Migrant domestic workers - Knowledge (XXG)

805:, the employment of migrant domestic workers differs from the predominant hiring and recruiting trends in the East. In Europe, migration has followed a pattern from East to West, that is from Eastern Europe to Western, Southern and Northern Europe and from South to North, from Latin America, Asia and Africa to the EU countries. The demand for migrant domestic workers has been credited to the welfare system of these countries. In order to enable female nationals to ‘reconcile’ care work and a working life, some European states have installed a quota system for the recruitment of domestic workers (Spain, Italy, Greece), which allows employers to recruit workers from abroad under specific criteria, or they have opened their borders to these workers (Britain and Ireland with the domestic worker visa). Others, such as Germany, the Nordic States, and the Netherlands, have hardly acknowledged the need for migrant domestic workers, let alone included this need in their managed migration policies. United States and Canada have adopted migrant programs such as 743:, though most of these agencies are temporary staffing agencies that are not involved in cross-border migration. Local recruiters trawl through villages and portray pictures of promising working environment, success and profitable income in urban centers or rich countries abroad. They have been known to promise recruits income to help them build in their native countries or, for younger recruits, the opportunity to continue their education abroad. Labor recruiters and agencies undergo scant monitoring, and in most countries, few regulations exist to control the recruitment fees charged to workers. Private recruitment agencies orchestrate much of the migration process from pre-departure to the return. They provide information, financial and logistical support; however, migrant domestic workers’ dependence on private agencies for so many services create many opportunities for exploitation and abuse. 303:(ILO), women constitute 80% of domestic workers. The substantially high percentage of women in domestic work some argue results from this sector's association with motherhood, leading to an assumption that domestic work is by nature the work of females. In support, some argue that because domestic work occurs within the private sphere, which is seen as inherently feminine. This argument goes that the constructed link between domestic work and femininity carries the implication that it is often referred to as 'domestic help,' and that domestic workers are referred to as 'nannies' or 'maids.' At least one author has argued that use of language compounded with the association with domestic work with femininities contributes to the exclusion of domestic work from the majority of national labour laws. 113:, any persons "moving to another country or region to better their material or social conditions and improve the prospect for themselves or their family," engaged in a work relationship performing "in or for a household or households." Domestic work itself can cover a "wide range of tasks and services that vary from country to country and that can be different depending on the age, gender, ethnic background and migration status of the workers concerned." These particular workers have been identified by some academics as situated within "the rapid growth of paid domestic labor, the feminization of transnational migration, and the development of new public spheres." Prominent discussions on the topic include the status of these workers, reasons behind the pursue in this labour, 255: 335:, coupled with the sometimes-illegal status of these migrants, has created a sparse regulatory environment. As cited above, for example, the ILO had purposefully excluded domestic workers from their labor regulations. However, increasing advocacy, coupled with the increasingly transnational element of domestic work prompted the drafting of Convention 189, "Domestic Workers Convention, 2011," which mandated rest hours, a minimum wage, some freedom of movement, a clearly worded working contract before migrating, and a right to live outside of their workplace. Though this convention passed with a majority of votes, it has thus far only been ratified by 928:

domestic workers to contact law enforcement officials in order to report abusive working conditions. Additionally, "the absence of work contracts and the fact that in many countries domestic employment is not recognized in labor legislation allows employers to impose working conditions unilaterally." Employers frequently consider their migrant domestic workers as their property or do not treat them as "proper" employees. Sometimes their place of work is also their shelter, making migrant domestic workers dependent on their employers.

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makes it difficult for workers to report abuse for fear of losing their jobs and having no way to pay off their debts. Experience has shown that bans on the recruitment and deployment of migrant workers, which often affect domestic workers disproportionally, are difficult to enforce and drive the recruitment process further underground. In addition, the extravagant fees charged by recruiting agencies and the weak legal system in the countries in question establish the path for non-registered recruiters and brokers to engage in

915:. Bonded labor occurs when the migrant domestic worker is required to pay off transportation and recruitment costs, as well as agent commission fees. According to the ILO, 20.9 million persons work as forced labor in the world, of which domestic work represents the biggest proportion, affecting migrant domestic workers around the world. In some countries, these migrants work under slavery-like conditions, trapping them in their employment, and they can be susceptible to food deprivation and, in extreme cases, even death. 282:

sending country can be filling gaps in labor shortages of the receiving country. This relationship can be potentially beneficial for both countries involved because the demand for labor is being met and fulfilled by workers' demand for jobs. This relationship however can prove to be quite complicated and not always beneficial. When unemployment in a receiving country rises migrant domestic workers are not only no longer needed but their presence can be detrimental to domestic workers of that country.

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prior approval from their employer-sponsor. The kafala system over the years has been credited with the "privatization of regional migration", creating unequal working conditions and violations of rights of migrant domestic workers. In some places, like the UAE, the government or the media does not show the full picture. For example, labour camps in Dubai, UAE do not have proper conditions for the workers and if they protest they can be deported if they are foreigners. In the 1990s,

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to enter due to blocked mobility in their homelands. Additionally, migrant domestic workers often have to face the stress of leaving family members behind in their home countries while they take up work abroad. Upward mobility is particularly difficult for migrant domestic workers because their opportunities are often limited by their illegal status putting a very definite limitation on the work that is available to them as well as their power to negotiate with employers

750:, there exist frequent irregularities concerning these intermediaries (i.e., recruiters and agents in sending and receiving countries). Therefore, the inconsistencies, between regulations in source and destination countries, as well as loopholes in existing laws and regulations create opportunities for unscrupulous agencies to exploit the system. Intermediaries who provide services to facilitate the migration process have been indicated to be important perpetrators of 472:(networks), or technical barriers that impede their labor market integration. Some of these workers even hold advanced degrees, but, as their educational credentials are not accepted in the host country, or they are not legally qualified to work in their field, they are not able to find work that would comply with their level of education. The status afforded to highly educated migrants, however, is often more sought after, especially in the field of 833:, it has been accused of promoting the undocumented immigration of women. The employment of domestic migrant workers in these countries is known to be based on social capital. There are three entrance doors through which women enter the domestic sector. First, there is the "co-Optation modality" whereby women channel each other into each other into employment positions, by mainly relying from the moment of arrival on 315:

of their remittances in the South to ascend the social ladder. To some, these arguments lead to a conclusion that both circumstances in the North and South constitute embodied debt through the improvement of one's life at the expense of another's hardship, and that the labour of such workers is too often not seen as work, due to the association of their gendered bodies with reproductive labour.

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rights in countries where laws outlining employers’ obligations do exist. Due to the difficulties in mobilizing domestic workers, initiatives to raise awareness and inform migrant workers of their rights has not always been undertaken in institutionalized manners, but rather through informal means, such as planned encounters in public spaces that migrant domestic workers are known to frequent.

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Article 7 includes: maximum working hours; fixed minimum wages; paid leave; provision of food and accommodation; and weekly rest periods. Guaranteeing these rights to migrant domestic workers would not constitute repayment the embodied debt owed to them, but they are entitled to these rights as they are both workers and human beings.

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there is the "communitarian social network", which unlike co-Optation, is formed after migration. Religious networks (i.e., churches) are extremely important in network-building of many female immigrants. This entrance door is rarely used upon arrival as it requires the formation of new contacts amongst immigrants.

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domestic workers have little to no opportunity to demand better working conditions through unions and legal protection, they often receive few, if any, social benefits. This includes insufficient rest time and little to no opportunities to visit their relatives during medical emergencies, and no pension.

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the elderly). Domestic workers often migrate to financially support their immediate family, extended family, and even other members of their community. While enduring dangerous and demeaning working and living conditions in the North, the majority of their wages are remitted to their countries of origin.

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argument assert that the result of what they refer to as a power dynamic and an asserted lack of labour rights, is that domestic workers are often forbidden to contact their families and often go months, years, and even decades without seeing their families, whose lives their remittances are supporting.

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similarity" between themselves and their employers, or refusing to accept statements by their employer that could be offensive to migrant domestic workers. Resistance can be found in ordinary activities such as eating a croissant in front of her employer but also by attending and organising political

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Even when the workers are paid, it is not always sufficient to provide for themselves and their families. Confinement and restrictions on their freedom of movement because of their harsh working conditions also contribute to their social isolation and their further exposure to abuse. Since migrant

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made-up of family members, friends and/or acquaintances who connect them with potential employers in the country. Second, there is "freelance domestic worker" by building her own clientele through newspapers and magazines job offers, distributing cards offering services in residential areas. Finally,

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Women who migrate to take up work as domestic workers are motivated by different reasons and migrate to a variety of different outcomes. While for many women, domestic work abroad is the only opportunity to find work and provide an income for their families, domestic labor is a market they are forced

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The status of migrant domestic workers is unique in the field of labor, due to the site of their employment: the home. The domestic sphere, by definition, "is imagined as a place for private individuals, not political or indeed market actors." Due to their embeddedness in what can be considered the

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has also been used as a strategy, serving in some cases to transform the public view on migrant domestic workers with the hope of stigmatizing abuse against and encouraging respect toward migrant domestic workers at the national level. Educational efforts have also been used to inform women of their

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Advocacy efforts have evolved from fighting to "recognize the position of paid domestic workers" to addressing work conditions and forms of abuse. Through time, a number of strategies have been used by international and civil society organizations in the hopes of improving the conditions surrounding

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In terms of efforts to address the problem of private recruitment, the International Confederation of Private Employment Agencies, or Ciett, has created standards for recruitment in its code of conduct that are consistent with the ILO's Convention 181. Ciett's code reaches 47 national federations of

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or sponsorship system. This system binds domestic workers’ visa and legal status directly to a kafl (or sponsor), who maintains control over her mobility for the duration of her stay in the host country. Consequently, migrant domestic workers cannot change their place of employment without obtaining

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Such advocates assert that the ratification and enforcement of ILO C189 would mean that migrant domestic workers would enjoy the same labour rights as other more 'masculine' fields as well as the citizens of their destination countries. An incomplete list of basic rights guaranteed by ILO C189 under

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Further, it has been argued that their ability to fill labour shortages and accept positions within the reproductive labour force that citizens of their host countries would reject underpins the development of the global capitalist system, Simultaneously, and that they are enabling the beneficiaries

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When international migration began to flourish the assumed migrant worker was typically considered to be a man. What studies are now starting to show is that women are dominating large numbers of the international migration patterns by taking up large percentages of domestic workers that leave their

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initiatives and that "cross-border exchanges strengthened the momentum in the development of transnational advocacy of worker rights as a gender-based concern," the intersection between migrant domestic work and gender in advocacy has not been consistent. Some organizations may consider themselves

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Migrant domestic workers’ working conditions further exacerbate their exposure to abuse, which largely arises out of their informal status in the economy. Since their work primarily takes place in private households, they are invisible from the formal labor structures, hidden from the public. As a

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Recruitment agencies and other intermediaries often do not inform migrant domestic workers about their rights in their future employment and about the mechanisms available to them in order to report abuse. Advertising non-existent domestic jobs and forcing migrants to pay high fees are daily risks

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is also often cited as a reason for non-payment for services provided. In terms of working conditions, research on the perception of employers in the UK found that migrants were seen to be more likely to live in and perceived as more ‘flexible’ both in terms of tasks performed and of working hours,

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are not merely victims but agents of change. That only two labour receiving countries have ratified the convention has been argued by some to demonstrates the reluctance of governments to acknowledge what such advocates see as a debt owed by society to such workers and to repay that perceived debt.

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Due to a lack of economic opportunity in the Global South, many women with families leave their countries of origin and their own families to pursue work in the Global North. When they arrive in their country of destination, their work often entails caring for another family (including children and

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Given that the nature of domestic work poses challenges in mobilizing large groups of migrant workers, other tactics have been used to cater to and improve the situation of these migrants. These strategies have included providing support and services to these workers, with groups offering shelter,

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typically use a "fly now, pay later" scheme. For example, in Singapore and Hong Kong, Indonesian migrant domestic workers often spend up to 10 months out of a two-year contract without a salary, since they must turn over these wages to repay their recruitment fees. The resulting financial pressure

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However, on June 17, 2011, after 70 years of lobbying by civil society groups, the ILO adopted a convention with the aim of protecting and empowering domestic workers. Much of lobbying that contributed toward the ratification of ILO C189 was done by domestic workers groups, demonstrating that they

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Even when migrant domestic workers return to their native countries, abuse experienced during their domestic employment abroad can have lasting effects. Workers often do not have access to support mechanisms and do not have the possibility to seek legal counsel due to their informal status during

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Migrant domestic workers can become extremely dependent on their employers through all of the aforementioned risks. In many cases, employers will withhold their immigration papers and confiscate their passports, which adds to their dependency and helplessness. This makes it difficult for migrant

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Regardless of their country of employment, migrant domestic workers experience social isolation from the local community, as well as from their home community, resulting from the move to a different country. Since they typically leave their families behind, migrant domestic workers are separated

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An additional argument has been made that because their work takes place within the private sphere, they are often rendered invisible and employers are able to withhold their travel documents, confining them to their employers' home and inhibiting their access to legal redress. Those making this

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Some argue that personal sacrifices of domestic workers has helped to underpin economic and social development globally. Ariel Salleh's article "Ecological Debt: Embodied Debt", defines embodied debt as "debt owed by the Global North and Global South to the 'reproductive workers' who produce and

130:", some analysts have gone so far as to equate domestic laborers with members of the employers’ families, a dynamic made all the more complex by these workers' status as migrants. Historically, they have not been regarded as the same form of labor as manufacturers or doctors. From the end of the 1069:

represent another component in advocacy efforts for migrant domestic workers. Certain organizations and institutions, have, for example, taken the approach of promoting social and economic benefits of domestic work by migrants to private household and society at large. Groups have also employed

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has also launched the Global Action Programme on Migrant Domestic Workers and their Families, undertaken studies in and guidelines for foreign domestic workers in specific countries and published a report making note that female migrant workers constituted the main demographics in the sector of

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The migration of domestic workers can lead to several different effects both on the countries that are sending workers abroad and countries that are receiving domestic workers from abroad. One particular relationship between countries sending workers and countries receiving workers is that the

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In addition to their social isolation, the international community often negatively characterizes these workers and their profession as culturally inferior. In many countries, migrant domestic workers have a reputation for being "unskilled, low-end and expendable," which contributes to their

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and public campaigns to raise awareness or improve migrant domestic workers’ conditions. Lobbying, at both the national and supranational levels to modify laws or by trade unions attempting to change the irregular status of migrant domestic workers has been used as a tactic.

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of women migrant workers. Taking advantage of migrants’ desperation to find work, agents and employers have been accused of shifting the burden of recruitment fees, including airfare, visas, and administrative fees, on to the workers themselves, while employers pay a

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Women migrating into private households thousands of miles away from their country of origin are motivated to do so by the search for better salaries and also that their prospects will improve in the destination countries. These women are frequently escaping

997:(ILO) has stressed the importance of legal standards for workers and migrants. It has more specifically addressed states’ lack of protection for migrant domestic workers during its June 2004 Congress and during a High-Level Panel Discussion in 2013. The 3366:

Lenore Lyons, "Organizing for Domestic Worker Rights in Singapore: The Limits of Transnationalism," in Feminist Politics, Activism and Vision: Local and Global Challenges (Zed Publications, London, and Inanna Publications & Education, Toronto, 2004),

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Maher, Kristen Hill. 2003 Identity Projects at Home and Labor from Abroad:The Market for Foreign Domestic Workers in Southern California and Santiago, Chile. Working Paper. Center for Comparative Immigration Studies, UC San Diego. Available at:

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labour from many countries, mainly Asian and African source countries. Statistics from the International Federation of Private Employment Agencies (CIETT) show that 34 per cent of the world’s 72,000 private employment agencies are based in the

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Institutional arrangements contribute to making migrant domestic workers cost less to employers than their native counterparts. Due to the largely undocumented or informal nature of their employment, migrants are not automatically entitled to

355:, and set work hours to domestic workers. This has yet to be adopted or change international regulation, though. As such, the regulation of migrant domestic labor is left to individual states, which, as will be examined, has led to abuses. 1785:"Who needs migrant workers? Introduction to the analysis of staff shortages, immigration and public policy". Bridget Anderson and Martin Ruhs, Centre on Migration, Policy and Society (COMPAS) University of Oxford Working draft: 11 May 2009 1155:" or learn about ways to improve their own working conditions by making use of information and communication technology or by undertaking discussions from their balcony with passersby and domestic workers from neighbouring apartments. 1130:

and assistance, as well as counselling. These groups have additionally been required to tailor their human resources and materials in order to ensure accessibility by communicating in a language understood by these foreign employees.

876:, migrant domestic workers know little to nothing about the local laws to protect themselves from abuse in the work place. This prevents them from raising awareness about their working conditions and from forming collective action. 622:

countries, the migrant domestic worker becomes legally and economically bound to their sponsor, creating an environment in which these particular workers are encouraged to be more loyal and more under the control of their employer.

1147:, some works have shown that migrant domestic workers do communicate with and inform each other as well as engage in forms of resistance against their employers. During their time off work, migrant domestic workers "reclaim their 4250:

Agency for Fundamental Rights, Migrants in an Irregular Situation Employed in Domestic Work: Fundamental Rights Challenges for the European Union and Its Member States (Luxembourg: Publ. Off. of the European Union, 2011),

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UNWoman, 2013. Contributions of migrant domestic workers to sustainable development. Policy paper for the Pre-GFMD VI high level regional meeting on migrant domestic workers at the interface of migration and development.

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Due to poor – in many cases none – regulation, migrant domestic workers face "excessive hours, physical and sexual abuse, forced labor and confinement." In many countries, this also includes foregoing wages and paying

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and bias also add to their negative perception, particularly in the case of female domestic migrant workers who experience "disadvantages arising from their gender and the low social status assigned to domestic work."

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In addressing issues faced by migrant domestic workers, some countries have ratified the Domestic Workers Convention or have adapted their national legislations by implementing minimum rest requirements or

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in a number of countries around the world. Non-governmental organization (NGO) activity has also been constrained by state action, with barriers to registration or prohibition of "political activity."

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INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION, DOMESTIC WORK, AND CARE WORK Undocumented Latina Migrants in Israel, Rebeca Raijman, University of Haifa, Israel, SILVINA SCHAMMAH-GESSER and ADRIANA KEMP, Tel Aviv University

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International organizations have helped raise awareness about the plight of migrant domestic workers by issuing reports, launching programs and discussing issues surrounding migrant domestic work.

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policies, has led to an extensive informal domestic services market with a high percentage of undocumented foreign workers in Western countries. For this reason, despite the IRCA's intent to limit

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Transnational and international networks and movements include Kalyaan, Migrante International, the Asian Domestic Workers’ Union, RESPECT, Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing

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result, they cannot defend their rights and unions cannot represent them. The informal nature of domestic work, often results in exploitative and harsh forms of labor, exposing these workers to

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D K Stasiulis and A B Bakan, "Regulation and Resistance: Strategies of Migrant Domestic Workers in Canada and Internationally," Asian and Pacific Migration Journal: APMJ 6, no. 1 (1997): 51–52.

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Changes in roles and social aspirations of middle-class women are perceived to have intensified the admission of women into waged work. From an economic perspective, freeing these middle and

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Gender, Place & Culture A Journal of Feminist Geography (2020). "Stigma on a spectrum: differentiated stigmatization of migrant domestic workers' romantic relationships in Singapore": 6.

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European Union Agency for fundamental rights.2011 Migrants in an irregular situation employed in domestic work: Fundamental rights challenges for the European Union and its Member States,

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Although the working conditions of migrant domestic workers are also dependent on regional and country specific factors, several global commonalities render these workers vulnerable to

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Lenore Lyons, "Dignity Overdue: Women’s Rights Activism in Support of Foreign Domestic Workers in Singapore," Women’s Studies Quarterly 35, no. 3 & 4 (Fall/Winter 2007): 115.

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WOMEN AND MIGRATION: The Social Consequences of Gender, Silvia Pedraza, Department of Sociology and Program in American Culture, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109

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Lutz, Helma and Palenga-Möllenbeck, Ewa. Care Workers, Care Drain, and Care Chains: Reflections on Care, Migration, and Citizenship. Social Politics 19, 1 (Spring 2012): 15-37.

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Ayalon, Liat; Shiovitz-Ezra, & Palgi (2012). "No place like home? Potential pathways to loneliness in older adults under the care of a live-in foreign home care worker".

2606: 1196:, or mandating certain government agencies with the task of overseeing the treatment of their nationals working as domestic workers in other countries, as it was done in the 3271:

Pei-Chia Lan, "Political and Social Geography of Marginal Insiders : Migrant Domestic Workers in Taiwan," Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 12, no. 1–2 (2003): 119.

2607:"How did New York University uphold workers' rights during the construction and operation of its Abu Dhabi satellite campus? - Business & Human Rights Resource Centre" 2422: 2308:

International Labour Organization. "Regional Tripartite Conference on ILO Convention No. 189: Raising Awareness and Sharing Knowledge on Decent Work for Domestic Workers".

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Anderson, Bridget. 2007. A very private business: exploring the demand for domestic workers. European Journal of Women’s Studies, Vol. 14(3). pp. 247–264. Available at:

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for bourgeois households and a civilizing mission to young female servants coming from the countryside in search for education, lodging and income. The character of this

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Countries where migrant workers are prohibited from creating or joining trade unions include Malaysia, Singapore, Bangladesh, Thailand, and those in the Middle East

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http://www.flacsoandes.org/generoycultura/Publicaciones/Publicacionesprofesoras/Profesorasasociadas/Perez-Orozco-Amaia/Papers/Amaia_Perez_Orozco_WorkingPaper2.pdf

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Ayalon, Liat (2009). "Evaluating the working conditions and exposure to abuse of Filipino home care workers in Israel: characteristics and clinical correlates".

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against migrant domestic workers at the national level to campaigns against abuse at the global level, to wider issues of abuse against women more generally, to

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migrant domestic workers face. In transit to the country of employment, female workers are particularly vulnerable to physical and sexual harassment and abuse.

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Djajić, Slobodan 2011, Reforming the System of International Migration. in M. Jovanovic, ed., International Handbook on the Economics of Integration, Vol. III.

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Yeoh, Brenda S. A.; Annadhurai, Kavitha (2008). "Civil Society Action and the Creation of 'Transformative' Spaces for Migrant Domestic Workers in Singapore".

3458:"Launching of Global Action Programme on Migrant Domestic Workers at High-level Panel Discussion 'Making Decent Work a Reality for Migrant Domestic Workers'" 2201:

UNIFEM (East and Southeast Asia Regional Office), 2008. Gender dimensions of remittances: a study of Indonesian domestic workers in East and Southeast Asia.

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until the mid-1980s, for instance, "most ILO Conventions explicitly excluded domestic workers from the protections afforded by most employment Conventions."

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Helen Schwenken, "RESPECT for All: The Political Self-Organization of Female Migrant Domestic Workers in the European Union," Refuge 21, no. 3 (2003): 45.

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Paral, Judith. 2009. Migrant domestic workers in Germany: scope, political reactions and implications in Migration Citizenship Education. Available at:

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The TWC2 tied abuse against migrant domestic workers at the national level to campaigns against abuse at that global level with its White Ribbon Campaign

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Pande, A. (2012). "From 'Balcony Talk' and 'Practical Prayers' to Illegal Collectives: Migrant Domestic Workers and Meso-Level Resistances in Lebanon".

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Ayalon, Liat; Shiovitz-Ezra (2010). "The Experience of Loneliness among Live-In Filipino Homecare Workers in Israel: Implications for Social Workers".

1151:" through their attire and can ridicule their employers in their absence. They also find ways to communicate with others and as such "attempt to build 456:. Migrant domestic workers tend to replace the native peers of the host country, and displace them towards other (usually more productive) activities. 3341:

CLAIMING RIGHTS Domestic Workers’ Movements and Global Advances for Labor Reform (United States of America: Human Rights Watch, ITUC, IDWN, 2013), 17.

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United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). (2006). UNFPA State of World Population 2006, a Passage to Hope: Women and International Migration. New York.

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International Labour Organization (2013). "Domestic workers across the world: Global and regional statistics and the extent of legal protection": 45.

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International Labour Organization (2013). "Domestic workers across the world: Global and regional statistics and the extent of legal protection": 44.

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International Labour Organization (2013). "Domestic workers across the world: Global and regional statistics and the extent of legal protection": 2.

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Pande, Amrita (2013). "'The Paper that You Have in Your Hand is My Freedom': Migrant Domestic Work and the Sponsorship (Kafala) System in Lebanon".

1906: 110: 2464:"Regional Tripartite Conference on ILO Convention No. 189: Raising Awareness and Sharing Knowledge on Decent Work for Domestic Workers Cairo-Egypt" 2438:"Regional Tripartite Conference on ILO Convention No. 189: Raising Awareness and Sharing Knowledge on Decent Work for Domestic Workers Cairo-Egypt" 1122:"feminist" or emphasize the gender dimension of their work, while others may not wish to associate migrant domestic workers’ with feminist issues. 1033: 977:, with some countries imposing limitations on movement and organization. In fact domestic migrant workers are prohibited from creating or joining 3377:

Elias, Juanita (2008). "Struggles over the Rights of Foreign Domestic Workers in Malaysia: The Possibilities and Limitations of 'rights Talk,'".

1013:(UNIFEM) attempting to facilitate dialogue between countries to establish agreements that recognize migrant workers’ rights protection, and the 4276: 2463: 2437: 3594:

Stuart C Rosewarne, "The ILO’s Domestic Worker Convention (C189): Challenging the Gendered Disadvantage of Asia’s Foreign Domestic Workers?,"

2625: 2488: 2405: 2227: 2206: 2143: 1681: 1228: 1682:"100th ILO annual Conference decides to bring an estimated 53 to 100 million domestic workers worldwide under the realm of labour standards" 1377:

Countries for which studies were undertaken and guidelines prepared by the ILO include Lebanon, Bahrain, Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates

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has also played a role in negotiating international legislation such as the International Labour Organization’s Domestic Worker Convention.

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a foreign domestic worker was sparred the death penalty, after it was established that she killed her abusive employer to protect herself.

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and coordinating action. Moreover, domestic workers more generally cannot employ tactics used by other workers in organizations, such as

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Migrant domestic workers are, on average, better educated than their domestically sourced counterparts. Undocumented migrants can become

2648:"'Tied Visas' and Inadequate Labour Protections: A formula for abuse and exploitation of migrant domestic workers in the United Kingdom" 1338: 767:

countries take out loans from local moneylenders with interest rates as high as 100 percent to pay these fees, while those traveling to

351:, calling for domestics’ inclusion in future labour legislation, to take into account their unique work environment, and give training, 246:. However, due, to "the heterogeneity, irregularity and invisibility of domestic and care work," statistics can never be comprehensive. 3999:

Yeoh and Annadhurai, "Civil Society Action and the Creation of ‘Transformative’ Spaces for Migrant Domestic Workers in Singapore," 553.

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Yeoh and Annadhurai, "Civil Society Action and the Creation of ‘Transformative’ Spaces for Migrant Domestic Workers in Singapore," 556.

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Rosewarne, "The ILO’s Domestic Worker Convention (C189): Challenging the Gendered Disadvantage of Asia’s Foreign Domestic Workers?," 5.

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Rosewarne, "The ILO’s Domestic Worker Convention (C189): Challenging the Gendered Disadvantage of Asia’s Foreign Domestic Workers?," 4.

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Yeoh and Annadhurai, "Civil Society Action and the Creation of ‘Transformative’ Spaces for Migrant Domestic Workers in Singapore," 554.

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Rosewarne, "The ILO’s Domestic Worker Convention (C189): Challenging the Gendered Disadvantage of Asia’s Foreign Domestic Workers?," 1.

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and employment practices in the field, and various measures being undertaken to change the conditions of domestic work among migrants.

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The Association of Women for Action and Research (AWARE) in Singapore did not wish to explicitly associate its position with feminism

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are a source of revenues for their countries of origin, some countries actively encourage their female workers to migrate abroad for

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Chuang, Janie A. Achieving Accountability for Migrant Domestic Worker Abuse,. North .Carolina. Law. Review. (2009–2010) 1627 to 1656

994: 747: 300: 102: 343:, both net sending countries. The ILO is not the only international organization attempting to regulate this field, however. The 681:’ workers and ‘natural mothers’ respectively. These perceptions play out in the levels of compensation for these workers. In the 2040: 1046: 546:

gives the employers control over workers’ mobility during the period of the contract; this is seen as an offset to the fact that

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The lack of knowledge concerning the composition of this workforce has been attributed to this historical lack of attention and

2087:"Reclaiming Migrant Women's Narratives: A Feminist Participatory Action Research project on 'Safe and Fair' Migration in Asia" 1505: 3280:"Committee on Migrant Workers - General Comments," Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2010, 6, 1928: 1840: 1740:

Stasiulis, Daiva; Abigail B. Bakan (Autumn 1997). "Negotiating Citizenship: The Case of Foreign Domestic Workers in Canada".

1223: 1014: 106: 3258:

Committee on Migrant Workers - General Comments," Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2010, 2,

1985:

Lutz, Helma. 2013 Domestic workers and migration. Ness, Imannuel (ed.) The encyclopedia of global human migratiom. Blackwell

3842:

Schwenken, "RESPECT for All: The Political Self-Organization of Female Migrant Domestic Workers in the European Union," 49.

3665:

Schwenken, "RESPECT for All: The Political Self-Organization of Female Migrant Domestic Workers in the European Union," 50.

3323:

Schwenken, "RESPECT for All: The Political Self-Organization of Female Migrant Domestic Workers in the European Union," 46.

3314:

Schwenken, "RESPECT for All: The Political Self-Organization of Female Migrant Domestic Workers in the European Union," 45.

1158:

Some domestic workers invest efforts to improve their own welfare or further challenge their employers’ authority by using

2277:

Yeates, Nicola. 2005. Global Care Chains: a critical introduction in Global Migration Perspectives, no. 44. Available at:

1094:, and to neoliberal globalization. Migrant domestic groups have also created coalitions with other organizations such as 3422:

Piper, Nicola (2005). "Rights of Foreign Domestic Workers -- Emergence of Transnational and Transregional Solidarity?".

1649:"The ILO's Domestic Worker Convention (C189): Challenging the Gendered Disadvantage of Asia's Foreign Domestic Workers?" 594:

from abroad to the source country is felt more strongly by these women, who tend to remit a greater proportion of their

1024:

Collaborative works have also been published, including a manual by the International Domestic Workers Network and the

2924: 651:

traits thought to influence the quality of service provided. Research of the perceptions of employers have shown that

4161:

Lan, "Negotiating Social Boundaries and Private Zones: The Micropolitics of Employing Migrant Domestic Workers," 545.

4152:

Lan, "Negotiating Social Boundaries and Private Zones: The Micropolitics of Employing Migrant Domestic Workers," 545.

4143:

Lan, "Negotiating Social Boundaries and Private Zones: The Micropolitics of Employing Migrant Domestic Workers," 542.

4134:

Lan, "Negotiating Social Boundaries and Private Zones: The Micropolitics of Employing Migrant Domestic Workers," 540.

2231: 1958: 1883:

Jindy Pettman, "Migration," in Gender Matters in Global Politics ed. Laura Shepherd (Routledge, New York: 2010) 257.

1865:

Jindy Pettman. "Migration," in Gender Matters in Global Politics ed. Laura Shepherd (Routledge, New York: 2010) 257.

395:

allowed them to engage in more productive activities; families’ real income thus increases along with their general

3234:

Committee on the Protection of the Rights of all Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (23 February 2011).

3190:

Committee on the Protection of the Rights of all Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (23 February 2011).

3117: 2763:

Committee on the Protection of the Rights of all Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (23 February 2011).

2351: 2320: 1114:. In fact, given these domestic workers come from abroad, there were a number of "cross-border alliances" created. 242:

Domestic work is a highly gendered profession. Globally, 83% of domestic workers are women, of whom a majority are

3888: 3528: 2583: 37: 4271: 3509:

Piper, "Rights of Foreign Domestic Workers -- Emergence of Transnational and Transregional Solidarity?," 103–104.

1343: 1148: 492: 453: 3890:

International Migration and the Millennium Development Goals - Selected Papers of the UNFPA Expert Group Meeting

3530:

International Migration and the Millennium Development Goals - Selected Papers of the UNFPA Expert Group Meeting

3457: 2647: 4291: 4286: 4281: 3777: 3747:"The European Parliament adopts resolution on the integration of migrants and its effects on the labour market" 3573: 2210: 1348: 868:

physically from their social network, including their children and close relatives, which contributes to their

468:, not only due to demand but also to a lack of access to the formal labor market, language barriers, a lack of 4172: 1718: 1404:

Transient Workers Count Too (TWC2) has notably encouraged respect toward migrant domestic workers in Singapore

3936:

Piper, "Rights of Foreign Domestic Workers -- Emergence of Transnational and Transregional Solidarity?," 112.

3736:

Piper, "Rights of Foreign Domestic Workers -- Emergence of Transnational and Transregional Solidarity?," 101.

3674:

Piper, "Rights of Foreign Domestic Workers -- Emergence of Transnational and Transregional Solidarity?," 110.

3518:

Piper, "Rights of Foreign Domestic Workers -- Emergence of Transnational and Transregional Solidarity?," 105.

3500:

Piper, "Rights of Foreign Domestic Workers -- Emergence of Transnational and Transregional Solidarity?," 104.

3236:

International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families

3192:

International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families

2765:

International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families

1612:

Altman, Meryl; Pannell, Kerry (April 2012). "Policy Gaps and Theory Gaps: Women And Migrant Domestic Labor".

3572:

Elsa Ramos-Carbone, Decent Work for Domestic Workers in Asia and the Pacific: Manual for Trainers, 2012, 8,

3281: 3259: 2003:

ILO Factsheet of 31 May 2013. Snapshot: domestic workers in action. Available at www.ilo.org/domesticworkers

1812:"Ways to Come, Ways to Leave: Gender, Mobility, and Il/legality among Ethiopian Domestic Workers in Yemen", 1263: 1248: 962:. The same factors that make migrant domestic workers vulnerable to abuse also prevent them from developing 538: 3981:

Lyons, "Dignity Overdue: Women’s Rights Activism in Support of Foreign Domestic Workers in Singapore," 114.

3972:

Lyons, "Dignity Overdue: Women’s Rights Activism in Support of Foreign Domestic Workers in Singapore," 112.

1192:

in Lebanon for recruiting migrant domestic workers, subsidies for assistance offered to migrant workers in

4266: 4073:"Negotiating Social Boundaries and Private Zones: The Micropolitics of Employing Migrant Domestic Workers" 1258: 1170:

for monetary gain, refusing to participate in "extracurricular work" such as family dinners, emphasizing "

751: 693:

is seen as more of a status symbol and earns significantly more than her equally skilled counterpart from

542:

another motive for hiring this type of worker. Additionally, in case of formal, legal arrangements, some

3143: 3089: 2975: 2943: 2489:"Trafficking in women forced labour and domestic work in the context of the Middle East and Gulf region" 555: 2067: 1534: 1519: 1413:

Organizations and institutions include the ILO, NGOs such as Waling Waling, and the European Parliament

4220: 2377: 1323: 682: 445: 2896:

Domestic workers across the world: Global and regional statistics and the extent of legal protection

1705:

Domestic workers across the world: Global and regional statistics and the extent of legal protection

1075: 380:

changed around the start of the 20th century, when maids were recruited to work overseas as part of

237:

Domestic workers across the world: Global and regional statistics and the extent of legal protection

1386:

UNIFEM has facilitated dialogue between countries such as Jordan with Indonesia and the Philippines

1303: 1278: 830: 723: 348: 344: 1071: 1028:, geared to both national and migration domestic workers in Asia and the Pacific, and a report by 4026: 3820: 3710: 3439: 3404: 3214: 3049: 3003: 2803: 2260: 2148:

http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/1668-FRA-report-domestic-workers-2011_EN.pdf

1765: 1757: 1629: 1594: 1318: 1283: 1029: 886: 731: 652: 4043:

Agency for Fundamental Rights, Migrants in an Irregular Situation Employed in Domestic Work, 38.

3767:

Agency for Fundamental Rights, Migrants in an Irregular Situation Employed in Domestic Work, 36.

3630:

Agency for Fundamental Rights, Migrants in an Irregular Situation Employed in Domestic Work, 43.

763:

burden on international migrant domestic workers. Many Indonesian domestic workers migrating to

4072: 2423:"'A Job at Any Cost': Experiences of African Women Migrant Domestic Workers in the Middle East" 1841:"ILO urges better pay and conditions for 53 million domestic workers | Global development" 1476:

Counselling could involve providing guidance on how to undertake negotiations with the employer

1045:

migrant domestic work. These have included conventional means of mobilizing, such as rallies,

4190: 3041: 2795: 2738: 2713: 2709: 2680: 2565:"WORLD CORPORAL PUNISHMENT ARCHIVE: Arab Emirates: Judicial caning - February 1996 - aeju9602" 2223: 2202: 2139: 2052: 2041:

http://migrationeducation.de/44.1.html?&rid=140&cHash=5f22dc61adf7e3d2c4e00437bb1b09d0

1288: 1233: 1140: 1087: 1058: 974: 955: 810: 773: 587: 526: 421: 263: 4173:"Modern Heroes, Modern Slaves? Listening to migrant domestic workers' everyday temporalities" 479:

Nevertheless, the insufficiency of state-supported care facilities under the auspices of the

141:. Current estimates place the number of domestics anywhere between 53 and 100 million. The 4180: 4087: 4018: 3812: 3702: 3431: 3394: 3386: 3033: 2851: 2832: 2787: 2701: 2655: 2539: 2252: 1749: 1660: 1621: 1586: 1395:

Lobbying at national and supranational levels was done by Waling Waling in the UK and Europe

1082:

language in their discourse. Moreover, groups addressing migrant domestic workers have tied

873: 869: 656: 632: 602:

agencies and cover basic costs of family members in their home communities, including their

547: 465: 392: 131: 69: 3156: 3102: 2988: 2956: 1293: 1238: 1189: 1163: 1099: 963: 834: 826: 813:

program, respectively, in order to facilitate the employment of migrant domestic workers.

790: 784:

In the Arab countries, recruiters match domestic workers with their employers through the

686: 567: 543: 534: 521:, etc.), reproductive, and family rights (e.g., family unification). In countries such as 514: 377: 369: 352: 145:, in 2010, projected the following distribution of domestic workers throughout the world: 3585:

CLAIMING RIGHTS Domestic Workers’ Movements and Global Advances for Labor Reform, 23–24.

1243: 1006: 891: 664: 619: 469: 332: 127: 66: 4210:

CLAIMING RIGHTS Domestic Workers’ Movements and Global Advances for Labor Reform, 8–9.

4260: 4116:

Pande, "From 'Balcony Talk’ and 'Practical Prayers’ to Illegal Collectives," 392-393.

4030: 3824: 3714: 3639:

CLAIMING RIGHTS Domestic Workers’ Movements and Global Advances for Labor Reform, 26.

3616:

CLAIMING RIGHTS Domestic Workers’ Movements and Global Advances for Labor Reform, 12.

3443: 3408: 3357:

CLAIMING RIGHTS Domestic Workers’ Movements and Global Advances for Labor Reform, 24.

2702: 2264: 1769: 1633: 1598: 1557: 1328: 1171: 1051: 973:

Beyond these structural issues, states are also partially responsible for preventing

967: 802: 785: 660: 615: 579: 530: 484: 480: 441: 381: 373: 3801:"Mobilizing Migrants, Making Citizens: Migrant Domestic Workers as Political Agents" 3800: 3607:

CLAIMING RIGHTS Domestic Workers’ Movements and Global Advances for Labor Reform, 6.

3549:"A private sector perspective on regulating the migrant labour recruitment industry" 3053: 2807: 2515:"A private sector perspective on regulating the migrant labour recruitment industry" 1575:"Mobilizing migrants, making citizens: migrant domestic workers as political agents" 1574: 1308: 1298: 1205: 1127: 1111: 1107: 1079: 978: 912: 904: 764: 736: 551: 449: 2232:

http://sydney.edu.au/arts/sociology_social_policy/docs/news/MDW_Final-April_12.pdf

1903:"Ratify and Implement ILO Convention 189 on Decent Work for Domestic Workers Now!" 1440:

Waling Waling established coalitions with religious and human rights organizations

4125:

Pande, "From ‘Balcony Talk’ and ‘Practical Prayers’ to Illegal Collectives," 392.

4061:

Pande, "From ‘Balcony Talk’ and ‘Practical Prayers’ to Illegal Collectives," 394.

2791: 1625: 1188:. Country-specific initiatives have also been introduced. These have included a 950:

Migrant domestic workers, due to the nature of their work and to their status as

4223:. United Nations Human Rights - Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights 3909:

Elias, "Struggles over the Rights of Foreign Domestic Workers in Malaysia," 289.

3860:

Elias, "Struggles over the Rights of Foreign Domestic Workers in Malaysia," 283.

3851:

Elias, "Struggles over the Rights of Foreign Domestic Workers in Malaysia," 282.

1268: 1197: 1152: 951: 756: 719: 690: 636: 603: 599: 591: 518: 437: 388: 340: 114: 3435: 3172:

Slow Reform: Protection of Migrant Domestic Workers in Asia and the Middle East

2735:

Domestic Work in Belgium: Crossing Boundaries between Informality and Formality

1973:"European Parliament resolution of 19 October 2010 on precarious women workers" 1040:

Strategies by civil society to address issues faced by migrant domestic workers

1021:

private employment agencies and 8 of the largest staffing companies worldwide.

270: 3816: 3706: 3390: 3037: 2278: 1590: 1333: 1313: 1273: 894:

is not only limited to gender, but also extends to race, class and ethnicity.

678: 644: 611: 473: 417: 4194: 4091: 4022: 3574:

http://www.ilo.org/asia/whatwedo/publications/WCMS_184194/lang--en/index.htm

3205:

United Nations Economic and Social Council, 60th session (12 January 2004).

2211:

http://www.unwomen-eseasia.org/docs/2008_Gender_dimension_of_Remittances.pdf

1753: 1218: 1103: 1066: 954:, or irregular migrants, are subject to a number of challenges that prevent 648: 607: 571: 496: 4185: 3045: 2799: 2190: 1665: 1648: 1017:(UNFPA) releasing a report highlighting the gendered aspects of migration. 614:

or quit. When they are required to be officially sponsored, such as in the

23: 2836: 2660: 491:

countries. This so-called ‘care crisis’ has been one of the motors of the

384:

policies, which involved providing suitable brides for the male settlers.

286:

home country in search for work as a domestic laborer in another country.

3282:

http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cmw/cmw_migrant_domestic_workers.htm

3260:

http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cmw/cmw_migrant_domestic_workers.htm

1167: 1144: 1118: 1095: 671: 640: 583: 578:

in their attitude. This is exemplified by the fact that, in some cases,

575: 522: 409: 259: 138: 3480:"Global Action Programme on Migrant Domestic Workers and their Families" 3399: 2352:"Globalization Comes Home: Protecting Migrant Domestic Workers' Rights" 2321:"Globalization Comes Home: Protecting Migrant Domestic Workers' Rights" 2256: 2111:"Cheap, Vulnerable and Easily Exploitable: Migrant Workers In Malaysia" 1761: 1159: 1091: 822: 727: 674: 425: 396: 336: 3896:. United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). 11–12 May 2005. p. 128. 2564: 2378:"What Do We Know About Regulating The Recruitment of Migrant Workers" 1431:

Migrant domestic groups in Canada created coalitions with such groups

1201: 1193: 959: 740: 715: 698: 598:

than their male counterparts. Their wages are also used to pay back

595: 610:. This, in a way, binds them to their jobs and is a disincentive to 1559:

Migrant Domestic Workers: A New Public Presence in the Middle East?

1057:

Beyond these public mobilizations and lobbying efforts for change,

495:, as it has opened up labor opportunities for women in the area of 3070:"Promoting the integration of migrant domestic workers in Europe". 2626:"Migrants building UAE cultural hub 'risk abuse if they complain'" 1458:

The Women's Aid Organization in Malaysia considers itself feminist

1185: 1083: 847: 694: 667: 269: 253: 2925:"Promoting the integration of migrant domestic workers in Europe" 1032:, along with the International Domestic Workers’ Network and The 4221:"Lebanon: a Code of Conduct to recruit migrant domestic workers" 4107:

Lan, "Political and Social Geography of Marginal Insiders," 121.

4052:

Lan, "Political and Social Geography of Marginal Insiders," 114.

3653:

Lan, "Political and Social Geography of Marginal Insiders," 120.

3302:

Lan, "Political and Social Geography of Marginal Insiders," 109.

768: 760: 488: 1929:"Convention C189 - Domestic Workers Convention, 2011 (No. 189)" 1506:"International Organization for Migration: Key Migration Terms" 986:

Efforts by intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations

821:

The high demand for domestic care, along with different social

566:

Migrant domestic workers tend to shy away from authorities and

2406:"Learning from the Lived Experiences of Women Migrant Workers" 1025: 998: 631:

Many individual employers reportedly express a preference for

413: 274: 142: 17: 2545:. Center for Contemporary Arab Studies- Georgetown University 2878: 2876: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2868: 2298:

United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). 2006. Op. Cit. p. 34

1204:, which allow for migrant domestic workers to join or start 722:

has created a flourishing and profitable market for private

476:, as both an asset and a symbol of status for the employer. 483:

and an increasingly aging population created a demand for

359:

Drivers for demand and supply for migrant domestic workers

3536:. United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). 11–12 May 2005. 2159: 452:

problems, while growing the economy through accumulating

1009:

agencies have addressed migrant domestic work, with the

701:

and socioeconomic assumptions on the part of employers.

2677:

Irregular Migrant Domestic Workers in Europe Who Cares?

2099:

Lutz, Helma and Palenga-Möllenbeck, Ewa. 2012. op. cit.

1825:

Ariel Salleh, ed. "Ecological Debt: Embodied Debt," in

2170:

United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), 2006. op. cit.

368:

Starting in the mid-19th century, the employment of a

331:

The fact that domestic work is often relegated to the

4241:

Stasiulis and Bakan, "Regulation and Resistance," 40.

3963:

Anderson, "Mobilizing Migrants, Making Citizens," 64.

3927:

Anderson, "Mobilizing Migrants, Making Citizens," 65.

3918:

Stasiulis and Bakan, "Regulation and Resistance," 52.

3869:

Stasiulis and Bakan, "Regulation and Resistance," 53.

3002:

International Labour Organization (7 October 2013).

1959:"C189 - Domestic Workers Convention, 2011 (No. 189)" 1562:. Social Science Research Council. pp. 177–202. 941:

Improving the conditions of migrant domestic workers

697:; this disparity is attributed in the literature to 2582: 1961:. International Labour Organisation. 16 June 2011. 1520:"International Labour Organization: Domestic Work" 239:, International Labour Organization. Geneva. 2013 2425:. Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women. 2019. 2408:. Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women. 2019. 1135:Resistance and agency by migrant domestic workers 1117:While women’s rights has been alluded to in some 299:maintain the new labour force." According to the 880:Negative perceptions of migrant domestic workers 537:. This legal vulnerability found in the case of 529:arrangements, employers are not required to pay 1254:Women migrant workers from developing countries 627:Racial stereotypes of "ideal" domestic workers 1200:. Finally, there are governments, notably in 8: 1874:Salleh, "Ecological Debt: Embodied Debt," 3. 854:Risks of abuse during recruitment and travel 3219:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 3207:Commission on Human Rights: Migrant Workers 2737:. United Kingdom: Ashgate. pp. 29–30. 2279:http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/435f85a84.pdf 2089:. Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women. 1781: 1779: 1485:Balcony talks notably take place in Lebanon 4206: 4204: 4103: 4101: 3905: 3903: 3838: 3836: 3834: 3661: 3659: 2894:International Labour Organization (2013). 1905:. Mfasia.org. 16 June 2012. Archived from 1703:International Labour Organization (2013). 807:Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 582:may be considered a viable alternative to 4184: 3649: 3647: 3645: 3626: 3624: 3622: 3398: 2659: 2469:. ILO Regional Office for the Arab States 2443:. ILO Regional Office for the Arab States 1664: 1011:United Nations Development Fund for Women 970:, if they live in their employer’s home. 885:vulnerability to abuse and exploitation. 250:Relationship with international migration 4171:Parry-Davies, Ella (28 September 2020). 3353: 3351: 3349: 3347: 3310: 3308: 3185: 3183: 3181: 3079: 3077: 3065: 3063: 2907: 2905: 2758: 2756: 2754: 2191:http://escholarship.org/uc/item/0tm5b6jh 655:identify certain nationalities as ideal 424:and long-term economic instabilities or 147: 111:International Organization for Migration 48:of all important aspects of the article. 2646:Demetriou, Daphne (30 September 2015). 2345: 2343: 2341: 1975:. European Parliament. 19 October 2010. 1497: 1361: 1034:International Trade Union Confederation 705:Recruitment of migrant domestic workers 347:drafted a resolution, submitted to the 3212: 3152: 3141: 3118:"Fact Sheet: Migrant Domestic Workers" 3098: 3087: 2984: 2973: 2952: 2941: 825:structures, together with restrictive 44:Please consider expanding the lead to 3004:"Empowering migrant domestic workers" 2641: 2639: 2417: 2415: 2400: 2398: 2081: 2079: 1556:Moors, Annelies; et al. (2009). 1229:Foreign domestic helpers in Hong Kong 1102:groups, groups for immigrant rights, 262:with a servant sitting on the floor, 121:Migrant domestic workers in the world 7: 1939:from the original on 3 November 2017 1847:from the original on 29 October 2014 1719:"Resource guide on domestic workers" 718:for foreign domestic workers in the 3780:. International Labour Organization 3749:. International Labour Organization 3482:. International Labour Organization 3460:. International Labour Organization 3424:Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 2704:Gender, Migration and Domestic Work 2289:Maher, Kristen Hill. 2003. Op. cit. 1721:. International Labour Organisation 1684:. International Labour Organisation 1537:. International Labour Organization 1533:International Labour Organization. 1339:Migrant domestic workers in Lebanon 685:, for instance, a college-educated 2824:The British Journal of Social Work 2584:"Filipina maid sentenced to death" 1827:Eco-Sufficiency and Global Justice 1573:Anderson, Bridget (January 2010). 1175:rallies and engaging in activism. 1162:to capitalize on their employers’ 14: 3554:. United Nations General Assembly 2624:Batty, David (10 February 2015). 2595:from the original on 14 May 2022. 2494:. Anti-Slavery International 2006 2179:Anderson, Bridget. 2007. Op. cit. 1892:Pettman, Jindy, "Migration," 257. 995:International Labour Organization 748:International Labour Organization 301:International Labour Organization 103:International Labour Organization 2912:"Migrant Domestic Worker Abuse". 2708:. New York: ROUTLEDGE. pp. 2632:– via www.theguardian.com. 2326:. Human Rights Watch Report 2007 22: 3174:. New York: Human Rights Watch. 2923:International Training Centre. 2852:"Migrant Domestic Worker Abuse" 2700:Momsen, Janet Henshall (1999). 946:Challenges to collective action 776:of migrants for domestic work. 36:may be too short to adequately 3026:International Psychogeriatrics 2675:Triandafyllidou, Anna (2013). 2245:International Migration Review 2109:Hector, Charles (March 2013). 1829:(Pluto Press: London, 2009) 5. 1816:; 2010 24: 237, Marina De Regt 1680:Press Release (16 June 2011). 1224:Convention on domestic workers 1015:United Nations Population Fund 87:transnational domestic workers 46:provide an accessible overview 1: 4277:Domestic workers of Hong Kong 1839:Tran, Mark (9 January 2013). 2792:10.1080/00223980.2011.574169 2611:www.business-humanrights.org 2383:. Migration Policy Institute 1626:10.1080/13545701.2012.704149 937:their period of employment. 294:Advocacy for migrant workers 3598:4, no. 1 (January 2013): 4. 3170:Human Rights Watch (2010). 327:Regulations and conventions 4308: 3799:Anderson, Bridget (2010). 3778:"Migrant domestic workers" 3436:10.1177/011719680501400106 2850:Women's Aid Organization. 2012:Lutz, Helma. 2013 Op. cit. 1647:Rosewarne, Stuart (2013). 1139:Despite the challenges to 923:Dependency on the employer 554:typically experience high 91:foreign domestic employees 3817:10.1080/01419870903023660 3805:Ethnic and Racial Studies 3707:10.1080/00497870802165502 3391:10.1080/03085140801933330 3038:10.1017/S1041610208008090 1707:. ILO-Geneva. p. 20. 1591:10.1080/01419870903023660 1579:Ethnic and Racial Studies 1344:Indonesian migrant worker 493:feminization of migration 454:foreign-exchange reserves 95:overseas domestic workers 75:foreign home care workers 4092:10.1525/sp.2003.50.4.525 4023:10.1177/0891243212439247 2540:"Confronting the Kafāla" 1349:Overseas Filipino Worker 932:Lasting effects of abuse 739:region and 8 percent in 562:Discipline and "loyalty" 101:) are, according to the 99:domestic migrant workers 83:foreign domestic helpers 79:foreign domestic workers 4177:Anti-Trafficking Review 2652:Anti-Trafficking Review 1754:10.1080/014177897339687 1264:International migration 1249:Modern Slavery Act 2015 759:. This creates a heavy 635:with (assumed or real) 590:. The pressure to send 539:undocumented immigrants 436:Because these workers' 198:Latin America/Caribbean 4186:10.14197/atr.201220154 4071:Lan, Pei-Chia (2003). 3151:Cite journal requires 3097:Cite journal requires 2983:Cite journal requires 2951:Cite journal requires 2160:http://ejw.sagepub.com 1666:10.15173/glj.v4i1.1126 1259:Violence against women 842:Vulnerability to abuse 278: 267: 3596:Global Labour Journal 2780:Journal of Psychology 2733:Godin, Marie (2013). 2661:10.14197/atr.20121555 2591:. 17 September 1995. 1653:Global Labour Journal 448:strategy, offsetting 277:serving maid, c. 1880 273: 257: 244:women migrant workers 4011:Gender & Society 2357:. Human Rights Watch 1814:Gender & Society 1324:Economic development 683:United Arab Emirates 508:Cost and flexibility 157:Percentage of women 3379:Economy and Society 2837:10.1093/bjsw/bcq050 2679:. Greece: ASHGATE. 2068:Perez-Orozco, Amaia 1909:on 12 December 2013 1843:. theguardian.com. 1304:Labour inspectorate 1279:Illegal immigration 1110:organizations, and 724:employment agencies 349:European Commission 345:European Parliament 162:Developed Countries 2376:Agunias, Dovelyn. 2257:10.1111/imre.12025 1614:Feminist Economics 1329:Social development 1319:Feminist economics 1284:Immigration policy 1030:Human Rights Watch 898:Working conditions 887:Gender stereotypes 653:racial stereotypes 487:, particularly in 279: 268: 107:Convention No. 189 2228:978-974-680-349-6 2207:978-974-680-259-8 2144:978-92-9192-686-2 1289:Human trafficking 1234:Domestic violence 1141:collective action 1088:human trafficking 1059:awareness raising 975:collective action 956:collective action 831:illegal migration 811:Live-In Caregiver 588:illegal immigrant 527:formal employment 422:natural disasters 403:Escaping hardship 264:Dutch East Indies 230: 229: 63: 62: 4299: 4272:Domestic workers 4252: 4248: 4242: 4239: 4233: 4232: 4230: 4228: 4217: 4211: 4208: 4199: 4198: 4188: 4168: 4162: 4159: 4153: 4150: 4144: 4141: 4135: 4132: 4126: 4123: 4117: 4114: 4108: 4105: 4096: 4095: 4077: 4068: 4062: 4059: 4053: 4050: 4044: 4041: 4035: 4034: 4006: 4000: 3997: 3991: 3988: 3982: 3979: 3973: 3970: 3964: 3961: 3955: 3952: 3946: 3943: 3937: 3934: 3928: 3925: 3919: 3916: 3910: 3907: 3898: 3897: 3895: 3885: 3879: 3876: 3870: 3867: 3861: 3858: 3852: 3849: 3843: 3840: 3829: 3828: 3796: 3790: 3789: 3787: 3785: 3774: 3768: 3765: 3759: 3758: 3756: 3754: 3743: 3737: 3734: 3728: 3725: 3719: 3718: 3690: 3684: 3681: 3675: 3672: 3666: 3663: 3654: 3651: 3640: 3637: 3631: 3628: 3617: 3614: 3608: 3605: 3599: 3592: 3586: 3583: 3577: 3570: 3564: 3563: 3561: 3559: 3553: 3544: 3538: 3537: 3535: 3525: 3519: 3516: 3510: 3507: 3501: 3498: 3492: 3491: 3489: 3487: 3476: 3470: 3469: 3467: 3465: 3454: 3448: 3447: 3419: 3413: 3412: 3402: 3374: 3368: 3364: 3358: 3355: 3342: 3339: 3333: 3330: 3324: 3321: 3315: 3312: 3303: 3300: 3294: 3291: 3285: 3278: 3272: 3269: 3263: 3256: 3250: 3246: 3240: 3239: 3231: 3225: 3224: 3218: 3210: 3202: 3196: 3195: 3187: 3176: 3175: 3167: 3161: 3160: 3154: 3149: 3147: 3139: 3135: 3129: 3128: 3126: 3124: 3113: 3107: 3106: 3100: 3095: 3093: 3085: 3081: 3072: 3071: 3067: 3058: 3057: 3021: 3015: 3014: 3012: 3010: 2999: 2993: 2992: 2986: 2981: 2979: 2971: 2967: 2961: 2960: 2954: 2949: 2947: 2939: 2935: 2929: 2928: 2920: 2914: 2913: 2909: 2900: 2899: 2891: 2885: 2880: 2863: 2862: 2860: 2858: 2847: 2841: 2840: 2831:(8): 2538–2559. 2818: 2812: 2811: 2786:(1–2): 189–200. 2775: 2769: 2768: 2760: 2749: 2748: 2730: 2724: 2723: 2707: 2697: 2691: 2690: 2672: 2666: 2665: 2663: 2643: 2634: 2633: 2621: 2615: 2614: 2603: 2597: 2596: 2586: 2579: 2573: 2572: 2561: 2555: 2554: 2552: 2550: 2544: 2535: 2529: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2519: 2510: 2504: 2503: 2501: 2499: 2493: 2485: 2479: 2478: 2476: 2474: 2468: 2462:Andrees, Beate. 2459: 2453: 2452: 2450: 2448: 2442: 2436:Beate, Andrees. 2433: 2427: 2426: 2419: 2410: 2409: 2402: 2393: 2392: 2390: 2388: 2382: 2373: 2367: 2366: 2364: 2362: 2356: 2347: 2336: 2335: 2333: 2331: 2325: 2316: 2310: 2309: 2305: 2299: 2296: 2290: 2287: 2281: 2275: 2269: 2268: 2240: 2234: 2230:. Available at: 2219: 2213: 2209:. Available at: 2199: 2193: 2186: 2180: 2177: 2171: 2168: 2162: 2156: 2150: 2146:. Available at: 2136: 2130: 2129: 2127: 2125: 2106: 2100: 2097: 2091: 2090: 2083: 2074: 2065: 2059: 2049: 2043: 2037: 2031: 2028: 2022: 2019: 2013: 2010: 2004: 2001: 1995: 1992: 1986: 1983: 1977: 1976: 1969: 1963: 1962: 1955: 1949: 1948: 1946: 1944: 1925: 1919: 1918: 1916: 1914: 1899: 1893: 1890: 1884: 1881: 1875: 1872: 1866: 1863: 1857: 1856: 1854: 1852: 1836: 1830: 1823: 1817: 1810: 1804: 1801: 1795: 1792: 1786: 1783: 1774: 1773: 1737: 1731: 1730: 1728: 1726: 1715: 1709: 1708: 1700: 1694: 1693: 1691: 1689: 1677: 1671: 1670: 1668: 1644: 1638: 1637: 1609: 1603: 1602: 1570: 1564: 1563: 1553: 1547: 1546: 1544: 1542: 1530: 1524: 1523: 1516: 1510: 1509: 1502: 1486: 1483: 1477: 1474: 1468: 1465: 1459: 1456: 1450: 1447: 1441: 1438: 1432: 1429: 1423: 1420: 1414: 1411: 1405: 1402: 1396: 1393: 1387: 1384: 1378: 1375: 1369: 1366: 1126:food, clothing, 874:language barrier 870:social isolation 863:Social isolation 817:Informal economy 689:worker from the 663:, for instance, 657:domestic workers 633:domestic workers 548:domestic workers 466:domestic workers 393:household chores 258:Aristocrat from 154:Domestic Workers 148: 132:Second World War 70:domestic workers 58: 55: 49: 26: 18: 4307: 4306: 4302: 4301: 4300: 4298: 4297: 4296: 4292:Human migration 4287:Foreign workers 4282:Migrant workers 4257: 4256: 4255: 4249: 4245: 4240: 4236: 4226: 4224: 4219: 4218: 4214: 4209: 4202: 4170: 4169: 4165: 4160: 4156: 4151: 4147: 4142: 4138: 4133: 4129: 4124: 4120: 4115: 4111: 4106: 4099: 4080:Social Problems 4075: 4070: 4069: 4065: 4060: 4056: 4051: 4047: 4042: 4038: 4008: 4007: 4003: 3998: 3994: 3989: 3985: 3980: 3976: 3971: 3967: 3962: 3958: 3953: 3949: 3944: 3940: 3935: 3931: 3926: 3922: 3917: 3913: 3908: 3901: 3893: 3887: 3886: 3882: 3877: 3873: 3868: 3864: 3859: 3855: 3850: 3846: 3841: 3832: 3798: 3797: 3793: 3783: 3781: 3776: 3775: 3771: 3766: 3762: 3752: 3750: 3745: 3744: 3740: 3735: 3731: 3726: 3722: 3695:Women's Studies 3692: 3691: 3687: 3682: 3678: 3673: 3669: 3664: 3657: 3652: 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2589:The Independent 2581: 2580: 2576: 2563: 2562: 2558: 2548: 2546: 2542: 2537: 2536: 2532: 2522: 2520: 2517: 2512: 2511: 2507: 2497: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2486: 2482: 2472: 2470: 2466: 2461: 2460: 2456: 2446: 2444: 2440: 2435: 2434: 2430: 2421: 2420: 2413: 2404: 2403: 2396: 2386: 2384: 2380: 2375: 2374: 2370: 2360: 2358: 2354: 2349: 2348: 2339: 2329: 2327: 2323: 2318: 2317: 2313: 2307: 2306: 2302: 2297: 2293: 2288: 2284: 2276: 2272: 2242: 2241: 2237: 2220: 2216: 2200: 2196: 2187: 2183: 2178: 2174: 2169: 2165: 2157: 2153: 2137: 2133: 2123: 2121: 2108: 2107: 2103: 2098: 2094: 2085: 2084: 2077: 2066: 2062: 2050: 2046: 2038: 2034: 2029: 2025: 2020: 2016: 2011: 2007: 2002: 1998: 1993: 1989: 1984: 1980: 1971: 1970: 1966: 1957: 1956: 1952: 1942: 1940: 1927: 1926: 1922: 1912: 1910: 1901: 1900: 1896: 1891: 1887: 1882: 1878: 1873: 1869: 1864: 1860: 1850: 1848: 1838: 1837: 1833: 1824: 1820: 1811: 1807: 1802: 1798: 1793: 1789: 1784: 1777: 1742:Feminist Review 1739: 1738: 1734: 1724: 1722: 1717: 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