidermal growth factor receptor gene (EGFR) in high grade central osteosarcomas"
5453:
1079:
4850:"Natural selection and the emergence of a mutation phenotype: an update of the evolutionary synthesis considering mechanisms that affect genome variation"
4078:
Spencer CC, Neigel JE, Leberg PL (October 2000). "Experimental evaluation of the usefulness of microsatellite DNA for detecting demographic bottlenecks".
3877:
3218:"Functional analysis of a novel DNA polymorphism of a tandem repeated sequence in the asparagine synthetase gene in acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells"
249:
in several sample types. Telomeres consist of repetitive DNA, with the hexanucleotide repeat motif TTAGGG in vertebrates. They are thus classified as
5345:
875:
of primers and the extension of nucleotide sequences through the microsatellite. This process results in production of enough DNA to be visible on
580:
of individuals where it permits forensic identification (typically matching a crime stain to a victim or perpetrator). It is also used to follow up
3591:
Sideris M, Papagrigoriadis S (May 2014). "Molecular biomarkers and classification models in the evaluation of the prognosis of colorectal cancer".
383:, a developmental disorder in humans. Length changes in other triplet repeats are linked to more than 40 neurological diseases in humans, notably
5150:
Pumpernik D, Oblak B, Borstnik B (January 2008). "Replication slippage versus point mutation rates in short tandem repeats of the human genome".
1628:"Mutation rate in the hypervariable VNTR g3 (D7S22) is affected by allele length and a flanking DNA sequence polymorphism near the repeat array"
508:
analysis to locate a gene or a mutation responsible for a given trait or disease. As a special case of mapping, they can be used for studies of
500:, also known as "genetic fingerprinting", of crime stains (in forensics) and of tissues (in transplant patients). They are also widely used in
1038:
536:
cells, whose controls on replication are damaged, microsatellites may be gained or lost at an especially high frequency during each round of
286:
One proposed cause of such length changes is replication slippage, caused by mismatches between DNA strands while being replicated during
3169:"The GAA triplet-repeat expansion in Friedreich ataxia interferes with transcription and may be associated with an unusual DNA structure"
361:
the same amino acid. In yeasts, the most common repeated amino acids are glutamine, glutamic acid, asparagine, aspartic acid and serine.
1063:
504:
analysis (most commonly in paternity testing). Also, microsatellites are used for mapping locations within the genome, specifically in
5639:
5626:
3817:
4043:
Manel S, Schwartz MK, Luikart G, Taberlet P (2003-04-01). "Landscape genetics: combining landscape ecology and population genetics".
5952:
5649:
1457:
4596:
202:
non-coding parts of the human genome and therefore do not produce proteins, but they can also be located in regulatory regions and
3902:
Lászik A, Brinkmann B, Sótonyi P, Falus A (2000). "Automated fluorescent detection of a 10 loci multiplex for paternity testing".
240:
are linear sequences of DNA that sit at the very ends of chromosomes and protect the integrity of genomic material (not unlike an
4725:
Kaukinen KH, Supernault KJ, and Miller KM (2004). "Enrichment of tetranucleotide microsatellite loci from invertebrate species".
2374:
Amos W, Sawcer SJ, Feakes RW, Rubinsztein DC (August 1996). "Microsatellites show mutational bias and heterozygote instability".
2024:"Equilibrium distributions of microsatellite repeat length resulting from a balance between slippage events and point mutations"
5446:
2221:"Microsatellite evolutionary rate and pattern in Schistocerca gregaria inferred from direct observation of germline mutations"
1713:"Trinucleotide expansion diseases in the context of micro- and minisatellite evolution, Hammersmith Hospital, April 1-3, 1998"
5187:
Streelman JT, Kocher TD (2002). "Microsatellite variation associated with prolactin expression and growth of salt-challenged
2856:
Moxon ER, Rainey PB, Nowak MA, Lenski RE (January 1994). "Adaptive evolution of highly mutable loci in pathogenic bacteria".
657:
5368:—a tandem repeat search tool for perfect and imperfect repeats—the maximum pattern size depends only on computational power
5680:
5526:
5513:
597:
496:
Microsatellites are used for assessing chromosomal DNA deletions in cancer diagnosis. Microsatellites are widely used for
384:
223:
97:
4366:"A review of microsatellite markers and their applications in rice breeding programs to improve blast disease resistance"
328:
microsatellite mutation rates, especially when there is a large length difference between alleles. This is likely due to
5340:
3010:
Hammock EA, Young LJ (June 2005). "Microsatellite instability generates diversity in brain and sociobehavioral traits".
2574:
Hancock JM, Simon M (January 2005). "Simple sequence repeats in proteins and their significance for network evolution".
1033:
31:
311:
Direct estimates of microsatellite mutation rates have been made in numerous organisms, from insects to humans. In the
5031:
Mattick JS (October 2003). "Challenging the dogma: the hidden layer of non-protein-coding RNAs in complex organisms".
876:
676:
253:. Similarly, insects have shorter repeat motifs in their telomeres that could arguably be considered microsatellites.
197:). Repeat units of four and five nucleotides are referred to as tetra- and pentanucleotide motifs, respectively. Most
5402:
5302:
2278:"Tandem-repeat patterns and mutation rates in microsatellites of the nematode model organism Pristionchus pacificus"
5947:
5797:
5439:
4620:
3881:
1058:
1043:
868:
776:
723:
becomes more affordable the use of microsatellites has decreased, however they remain a crucial tool in the field.
720:
380:
131:
analysis to locate a gene or a mutation responsible for a given trait or disease. Microsatellites are also used in
324:, the estimated microsatellite mutation rate ranges from 8.9 × 10 to 7.5 × 10 per locus per generation.
5685:
5381:
1293:
Kit S (December 1961). "Equilibrium sedimentation in density gradients of DNA preparations from animal tissues".
952:
864:
824:
816:
772:
731:
691:
656:
observations across generations of a sampled pedigree. Although the rise of higher throughput and cost-effective
589:
521:
181:
TATATATATA is a dinucleotide microsatellite, and GTCGTCGTCGTCGTC is a trinucleotide microsatellite (with A being
2909:"Simple sequence repeats provide a substrate for phenotypic variation in the Neurospora crassa circadian clock"
1476:
Pearson CE, Nichol
Edamura K, Cleary JD (October 2005). "Repeat instability: mechanisms of dynamic mutations".
1277:
605:
464:
222:
of genes – microsatellite mutations in such cases can lead to phenotypic changes and diseases, notably in
5326:
3061:
Grünewald TG, Bernard V, Gilardi-Hebenstreit P, Raynal V, Surdez D, Aynaud MM, et al. (September 2015).
5491:
5466:
5431:
4746:"Nanopore Sequencing of a Forensic STR Multiplex Reveals Loci Suitable for Single-Contributor STR Profiling"
2512:
601:
467:
configurations that bring the 3' and 5' intron splice sites into close proximity, effectively replacing the
392:
231:
144:
3534:"Selection of microsatellite markers for bladder cancer diagnosis without the need for corresponding blood"
915:. Once the potentially useful microsatellites are determined, the flanking sequences can be used to design
53:) are repeated, typically 5–50 times. Microsatellites occur at thousands of locations within an organism's
5921:
5849:
5742:
5314:
5040:
4321:
Allendorf FW, Hohenlohe PA, Luikart G (October 2010). "Genomics and the future of conservation genetics".
3485:"Searching for microsatellite mutations in coding regions in lung, breast, ovarian and colorectal cancers"
2757:"Ser/Thr-rich domains are associated with genetic variation and morphogenesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae"
812:
682:
tree of 249 human populations and six chimpanzee populations. Created based on 246 microsatellite markers.
581:
577:
549:
453:
426:
418:
329:
320:
116:
4509:"Correction to: Genome-wide sequencing as a first-tier screening test for short tandem repeat expansions"
907:
If searching for microsatellite markers in specific regions of a genome, for example within a particular
871:. DNA is repeatedly denatured at a high temperature to separate the double strand, then cooled to allow
5767:
5717:
696:
653:
640:
124:
5777:
3758:"High-depth, high-accuracy microsatellite genotyping enables precision lung cancer risk classification"
767:
5899:
5817:
4881:
Kashi Y, et al. (1997). "Simple sequence repeats as a source of quantitative genetic variation".
5894:
5807:
5722:
5608:
5470:
5241:
5114:
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4279:
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3545:
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2622:
2528:
2232:
2177:
2035:
1584:
1418:
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and in species conservation projects. Plant geneticists have proposed the use of microsatellites for
209:
Microsatellites in non-coding regions may not have any specific function, and therefore might not be
5045:
3532:
van
Tilborg AA, Kompier LC, Lurkin I, Poort R, El Bouazzaoui S, van der Keur K, et al. (2012).
3301:
Kersting C, Agelopoulos K, Schmidt H, Korsching E, August C, Gosheger G, et al. (August 2008).
3063:"Chimeric EWSR1-FLI1 regulates the Ewing sarcoma susceptibility gene EGR2 via a GGAA microsatellite"
1890:
Forster P, Hohoff C, Dunkelmann B, Schürenkamp M, Pfeiffer H, Neuhuber F, Brinkmann B (March 2015).
1227:"Mutation rate in human microsatellites: influence of the structure and length of the tandem repeat"
471:. This method of RNA splicing is believed to have diverged from human evolution at the formation of
5672:
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687:
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132:
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3043:
2889:
2786:
2737:
2693:
2494:
2469:
Marcotte EM, Pellegrini M, Yeates TO, Eisenberg D (October 1999). "A census of protein repeats".
2399:
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2201:
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1608:
1501:
560:
388:
227:
4911:
3110:
Musa J, Cidre-Aranaz F, Aynaud MM, Orth MF, Knott MM, Mirabeau O, et al. (September 2019).
1763:
Wren JD, Forgacs E, Fondon JW, Pertsemlidis A, Cheng SY, Gallardo T, et al. (August 2000).
1519:
Goldman EA, Eick GN, Compton D, Kowal P, Snodgrass JJ, Eisenberg DT, Sterner KN (January 2018).
261:
4955:"Microsatellites: genomic distribution, putative functions and mutational mechanisms: a review"
1273:
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2307:
2250:
2193:
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2104:
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2004:
1987:
Jarne P, Lagoda PJ (October 1996). "Microsatellites, from molecules to populations and back".
1962:
1921:
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1600:
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839:(fairly sensitive, moderate health risks, inexpensive), or as most modern forensics labs use,
832:
739:
545:
397:
210:
78:
74:
62:
5787:
5737:
5732:
4910:
Kinoshita Y, Saze H, Kinoshita T, Miura A, Soppe WJ, Koornneef M, Kakutani T (January 2007).
4507:
Rajan-Babu IS, Peng JJ, Chiu R, Li C, Mohajeri A, Dolzhenko E, et al. (September 2021).
3483:
Forgacs E, Wren JD, Kamibayashi C, Kondo M, Xu XL, Markowitz S, et al. (February 2001).
5906:
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5712:
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4242:
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4193:
4185:
4138:
4095:
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4015:
4007:
3996:"Population structure in a comprehensive genomic data set on human microsatellite variation"
3966:
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3777:
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3229:
3188:
3180:
3139:
3131:
3082:
3074:
3027:
2982:
2938:
2928:
2873:
2825:
2817:
2768:
2721:
2677:
2640:
2630:
2583:
2546:
2536:
2478:
2441:
2433:
2420:
Gymrek M, Willems T, Guilmatre A, Zeng H, Markus B, Georgiev S, et al. (January 2016).
2383:
2346:
2338:
2297:
2289:
2240:
2185:
2135:
2124:"Evidence for the regulation of alternative splicing via complementary DNA sequence repeats"
2094:
2053:
2043:
1996:
1952:
1911:
1903:
1856:
1821:
1784:
1776:
1732:
1724:
1683:
1639:
1592:
1540:
1532:
1485:
1446:
1426:
1391:
1354:
1346:
1302:
1246:
1238:
1192:
1184:
1143:
1135:
945:
939:
836:
700:
679:
513:
509:
371:
279:
5757:
5662:
4865:
4142:
5782:
5617:
5589:
5558:
5553:
5424:
5330:
5318:
5306:
4936:
3112:"Cooperation of cancer drivers with regulatory germline variants shapes clinical outcomes"
2987:
2970:
2081:
Laidlaw J, Gelfand Y, Ng KW, Garner HR, Ranganathan R, Benson G, Fondon JW (1 July 2007).
916:
893:
784:
735:
712:
593:
505:
402:
271:
161:
155:
gene, the term "microsatellite" was introduced later, in 1989, by Litt and Luty. The name
128:
4744:
Tytgat O, Gansemans Y, Weymaere J, Rubben K, Deforce D, Van
Nieuwerburgh F (April 2020).
1521:"Evaluating minimally invasive sample collection methods for telomere length measurement"
926:
random segments of DNA from the focal species. These random segments are inserted into a
5245:
5118:
4970:
4589:
4283:
4091:
3835:
Antin JH, Childs R, Filipovich AH, Giralt S, Mackinnon S, Spitzer T, Weisdorf D (2001).
3549:
3416:"Regulation of mammalian gene expression by retroelements and non-coding tandem repeats"
3350:
Lin CL, Taggart AJ, Lim KH, Cygan KJ, Ferraris L, Creton R, et al. (January 2016).
3127:
3023:
2924:
2869:
2626:
2532:
2236:
2181:
2039:
1588:
1422:
17:
5889:
5747:
5704:
5532:
5262:
5229:
5204:
4772:
4745:
4535:
4508:
4476:
4449:
4445:
4392:
4365:
4247:
4222:
4198:
4020:
3995:
3971:
3946:
3782:
3757:
3725:
3696:
3672:
3647:
3568:
3533:
3376:
3351:
3242:
3217:
3193:
3168:
3144:
3111:
3087:
3062:
2943:
2908:
2830:
2805:
2446:
2421:
2351:
2326:
2302:
2277:
1916:
1891:
1789:
1764:
1737:
1712:
1644:
1627:
1572:
1545:
1520:
1359:
1334:
1251:
1226:
1148:
1123:
1048:
1018:
990:
974:
934:
844:
801:
792:
704:
341:
295:
291:
46:
4912:"Control of FWA gene silencing in Arabidopsis thaliana by SINE-related direct repeats"
4894:
4056:
3279:
3216:
Akagi T, Yin D, Kawamata N, Bartram CR, Hofmann WK, Song JH, et al. (July 2009).
2877:
2645:
2610:
2422:"Abundant contribution of short tandem repeats to gene expression variation in humans"
1430:
1395:
1306:
1197:
1172:
887:
5936:
5854:
5594:
5517:
5508:
5500:
5088:
5071:
4979:
4954:
4927:
4789:
4703:
4662:
Forensic DNA Typing: Biology, Technology, and
Genetics of STR Markers, Second Edition
4552:
4493:
4291:
4099:
2681:
2551:
2516:
2058:
2023:
2000:
1825:
1568:
1119:
1053:
931:
847:
data base for microsatellite loci identification was originally based on the
British
624:
497:
437:
312:
275:
250:
203:
169:
165:
156:
148:
112:
105:
101:
93:
5355:
5179:
4422:
4364:
Miah G, Rafii MY, Ismail MR, Puteh AB, Rahim HA, Islam K, Latif MA (November 2013).
4350:
4307:
4115:
3931:
3853:
3836:
3799:
3742:
3518:
3336:
3047:
2893:
2790:
2741:
2697:
2498:
2262:
2140:
2123:
1876:
1765:"Repeat polymorphisms within gene regions: phenotypic and evolutionary implications"
1505:
5866:
5334:
5220:
5142:
4690:
Queller DC, Strassmann JE, Hughes CR (August 1993). "Microsatellites and kinship".
4466:
4158:
4064:
2403:
2205:
1612:
1089:
840:
828:
636:
4450:"Accuracy of short tandem repeats genotyping tools in whole exome sequencing data"
3233:
5407:
4416:
Figure 1 - available via license: Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International"
4189:
3558:
2933:
919:
primers which will amplify the specific microsatellite repeat in a PCR reaction.
5861:
5772:
5634:
5350:
4174:"A measure of population subdivision based on microsatellite allele frequencies"
1350:
995:
808:
747:
468:
4640:
4525:
3648:"Germline microsatellite genotypes differentiate children with medulloblastoma"
3135:
2907:
Michael TP, Park S, Kim TS, Booth J, Byer A, Sun Q, et al. (August 2007).
2615:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2587:
2521:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2028:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1728:
5873:
5690:
5163:
2725:
2189:
1084:
880:
852:
357:
345:
50:
5365:
3716:
2048:
819:. Once these sequences have been amplified, they are resolved either through
135:
to measure levels of relatedness between subspecies, groups and individuals.
5792:
5483:
5253:
5014:
4997:
4621:"House of Lords Select Committee on Science and Technology Written Evidence"
4569:
4221:
Kohn MH, York EC, Kamradt DA, Haught G, Sauvajot RM, Wayne RK (April 1999).
4173:
3663:
3031:
2635:
2099:
2082:
779:
targeting certain STRs (which vary in lengths between individuals and their
716:
620:
573:
476:
460:
237:
198:
152:
5271:
5212:
5171:
5097:
5062:
5023:
4988:
4945:
4873:
4830:
4821:
4804:
4781:
4711:
4544:
4485:
4401:
4342:
4299:
4256:
4238:
4150:
4107:
4029:
3980:
3923:
3862:
3791:
3734:
3701:
as a Risk and Mortality Marker for Breast Cancer in African American Women"
3681:
3604:
3577:
3510:
3501:
3484:
3469:
3441:
3385:
3328:
3287:
3251:
3153:
3096:
3039:
2996:
2952:
2839:
2782:
2733:
2689:
2654:
2595:
2541:
2490:
2482:
2455:
2360:
2342:
2311:
2254:
2197:
2149:
2108:
2008:
1957:
1940:
1925:
1907:
1868:
1860:
1798:
1688:
1671:
1554:
1497:
1368:
1314:
1206:
1157:
30:
This article is about the DNA sequence. For small orbiting spacecraft, see
5299:
5230:"Unstable tandem repeats in promoters confer transcriptional evolvability"
5134:
4902:
4762:
4382:
4207:
4011:
3632:
3367:
3202:
2885:
2560:
2395:
2293:
2276:
Molnar RI, Witte H, Dinkelacker I, Villate L, Sommer RJ (September 2012).
2067:
1966:
1833:
1746:
1697:
1653:
1604:
1260:
1139:
1124:"Comparative genomics and molecular dynamics of DNA repeats in eukaryotes"
5916:
5802:
5566:
5462:
3773:
1028:
1023:
734:
or marker aided selection (MAS) is an indirect selection process where a
472:
215:
190:
58:
5228:
Vinces MD, Legendre M, Caldara M, Hagihara M, Verstrepen KJ (May 2009).
1188:
555:
5812:
5054:
3915:
3432:
3415:
2387:
1536:
1074:
978:
927:
923:
796:
628:
537:
501:
287:
194:
186:
182:
120:
5371:
4423:"Using PCR for molecular monitoring of post-transplantation chimerism"
3319:
3302:
2245:
2220:
2219:
Chapuis MP, Plantamp C, Streiff R, Blondin L, Piou C (December 2015).
1665:
1663:
1173:"Microsatellites in different eukaryotic genomes: survey and analysis"
344:
and are biologically silent. Others are located in regulatory or even
5911:
5126:
4129:
Nielsen R (2005-01-01). "Molecular signatures of natural selection".
2773:
2756:
1596:
1069:
908:
780:
661:
533:
449:
376:
246:
54:
5397:
4675:
Griffiths AJ, Miller JF, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart WM (1996).
4334:
3962:
3818:"From the crime scene to the courtroom: the journey of a DNA sample"
3756:
Velmurugan KR, Varghese RT, Fonville NC, Garner HR (November 2017).
3078:
2437:
1489:
1225:
Brinkmann B, Klintschar M, Neuhuber F, Hühne J, Rolf B (June 1998).
631:
analysis (most commonly in paternity testing). Paternally inherited
5323:
4849:
3184:
2821:
2611:"Molecular origins of rapid and continuous morphological evolution"
1780:
1242:
848:
143:
Although the first microsatellite was characterised in 1984 at the
5657:
4998:"Microsatellites within genes: structure, function, and evolution"
886:
671:
632:
609:
366:
260:
241:
219:
5412:
5291:
867:(PCR) process, using the unique sequences of flanking regions as
811:
from the cells of a sample of interest, then amplifying specific
332:
with arms of unequal lengths causing instability during meiosis.
3947:"Genetic linkage analysis in the age of whole-genome sequencing"
3646:
Rivero-Hinojosa S, Kinney N, Garner HR, Rood BR (January 2020).
1382:
King DG, Soller M, Kashi Y (1997). "Evolutionary tuning knobs".
604:. Forensic STR profiles are stored in DNA databanks such as the
369:
gene lead to differences in facial length in domesticated dogs (
5435:
5360:
2804:
Verstrepen KJ, Jansen A, Lewitter F, Fink GR (September 2005).
2022:
Kruglyak S, Durrett RT, Schug MD, Aquadro CF (September 1998).
912:
771:
Short Tandem Repeat (STR) analysis on a simplified model using
5311:
5286:
2971:"Abundant raw material for cis-regulatory evolution in humans"
1575:(1985). "Hypervariable 'minisatellite' regions in human DNA".
755:
751:
356:
In mammals, 20–40% of proteins contain repeating sequences of
42:
4953:
Li YC, Korol AB, Fahima T, Beiles A, Nevo E (December 2002).
4414:
Image by Mikael Häggström, MD, using following source image:
164:
et al. 1991), and of the Auschwitz concentration camp doctor
5386:
3695:
Kinney N, Varghese RT, Anandakrishnan R, Garner HR (2017).
2806:"Intragenic tandem repeats generate functional variability"
1672:"Molecular basis of genetic instability of triplet repeats"
863:
Microsatellites can be amplified for identification by the
5072:"Phenotypic impacts of repetitive DNA in flowering plants"
2083:"Elevated basal slippage mutation rates among the Canidae"
884:
functioning primers is often a tedious and costly process.
783:). The resultant fragments are separated by size (such as
151:
and colleagues as a polymorphic GGAT repeat in the human
4421:
Sitnik R, Torres MA, Bacal NS, Rebello Pinho JR (2006).
1333:
Lu W, Zhang Y, Liu D, Songyang Z, Wan M (January 2013).
944:
sequences flanking such regions to determine a specific
127:) and in forensic identification. They are also used in
3352:"RNA structure replaces the need for U2AF2 in splicing"
2327:"Heterozygosity increases microsatellite mutation rate"
572:
Microsatellite analysis became popular in the field of
5391:
3167:
Bidichandani SI, Ashizawa T, Patel PI (January 1998).
807:
In forensics, the analysis is performed by extracting
592:. Another forensic consideration is that the person's
2517:"Simple tandem DNA repeats and human genetic disease"
1758:
1756:
168:
who escaped to South America following World War II (
3994:
Pemberton TJ, DeGiorgio M, Rosenberg NA (May 2013).
1892:"Elevated germline mutation rate in teenage fathers"
5882:
5835:
5703:
5671:
5648:
5625:
5616:
5607:
5582:
5542:
5499:
5490:
4805:"Microsatellite null alleles in parentage analysis"
1626:Andreassen R, Egeland T, Olaisen B (August 1996).
1445:
922:Random microsatellite primers can be developed by
540:. Hence a tumour cell line might show a different
5394:De Novo Genome Analysis and Tandem Repeats Finder
5341:JSTRING—Java Search for Tandem Repeats In Genomes
4223:"Estimating population size by genotyping faeces"
544:from that of the host tissue, and, especially in
3403:. New York: Cold Spring Harbor University Press.
1711:Hancock JM, Santibáñez-Koref MF (October 1998).
1220:
1218:
1216:
4996:Li YC, Korol AB, Fahima T, Nevo E (June 2004).
2964:
2962:
2415:
2413:
1471:
1469:
1335:"Telomeres-structure, function, and regulation"
664:) and prostate cancer genes (the 8q21 region).
559:A partial human STR profile obtained using the
5287:All known disease-causing short tandem repeats
1113:
1111:
1109:
1107:
1105:
775:(PCR): First, a DNA sample undergoes PCR with
336:Biological effects of microsatellite mutations
92:Microsatellites and their longer cousins, the
5447:
2851:
2849:
1982:
1980:
1978:
1976:
1814:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development
1812:Tautz D (December 1994). "Simple sequences".
1328:
1326:
1324:
815:regions of the extracted DNA by means of the
795:methods, for some technologies struggle with
61:rate than other areas of DNA leading to high
27:Repeating sequences of 2–13 base pairs of DNA
8:
2163:
2161:
2159:
831:(low sensitivity, safe, inexpensive), or an
425:Length changes in bacterial SSRs can affect
4370:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
3841:Biology of Blood and Marrow Transplantation
1080:Earth Human STR Allele Frequencies Database
65:. Microsatellites are often referred to as
49:(ranging in length from one to six or more
5622:
5613:
5496:
5454:
5440:
5432:
5070:Meagher TR, Vassiliadis C (October 2005).
1128:Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews
891:A number of DNA samples from specimens of
5261:
5087:
5044:
5013:
4978:
4935:
4820:
4771:
4761:
4534:
4524:
4475:
4465:
4391:
4381:
4246:
4197:
4019:
3970:
3852:
3781:
3724:
3671:
3567:
3557:
3500:
3431:
3375:
3318:
3241:
3192:
3143:
3086:
2986:
2942:
2932:
2829:
2772:
2644:
2634:
2550:
2540:
2445:
2350:
2301:
2244:
2139:
2098:
2057:
2047:
1956:
1915:
1788:
1736:
1687:
1643:
1544:
1358:
1276:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
1250:
1196:
1147:
994:particular concern is the occurrence of '
989:Repetitive DNA is not easily analysed by
791:Repetitive DNA is not easily analysed by
459:An archaic form of splicing preserved in
413:Length changes of microsatellites within
4433:(2). Sao Paulo – via ResearchGate.
3816:Curtis C, Hereward J (August 29, 2017).
1941:"Mutation of human short tandem repeats"
1171:Tóth G, Gáspári Z, Jurka J (July 2000).
766:
554:
5351:MISA—MIcroSAtellite identification tool
4679:(5th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman.
4564:
4562:
1101:
524:of desirable traits in plant breeding.
4866:10.1146/annurev.micro.57.030502.090855
4570:"Technology for Resolving STR Alleles"
4143:10.1146/annurev.genet.39.073003.112420
2609:Fondon JW, Garner HR (December 2004).
1288:
1286:
257:Mutation mechanisms and mutation rates
3811:
3809:
2988:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a004023
2969:Rockman MV, Wray GA (November 2002).
1059:Short interspersed repetitive element
1039:Long interspersed nucleotide elements
516:. Researchers use microsatellites in
7:
4803:Dakin EE, Avise JC (November 2004).
4664:. New York: Elsevier Academic Press.
1448:Emery's Elements of Medical Genetics
686:Microsatellites were popularized in
623:microsatellites are widely used for
616:Kinship analysis (paternity testing)
340:Many microsatellites are located in
176:Structures, locations, and functions
5333:—find perfect or imperfect SSRs in
3945:Ott J, Wang J, Leal SM (May 2015).
3619:instability in colorectal cancer".
1676:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
1452:(12th ed.). London: Elsevier.
1064:Simple sequence length polymorphism
738:of interest is selected based on a
568:Forensic and medical fingerprinting
475:and to represent an artifact of an
5523:Short tandem repeat/Microsatellite
5205:10.1152/physiolgenomics.00105.2001
3173:American Journal of Human Genetics
1769:American Journal of Human Genetics
1632:American Journal of Human Genetics
1231:American Journal of Human Genetics
937:, which is in turn implanted into
25:
4692:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
4045:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
3401:A short guide to the human genome
3280:10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2008.12.002
1989:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1525:American Journal of Human Biology
1431:10.1016/j.aquaculture.2005.11.031
576:in the 1990s. It is used for the
299:during recombination at meiosis.
218:regions of genes, or directly in
5089:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01527.x
4980:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2002.01643.x
4928:10.1111/j.1365-313X.2006.02936.x
4677:Introduction to Genetic Analysis
4292:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.00892.x
4227:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
4100:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.01031.x
2755:Bowen S, Wheals AE (June 2006).
2682:10.1111/j.1525-142X.2007.00196.x
2122:Lian Y, Garner HR (April 2005).
1939:Weber JL, Wong C (August 1993).
1896:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
903:Design of microsatellite primers
5152:Molecular Genetics and Genomics
5002:Molecular Biology and Evolution
4602:from the original on 2010-10-13
3854:10.1053/bbmt.2001.v7.pm11669214
3307:Genes, Chromosomes & Cancer
2975:Molecular Biology and Evolution
5527:Trinucleotide repeat disorders
4937:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-38D2-5
4467:10.12688/f1000research.22639.1
2170:Journal of Molecular Evolution
1444:Turnpenny P, Ellard S (2005).
991:next generation DNA sequencing
793:next generation DNA sequencing
658:single-nucleotide polymorphism
401:) control the duration of its
385:trinucleotide repeat disorders
1:
5514:Variable number tandem repeat
5346:Microsatellite repeats finder
4895:10.1016/S0168-9525(97)01008-1
4854:Annual Review of Microbiology
4727:Journal of Shellfish Research
4418:, from the following article:
4057:10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00008-9
3234:10.1016/j.leukres.2008.10.022
2878:10.1016/S0960-9822(00)00005-1
2141:10.1093/bioinformatics/bti180
1396:10.1016/S0160-9327(97)01005-3
1307:10.1016/S0022-2836(61)80075-2
977:analyses or maybe delimiting
307:Microsatellite mutation rates
96:, together are classified as
4704:10.1016/0169-5347(93)90256-O
3559:10.1371/journal.pone.0043345
2934:10.1371/journal.pone.0000795
2515:, Richards RI (April 1995).
2471:Journal of Molecular Biology
2001:10.1016/0169-5347(96)10049-5
1826:10.1016/0959-437X(94)90067-1
1295:Journal of Molecular Biology
1034:List of biological databases
968:inter-simple sequence repeat
690:during the 1990s because as
32:Microsatellite (spaceflight)
4590:"The National DNA Database"
2670:Evolution & Development
1351:10.1016/j.yexcr.2012.09.005
851:system using 10 loci and a
5969:
4526:10.1186/s13073-021-00961-4
4190:10.1093/genetics/139.1.457
4172:Slatkin M (January 1995).
3136:10.1038/s41467-019-12071-2
2588:10.1016/j.gene.2004.11.023
1670:Wells RD (February 1996).
1339:Experimental Cell Research
1044:Microsatellite instability
721:next generation sequencing
598:triplet expansion diseases
483:Effects within transposons
409:Effects on gene regulation
381:hand-foot-genital syndrome
224:triplet expansion diseases
29:
5481:
5164:10.1007/s00438-007-0294-1
4641:"FBI CODIS Core STR Loci"
4131:Annual Review of Genetics
3414:Tomilin NV (April 2008).
2726:10.1007/s00439-002-0712-8
2190:10.1007/s00239-010-9377-4
953:microsatellite enrichment
865:polymerase chain reaction
825:capillary electrophoresis
817:polymerase chain reaction
773:polymerase chain reaction
732:Marker assisted selection
612:or the Australian NCIDD.
522:marker assisted selection
111:They are widely used for
41:is a tract of repetitive
5953:Repetitive DNA sequences
4323:Nature Reviews. Genetics
3951:Nature Reviews. Genetics
3904:Acta Biologica Hungarica
3717:10.1177/1176935117746644
2049:10.1073/pnas.95.18.10774
1945:Human Molecular Genetics
1729:10.1093/emboj/17.19.5521
1478:Nature Reviews. Genetics
1278:Medical Subject Headings
647:Genetic linkage analysis
641:genealogical DNA testing
635:(microsatellites on the
606:UK National DNA Database
89:) by plant geneticists.
18:Micro-satellite analysis
5292:MicroSatellite DataBase
5254:10.1126/science.1170097
3032:10.1126/science.1111427
2636:10.1073/pnas.0408118101
2325:Amos W (January 2016).
2087:The Journal of Heredity
1118:Richard GF; Kerrest A;
448:Microsatellites within
145:University of Leicester
83:simple sequence repeats
5922:Protein tandem repeats
5850:Tandemly arrayed genes
4822:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800545
4239:10.1098/rspb.1999.0686
3502:10.1038/sj.onc.1204211
2542:10.1073/pnas.92.9.3636
2483:10.1006/jmbi.1999.3136
2343:10.1098/rsbl.2015.0929
1908:10.1098/rspb.2014.2898
1861:10.1002/elps.200406069
1689:10.1074/jbc.271.6.2875
899:
788:
683:
608:(NDNAD), the American
582:bone marrow transplant
578:genetic fingerprinting
564:
550:loss of heterozygosity
444:Effects within introns
431:Haemophilus influenzae
419:cis-regulatory regions
330:homologous chromosomes
321:Pristionchus pacificus
267:
5398:Tandem Repeats Finder
5015:10.1093/molbev/msh073
4763:10.3390/genes11040381
4383:10.3390/ijms141122499
4012:10.1534/g3.113.005728
3664:10.1093/neuonc/noz179
3368:10.1101/gr.181008.114
3268:Clinical Biochemistry
3116:Nature Communications
2294:10.1534/g3.112.003129
2100:10.1093/jhered/esm017
1140:10.1128/MMBR.00011-08
890:
802:Sanger DNA sequencing
770:
675:
558:
548:, might present with
316:Schistocerca gregaria
264:
123:analysis (especially
57:. They have a higher
5895:Pathogenicity island
5324:Imperfect SSR Finder
4848:Caporale LH (2003).
3774:10.1038/onc.2017.256
3711:: 1176935117746644.
1958:10.1093/hmg/2.8.1123
1066:(SSLP)—a search tool
639:) are often used in
602:Huntington's disease
393:Huntington's disease
232:Huntington's disease
100:(variable number of
75:forensic geneticists
67:short tandem repeats
5246:2009Sci...324.1213V
5119:1995Natur.374..727M
5076:The New Phytologist
4971:2002MolEc..11.2453L
4284:2000MolEc...9..421W
4092:2000MolEc...9.1517S
3593:Anticancer Research
3550:2012PLoSO...743345V
3128:2019NatCo..10.4128M
3024:2005Sci...308.1630H
2925:2007PLoSO...2..795M
2870:1994CBio....4...24M
2627:2004PNAS..10118058F
2533:1995PNAS...92.3636S
2237:2015MolEc..24.6107C
2182:2010JMolE..71..192A
2040:1998PNAS...9510774K
1589:1985Natur.314...67J
1423:2006Aquac.255....1C
1274:Short+Tandem+Repeat
1189:10.1101/gr.10.7.967
821:gel electrophoresis
688:population genetics
668:Population genetics
542:genetic fingerprint
518:population genetics
454:Friedreich's ataxia
379:gene are linked to
352:Effects on proteins
133:population genetics
5845:Gene amplification
5423:2019-09-12 at the
5329:2021-07-23 at the
5317:2013-09-14 at the
5305:2014-02-21 at the
5055:10.1002/bies.10332
4660:Butler JM (2005).
3916:10.1007/BF03542970
3705:Cancer Informatics
3433:10.1002/bies.20741
3399:Scherer S (2008).
2388:10.1038/ng0896-390
1902:(1803): 20142898.
1537:10.1002/ajhb.23062
900:
789:
684:
565:
561:Applied Biosystems
389:fragile X syndrome
278:at microsatellite
268:
228:fragile X syndrome
5948:Forensic genetics
5930:
5929:
5831:
5830:
5699:
5698:
5603:
5602:
5492:Repeated sequence
5467:repeated sequence
5418:Zebrafish Repeats
5193:Physiol. Genomics
4959:Molecular Ecology
4916:The Plant Journal
4376:(11): 22499–528.
4272:Molecular Ecology
4080:Molecular Ecology
3768:(46): 6383–6390.
3627:(22): 5248–5257.
3320:10.1002/gcc.20571
3222:Leukemia Research
2981:(11): 1991–2004.
2246:10.1111/mec.13465
2225:Molecular Ecology
1723:(19): 5521–5524.
1122:(December 2008).
833:intercalating dye
546:colorectal cancer
398:Neurospora crassa
125:paternity testing
79:genetic genealogy
63:genetic diversity
45:in which certain
16:(Redirected from
5960:
5907:Low copy repeats
5900:Symbiosis island
5837:Gene duplication
5623:
5614:
5497:
5475:gene duplication
5456:
5449:
5442:
5433:
5275:
5265:
5240:(5931): 1213–6.
5224:
5183:
5146:
5127:10.1038/374727a0
5113:(6524): 727–30.
5101:
5091:
5066:
5048:
5027:
5017:
4992:
4982:
4949:
4939:
4906:
4877:
4835:
4834:
4824:
4800:
4794:
4793:
4775:
4765:
4741:
4735:
4734:
4722:
4716:
4715:
4687:
4681:
4680:
4672:
4666:
4665:
4657:
4651:
4650:
4648:
4647:
4637:
4631:
4630:
4628:
4627:
4617:
4611:
4610:
4608:
4607:
4601:
4594:
4586:
4580:
4579:
4577:
4576:
4566:
4557:
4556:
4538:
4528:
4504:
4498:
4497:
4479:
4469:
4441:
4435:
4434:
4412:
4406:
4405:
4395:
4385:
4361:
4355:
4354:
4318:
4312:
4311:
4267:
4261:
4260:
4250:
4233:(1420): 657–63.
4218:
4212:
4211:
4201:
4169:
4163:
4162:
4126:
4120:
4119:
4075:
4069:
4068:
4040:
4034:
4033:
4023:
3991:
3985:
3984:
3974:
3942:
3936:
3935:
3899:
3893:
3892:
3890:
3889:
3880:. Archived from
3873:
3867:
3866:
3856:
3832:
3826:
3825:
3822:The Conversation
3813:
3804:
3803:
3785:
3753:
3747:
3746:
3728:
3692:
3686:
3685:
3675:
3643:
3637:
3636:
3615:
3609:
3608:
3599:(5): 2061–2068.
3588:
3582:
3581:
3571:
3561:
3529:
3523:
3522:
3504:
3495:(8): 1005–1009.
3480:
3474:
3473:
3464:(7): 1949–1960.
3452:
3446:
3445:
3435:
3411:
3405:
3404:
3396:
3390:
3389:
3379:
3347:
3341:
3340:
3322:
3298:
3292:
3291:
3262:
3256:
3255:
3245:
3213:
3207:
3206:
3196:
3164:
3158:
3157:
3147:
3107:
3101:
3100:
3090:
3058:
3052:
3051:
3018:(5728): 1630–4.
3007:
3001:
3000:
2990:
2966:
2957:
2956:
2946:
2936:
2904:
2898:
2897:
2853:
2844:
2843:
2833:
2801:
2795:
2794:
2776:
2774:10.1002/yea.1381
2752:
2746:
2745:
2708:
2702:
2701:
2665:
2659:
2658:
2648:
2638:
2621:(52): 18058–63.
2606:
2600:
2599:
2571:
2565:
2564:
2554:
2544:
2509:
2503:
2502:
2466:
2460:
2459:
2449:
2417:
2408:
2407:
2371:
2365:
2364:
2354:
2322:
2316:
2315:
2305:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2248:
2216:
2210:
2209:
2165:
2154:
2153:
2143:
2134:(8): 1358–1364.
2119:
2113:
2112:
2102:
2078:
2072:
2071:
2061:
2051:
2019:
2013:
2012:
1984:
1971:
1970:
1960:
1936:
1930:
1929:
1919:
1887:
1881:
1880:
1844:
1838:
1837:
1809:
1803:
1802:
1792:
1760:
1751:
1750:
1740:
1717:The EMBO Journal
1708:
1702:
1701:
1691:
1682:(6): 2875–2878.
1667:
1658:
1657:
1647:
1623:
1617:
1616:
1597:10.1038/314067a0
1565:
1559:
1558:
1548:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1473:
1464:
1463:
1451:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1406:
1400:
1399:
1379:
1373:
1372:
1362:
1330:
1319:
1318:
1290:
1281:
1271:
1265:
1264:
1254:
1222:
1211:
1210:
1200:
1168:
1162:
1161:
1151:
1115:
940:Escherichia coli
841:fluorescent dyes
837:ethidium bromide
701:local adaptation
680:neighbor-joining
528:Cancer diagnosis
510:gene duplication
372:Canis familiaris
117:cancer diagnosis
104:) DNA. The name
21:
5968:
5967:
5963:
5962:
5961:
5959:
5958:
5957:
5933:
5932:
5931:
5926:
5878:
5827:
5695:
5667:
5644:
5618:Retrotransposon
5599:
5590:Inverted repeat
5578:
5563:DNA transposon
5559:Retrotransposon
5554:Gene conversion
5545:
5538:
5535:
5486:
5477:
5460:
5425:Wayback Machine
5331:Wayback Machine
5319:Wayback Machine
5307:Wayback Machine
5283:
5278:
5227:
5186:
5149:
5104:
5069:
5046:10.1.1.476.7561
5030:
5008:(6): 991–1007.
4995:
4965:(12): 2453–65.
4952:
4909:
4880:
4847:
4843:
4841:Further reading
4838:
4802:
4801:
4797:
4743:
4742:
4738:
4724:
4723:
4719:
4689:
4688:
4684:
4674:
4673:
4669:
4659:
4658:
4654:
4645:
4643:
4639:
4638:
4634:
4625:
4623:
4619:
4618:
4614:
4605:
4603:
4599:
4592:
4588:
4587:
4583:
4574:
4572:
4568:
4567:
4560:
4513:Genome Medicine
4506:
4505:
4501:
4443:
4442:
4438:
4420:
4419:
4413:
4409:
4363:
4362:
4358:
4335:10.1038/nrg2844
4329:(10): 697–709.
4320:
4319:
4315:
4269:
4268:
4264:
4220:
4219:
4215:
4171:
4170:
4166:
4128:
4127:
4123:
4086:(10): 1517–28.
4077:
4076:
4072:
4042:
4041:
4037:
3993:
3992:
3988:
3963:10.1038/nrg3908
3944:
3943:
3939:
3901:
3900:
3896:
3887:
3885:
3878:"DNA Profiling"
3875:
3874:
3870:
3834:
3833:
3829:
3815:
3814:
3807:
3755:
3754:
3750:
3694:
3693:
3689:
3645:
3644:
3640:
3621:Cancer Research
3617:
3616:
3612:
3590:
3589:
3585:
3531:
3530:
3526:
3482:
3481:
3477:
3458:Cancer Research
3454:
3453:
3449:
3413:
3412:
3408:
3398:
3397:
3393:
3356:Genome Research
3349:
3348:
3344:
3300:
3299:
3295:
3264:
3263:
3259:
3215:
3214:
3210:
3166:
3165:
3161:
3109:
3108:
3104:
3079:10.1038/ng.3363
3067:Nature Genetics
3060:
3059:
3055:
3009:
3008:
3004:
2968:
2967:
2960:
2906:
2905:
2901:
2858:Current Biology
2855:
2854:
2847:
2810:Nature Genetics
2803:
2802:
2798:
2754:
2753:
2749:
2710:
2709:
2705:
2667:
2666:
2662:
2608:
2607:
2603:
2573:
2572:
2568:
2511:
2510:
2506:
2468:
2467:
2463:
2438:10.1038/ng.3461
2426:Nature Genetics
2419:
2418:
2411:
2376:Nature Genetics
2373:
2372:
2368:
2337:(1): 20150929.
2331:Biology Letters
2324:
2323:
2319:
2275:
2274:
2270:
2231:(24): 6107–19.
2218:
2217:
2213:
2167:
2166:
2157:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2080:
2079:
2075:
2034:(18): 10774–8.
2021:
2020:
2016:
1986:
1985:
1974:
1938:
1937:
1933:
1889:
1888:
1884:
1849:Electrophoresis
1846:
1845:
1841:
1811:
1810:
1806:
1762:
1761:
1754:
1710:
1709:
1705:
1669:
1668:
1661:
1625:
1624:
1620:
1583:(6006): 67–73.
1567:
1566:
1562:
1518:
1517:
1513:
1490:10.1038/nrg1689
1475:
1474:
1467:
1460:
1443:
1442:
1438:
1408:
1407:
1403:
1381:
1380:
1376:
1332:
1331:
1322:
1292:
1291:
1284:
1272:
1268:
1224:
1223:
1214:
1177:Genome Research
1170:
1169:
1165:
1117:
1116:
1103:
1099:
1094:
1014:
987:
961:
917:oligonucleotide
905:
894:Littorina plena
861:
829:silver staining
785:electrophoresis
765:
729:
713:population size
710:
670:
649:
618:
594:medical privacy
570:
563:Identifiler kit
530:
506:genetic linkage
494:
485:
446:
411:
403:circadian clock
354:
338:
309:
296:point mutations
272:point mutations
259:
178:
157:"satellite" DNA
141:
129:genetic linkage
106:"satellite" DNA
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5966:
5964:
5956:
5955:
5950:
5945:
5935:
5934:
5928:
5927:
5925:
5924:
5919:
5914:
5909:
5904:
5903:
5902:
5897:
5890:Genomic island
5886:
5884:
5880:
5879:
5877:
5876:
5871:
5870:
5869:
5859:
5858:
5857:
5847:
5841:
5839:
5833:
5832:
5829:
5828:
5826:
5825:
5820:
5815:
5810:
5805:
5800:
5795:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5775:
5770:
5765:
5760:
5755:
5750:
5745:
5740:
5735:
5730:
5725:
5720:
5715:
5709:
5707:
5705:DNA transposon
5701:
5700:
5697:
5696:
5694:
5693:
5688:
5683:
5677:
5675:
5669:
5668:
5666:
5665:
5660:
5654:
5652:
5646:
5645:
5643:
5642:
5637:
5631:
5629:
5620:
5611:
5605:
5604:
5601:
5600:
5598:
5597:
5592:
5586:
5584:
5580:
5579:
5577:
5576:
5575:
5574:
5569:
5561:
5556:
5550:
5548:
5540:
5539:
5537:
5536:
5533:Macrosatellite
5530:
5520:
5511:
5505:
5503:
5501:Tandem repeats
5494:
5488:
5487:
5482:
5479:
5478:
5461:
5459:
5458:
5451:
5444:
5436:
5430:
5429:
5428:
5427:
5415:
5410:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5389:
5384:
5379:
5374:
5369:
5363:
5358:
5353:
5348:
5343:
5338:
5321:
5309:
5296:Search tools:
5294:
5289:
5282:
5281:External links
5279:
5277:
5276:
5225:
5184:
5147:
5102:
5067:
5028:
4993:
4950:
4907:
4878:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4836:
4795:
4736:
4717:
4682:
4667:
4652:
4632:
4612:
4581:
4558:
4499:
4436:
4407:
4356:
4313:
4262:
4213:
4164:
4137:(1): 197–218.
4121:
4070:
4051:(4): 189–197.
4035:
4006:(5): 891–907.
3986:
3957:(5): 275–284.
3937:
3894:
3868:
3827:
3805:
3748:
3687:
3658:(1): 152–162.
3652:Neuro-Oncology
3638:
3610:
3583:
3524:
3475:
3456:breakpoints".
3447:
3406:
3391:
3342:
3293:
3257:
3208:
3185:10.1086/301680
3159:
3102:
3053:
3002:
2958:
2899:
2845:
2822:10.1038/ng1618
2796:
2747:
2714:Human Genetics
2703:
2660:
2601:
2566:
2527:(9): 3636–41.
2504:
2461:
2409:
2366:
2317:
2288:(9): 1027–34.
2268:
2211:
2176:(3): 192–201.
2155:
2128:Bioinformatics
2114:
2093:(5): 452–460.
2073:
2014:
1972:
1931:
1882:
1855:(20): 3344–8.
1839:
1804:
1781:10.1086/303013
1775:(2): 345–356.
1752:
1703:
1659:
1638:(2): 360–367.
1618:
1560:
1511:
1484:(10): 729–42.
1465:
1458:
1436:
1401:
1374:
1345:(2): 133–141.
1320:
1282:
1266:
1243:10.1086/301869
1237:(6): 1408–15.
1212:
1183:(7): 967–981.
1163:
1134:(4): 686–727.
1100:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1061:
1056:
1051:
1049:Mobile element
1046:
1041:
1036:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1019:Genetic marker
1015:
1013:
1010:
1009:
1008:
1004:
986:
983:
975:phylogeography
960:
957:
904:
901:
881:polyacrylamide
860:
857:
764:
761:
728:
727:Plant breeding
725:
708:
705:fixation index
703:, the allelic
669:
666:
648:
645:
617:
614:
569:
566:
529:
526:
493:
490:
484:
481:
445:
442:
410:
407:
353:
350:
342:non-coding DNA
337:
334:
308:
305:
292:DNA polymerase
258:
255:
251:minisatellites
204:coding regions
177:
174:
172:et al. 1992).
140:
137:
102:tandem repeats
94:minisatellites
39:microsatellite
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5965:
5954:
5951:
5949:
5946:
5944:
5941:
5940:
5938:
5923:
5920:
5918:
5915:
5913:
5910:
5908:
5905:
5901:
5898:
5896:
5893:
5892:
5891:
5888:
5887:
5885:
5881:
5875:
5872:
5868:
5865:
5864:
5863:
5860:
5856:
5855:Ribosomal DNA
5853:
5852:
5851:
5848:
5846:
5843:
5842:
5840:
5838:
5834:
5824:
5821:
5819:
5816:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5804:
5801:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5779:
5776:
5774:
5771:
5769:
5766:
5764:
5761:
5759:
5756:
5754:
5751:
5749:
5746:
5744:
5741:
5739:
5736:
5734:
5731:
5729:
5726:
5724:
5721:
5719:
5716:
5714:
5711:
5710:
5708:
5706:
5702:
5692:
5689:
5687:
5684:
5682:
5679:
5678:
5676:
5674:
5670:
5664:
5661:
5659:
5656:
5655:
5653:
5651:
5647:
5641:
5638:
5636:
5633:
5632:
5630:
5628:
5624:
5621:
5619:
5615:
5612:
5610:
5606:
5596:
5595:Direct repeat
5593:
5591:
5588:
5587:
5585:
5581:
5573:
5570:
5568:
5565:
5564:
5562:
5560:
5557:
5555:
5552:
5551:
5549:
5547:
5541:
5534:
5531:
5528:
5524:
5521:
5519:
5518:Minisatellite
5515:
5512:
5510:
5509:Satellite DNA
5507:
5506:
5504:
5502:
5498:
5495:
5493:
5489:
5485:
5480:
5476:
5472:
5468:
5464:
5457:
5452:
5450:
5445:
5443:
5438:
5437:
5434:
5426:
5422:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5393:
5390:
5388:
5385:
5383:
5380:
5378:
5375:
5373:
5370:
5367:
5364:
5362:
5359:
5357:
5354:
5352:
5349:
5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5336:
5332:
5328:
5325:
5322:
5320:
5316:
5313:
5310:
5308:
5304:
5301:
5298:
5297:
5295:
5293:
5290:
5288:
5285:
5284:
5280:
5273:
5269:
5264:
5259:
5255:
5251:
5247:
5243:
5239:
5235:
5231:
5226:
5222:
5218:
5214:
5210:
5206:
5202:
5198:
5194:
5190:
5185:
5181:
5177:
5173:
5169:
5165:
5161:
5157:
5153:
5148:
5144:
5140:
5136:
5132:
5128:
5124:
5120:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5103:
5099:
5095:
5090:
5085:
5081:
5077:
5073:
5068:
5064:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5039:(10): 930–9.
5038:
5034:
5029:
5025:
5021:
5016:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4994:
4990:
4986:
4981:
4976:
4972:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4956:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4938:
4933:
4929:
4925:
4921:
4917:
4913:
4908:
4904:
4900:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4879:
4875:
4871:
4867:
4863:
4859:
4855:
4851:
4846:
4845:
4840:
4832:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4814:
4810:
4806:
4799:
4796:
4791:
4787:
4783:
4779:
4774:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4747:
4740:
4737:
4732:
4728:
4721:
4718:
4713:
4709:
4705:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4686:
4683:
4678:
4671:
4668:
4663:
4656:
4653:
4642:
4636:
4633:
4622:
4616:
4613:
4598:
4591:
4585:
4582:
4571:
4565:
4563:
4559:
4554:
4550:
4546:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4503:
4500:
4495:
4491:
4487:
4483:
4478:
4473:
4468:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4454:F1000Research
4451:
4447:
4440:
4437:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4417:
4411:
4408:
4403:
4399:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4375:
4371:
4367:
4360:
4357:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4317:
4314:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4289:
4285:
4281:
4278:(4): 421–31.
4277:
4273:
4266:
4263:
4258:
4254:
4249:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4217:
4214:
4209:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4184:(1): 457–62.
4183:
4179:
4175:
4168:
4165:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4125:
4122:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4074:
4071:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4039:
4036:
4031:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3990:
3987:
3982:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3941:
3938:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3910:(1): 99–105.
3909:
3905:
3898:
3895:
3884:on 2001-09-27
3883:
3879:
3876:Carracedo A.
3872:
3869:
3864:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3847:(9): 473–85.
3846:
3842:
3838:
3831:
3828:
3823:
3819:
3812:
3810:
3806:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3784:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3752:
3749:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3700:
3691:
3688:
3683:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3642:
3639:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3614:
3611:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3587:
3584:
3579:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3544:(8): e43345.
3543:
3539:
3535:
3528:
3525:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3479:
3476:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3451:
3448:
3443:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3426:(4): 338–48.
3425:
3421:
3417:
3410:
3407:
3402:
3395:
3392:
3387:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3346:
3343:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3313:(8): 657–64.
3312:
3308:
3304:
3297:
3294:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3261:
3258:
3253:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3212:
3209:
3204:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3179:(1): 111–21.
3178:
3174:
3170:
3163:
3160:
3155:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3106:
3103:
3098:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3073:(9): 1073–8.
3072:
3068:
3064:
3057:
3054:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3006:
3003:
2998:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2965:
2963:
2959:
2954:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2903:
2900:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2852:
2850:
2846:
2841:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2816:(9): 986–90.
2815:
2811:
2807:
2800:
2797:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2767:(8): 633–40.
2766:
2762:
2758:
2751:
2748:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2720:(5): 488–94.
2719:
2715:
2707:
2704:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2676:(6): 555–65.
2675:
2671:
2664:
2661:
2656:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2605:
2602:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2570:
2567:
2562:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2513:Sutherland GR
2508:
2505:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2477:(1): 151–60.
2476:
2472:
2465:
2462:
2457:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2416:
2414:
2410:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2370:
2367:
2362:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2321:
2318:
2313:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2272:
2269:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2215:
2212:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2164:
2162:
2160:
2156:
2151:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2118:
2115:
2110:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2077:
2074:
2069:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2018:
2015:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1995:(10): 424–9.
1994:
1990:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1951:(8): 1123–8.
1950:
1946:
1942:
1935:
1932:
1927:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1886:
1883:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1843:
1840:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1808:
1805:
1800:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1759:
1757:
1753:
1748:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1707:
1704:
1699:
1695:
1690:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1666:
1664:
1660:
1655:
1651:
1646:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1622:
1619:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1564:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1531:(1): e23062.
1530:
1526:
1522:
1515:
1512:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1472:
1470:
1466:
1461:
1459:9780443100451
1455:
1450:
1449:
1440:
1437:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1417:(1–4): 1–29.
1416:
1412:
1405:
1402:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1378:
1375:
1370:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1321:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1289:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1270:
1267:
1262:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1221:
1219:
1217:
1213:
1208:
1204:
1199:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1167:
1164:
1159:
1155:
1150:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1106:
1102:
1096:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1054:Satellite DNA
1052:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1016:
1011:
1005:
1001:
1000:
999:
997:
992:
984:
982:
980:
976:
971:
969:
965:
958:
956:
954:
949:
947:
942:
941:
936:
933:
932:bacteriophage
929:
925:
920:
918:
914:
913:repeat masker
910:
902:
896:
895:
889:
885:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
859:Amplification
858:
856:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
805:
803:
798:
797:homopolymeric
794:
786:
782:
778:
774:
769:
762:
760:
757:
753:
749:
745:
744:morphological
741:
737:
733:
726:
724:
722:
718:
714:
706:
702:
698:
693:
689:
681:
678:
674:
667:
665:
663:
659:
655:
646:
644:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
625:DNA profiling
622:
615:
613:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
585:
583:
579:
575:
567:
562:
557:
553:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
527:
525:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
498:DNA profiling
491:
489:
482:
480:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
457:
455:
451:
443:
441:
439:
438:Ewing sarcoma
434:
432:
429:formation in
428:
423:
420:
416:
408:
406:
404:
400:
399:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
373:
368:
362:
359:
351:
349:
347:
343:
335:
333:
331:
325:
323:
322:
317:
314:
313:desert locust
306:
304:
300:
297:
293:
289:
284:
281:
277:
276:mutation rate
273:
263:
256:
254:
252:
248:
243:
239:
235:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
212:
207:
205:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
175:
173:
171:
167:
166:Josef Mengele
163:
158:
154:
150:
146:
138:
136:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
113:DNA profiling
109:
107:
103:
99:
95:
90:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
33:
19:
5867:Gene cluster
5635:Alu sequence
5544:Interspersed
5522:
5237:
5233:
5196:
5192:
5188:
5158:(1): 53–61.
5155:
5151:
5110:
5106:
5082:(1): 71–80.
5079:
5075:
5036:
5032:
5005:
5001:
4962:
4958:
4922:(1): 38–45.
4919:
4915:
4889:(2): 74–78.
4886:
4883:Trends Genet
4882:
4857:
4853:
4815:(5): 504–9.
4812:
4808:
4798:
4753:
4749:
4739:
4730:
4726:
4720:
4698:(8): 285–8.
4695:
4691:
4685:
4676:
4670:
4661:
4655:
4644:. Retrieved
4635:
4624:. Retrieved
4615:
4604:. Retrieved
4584:
4573:. Retrieved
4516:
4512:
4502:
4457:
4453:
4439:
4430:
4426:
4410:
4373:
4369:
4359:
4326:
4322:
4316:
4275:
4271:
4265:
4230:
4226:
4216:
4181:
4177:
4167:
4134:
4130:
4124:
4083:
4079:
4073:
4048:
4044:
4038:
4003:
3999:
3989:
3954:
3950:
3940:
3907:
3903:
3897:
3886:. Retrieved
3882:the original
3871:
3844:
3840:
3830:
3821:
3765:
3761:
3751:
3708:
3704:
3698:
3690:
3655:
3651:
3641:
3624:
3620:
3613:
3596:
3592:
3586:
3541:
3537:
3527:
3492:
3488:
3478:
3461:
3457:
3450:
3423:
3419:
3409:
3400:
3394:
3362:(1): 12–23.
3359:
3355:
3345:
3310:
3306:
3296:
3274:(9): 852–6.
3271:
3267:
3260:
3228:(7): 991–6.
3225:
3221:
3211:
3176:
3172:
3162:
3119:
3115:
3105:
3070:
3066:
3056:
3015:
3011:
3005:
2978:
2974:
2916:
2912:
2902:
2864:(1): 24–33.
2861:
2857:
2813:
2809:
2799:
2764:
2760:
2750:
2717:
2713:
2706:
2673:
2669:
2663:
2618:
2614:
2604:
2582:(1): 113–8.
2579:
2575:
2569:
2524:
2520:
2507:
2474:
2470:
2464:
2432:(1): 22–29.
2429:
2425:
2382:(4): 390–1.
2379:
2375:
2369:
2334:
2330:
2320:
2285:
2281:
2271:
2228:
2224:
2214:
2173:
2169:
2131:
2127:
2117:
2090:
2086:
2076:
2031:
2027:
2017:
1992:
1988:
1948:
1944:
1934:
1899:
1895:
1885:
1852:
1848:
1842:
1820:(6): 832–7.
1817:
1813:
1807:
1772:
1768:
1720:
1716:
1706:
1679:
1675:
1635:
1631:
1621:
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1571:; Wilson V;
1563:
1528:
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1481:
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1387:
1383:
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1338:
1301:(6): 711–6.
1298:
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1234:
1230:
1180:
1176:
1166:
1131:
1127:
1090:UgMicroSatdb
996:null alleles
988:
972:
967:
963:
962:
950:
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906:
892:
862:
806:
790:
730:
685:
650:
637:Y chromosome
619:
586:
571:
531:
495:
492:Applications
486:
458:
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435:
430:
424:
412:
396:
370:
363:
355:
339:
326:
319:
315:
310:
301:
285:
269:
236:
208:
179:
142:
110:
91:
86:
82:
70:
66:
38:
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5862:Gene family
5773:Tc1/mariner
5728:EnSpm/CACTA
5300:FireMuSat2+
3122:(1): 4128.
2919:(8): e795.
1569:Jeffreys AJ
1411:Aquaculture
985:Limitations
813:polymorphic
809:nuclear DNA
748:biochemical
697:bottlenecks
654:segregation
469:spliceosome
358:amino acids
147:by Weller,
5937:Categories
5874:Pseudogene
5691:retroposon
5609:Transposon
5471:transposon
5403:TandemSWAN
5382:SSR Finder
5337:sequences.
5199:(1): 1–4.
4860:: 467–85.
4756:(4): 381.
4646:2010-09-20
4626:2010-09-20
4606:2010-09-20
4575:2010-09-20
4519:(1): 151.
4444:Halman A;
3888:2010-09-20
1097:References
1085:Transposon
853:sex marker
584:patients.
465:cloverleaf
417:and other
346:coding DNA
199:eukaryotes
51:base pairs
47:DNA motifs
5793:P element
5743:Harbinger
5484:Repeatome
5041:CiteSeerX
5033:BioEssays
4790:214786277
4733:(2): 621.
4553:256019433
4494:213733005
4446:Oshlack A
3420:BioEssays
1384:Endeavour
898:staining.
873:annealing
717:gene flow
677:Consensus
621:Autosomal
574:forensics
477:RNA world
473:tetrapods
461:zebrafish
415:promoters
238:Telomeres
162:Hagelberg
153:myoglobin
5943:Genetics
5917:Telomere
5883:See also
5823:Zisupton
5803:Polinton
5798:PiggyBac
5753:Helitron
5572:Helitron
5567:Polinton
5463:Genetics
5421:Archived
5327:Archived
5315:Archived
5303:Archived
5272:19478187
5213:11948285
5180:20542422
5172:17926066
5098:16159322
5063:14505360
5024:14963101
4989:12453231
4946:17144899
4874:14527288
4831:15292911
4809:Heredity
4782:32244632
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4597:Archived
4545:34517885
4486:32665844
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4427:Einstein
4402:24240810
4351:10811958
4343:20847747
4308:46475635
4300:10736045
4257:10331287
4178:Genetics
4151:16285858
4116:22244000
4108:11050547
4030:23550135
3981:25824869
3932:28270630
3924:10866366
3863:11669214
3800:21655592
3792:28759038
3762:Oncogene
3743:32129259
3735:29276372
3682:31562520
3605:24778007
3578:22927958
3538:PLOS ONE
3519:22893621
3511:11314036
3489:Oncogene
3470:10766185
3442:18348251
3386:26566657
3337:19472307
3329:18464244
3288:19111531
3252:19054556
3154:31511524
3097:26214589
3048:18899853
3040:15947188
2997:12411608
2953:17726525
2913:PLOS ONE
2894:11203457
2840:16086015
2791:25142061
2783:16823884
2742:22181414
2734:12073020
2698:26718314
2690:17976052
2655:15596718
2596:15716087
2499:11102561
2491:10512723
2456:26642241
2361:26740567
2312:22973539
2263:33307624
2255:26562076
2198:20700734
2150:15673565
2109:17437958
2009:21237902
1926:25694621
1877:22298567
1869:15490457
1799:10889045
1573:Thein SL
1555:28949426
1506:26672703
1498:16205713
1369:23006819
1315:14456492
1207:10899146
1158:19052325
1029:LASARsat
1024:Junk DNA
1012:See also
959:ISSR-PCR
835:such as
763:Analysis
600:such as
514:deletion
427:fimbriae
405:cycles.
387:such as
226:such as
216:intronic
211:selected
193:, and T
191:Cytosine
170:Jeffreys
149:Jeffreys
81:, or as
59:mutation
5813:Transib
5788:Novosib
5768:Kolobok
5738:Ginger2
5733:Ginger1
5718:Crypton
5377:SciRoKo
5356:MREPATT
5263:3132887
5242:Bibcode
5234:Science
5221:8360732
5189:Tilapia
5143:4344876
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4967:Bibcode
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4773:7230633
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4393:3856076
4280:Bibcode
4248:1689828
4208:7705646
4199:1206343
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4065:2984426
4021:3656735
3972:4440411
3783:5701090
3726:5734450
3673:6954392
3633:9823339
3569:3425555
3546:Bibcode
3377:4691745
3243:2731768
3203:9443873
3194:1376805
3145:6739408
3124:Bibcode
3088:4591073
3020:Bibcode
3012:Science
2944:1949147
2921:Bibcode
2886:7922307
2866:Bibcode
2831:1462868
2623:Bibcode
2561:7731957
2529:Bibcode
2447:4909355
2404:6086527
2396:8696328
2352:4785931
2303:3429916
2233:Bibcode
2206:1424625
2178:Bibcode
2068:9724780
2036:Bibcode
1967:8401493
1917:4345458
1834:7888752
1790:1287183
1747:9755151
1738:1170879
1698:8621672
1654:8755922
1645:1914730
1613:4356170
1605:3856104
1585:Bibcode
1546:5785450
1419:Bibcode
1360:4051234
1261:9585597
1252:1377148
1149:2593564
1120:Dujon B
1075:Strbase
979:species
928:plasmid
924:cloning
877:agarose
869:primers
845:British
781:alleles
777:primers
629:kinship
538:mitosis
502:kinship
450:introns
288:meiosis
270:Unlike
195:Thymine
187:Guanine
183:Adenine
139:History
121:kinship
77:and in
5912:CRISPR
5778:Merlin
5763:ISL2EU
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5546:repeat
5366:Phobos
5270:
5260:
5219:
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5096:
5061:
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1259:
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1198:310925
1195:
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935:vector
909:intron
740:marker
715:, and
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633:Y-STRs
534:tumour
377:HOXA13
247:ageing
220:codons
55:genome
5818:Zator
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5663:LINE2
5658:LINE1
5650:LINEs
5627:SINEs
5583:Other
5413:TROLL
5361:Mreps
5335:FASTA
5217:S2CID
5176:S2CID
5139:S2CID
4786:S2CID
4750:Genes
4600:(PDF)
4593:(PDF)
4549:S2CID
4490:S2CID
4347:S2CID
4304:S2CID
4155:S2CID
4112:S2CID
4061:S2CID
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3796:S2CID
3739:S2CID
3515:S2CID
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3044:S2CID
2890:S2CID
2787:S2CID
2761:Yeast
2738:S2CID
2694:S2CID
2552:42017
2495:S2CID
2400:S2CID
2259:S2CID
2202:S2CID
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1609:S2CID
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