1979:, which were among the many tools of the slave trade, and which were always in short supply. Bilboes were mainly used on men, and they consisted of two iron shackles locked on a post and were usually fastened around the ankles of two men. At best, captives were fed beans, corn, yams, rice, and palm oil. Slaves were fed one meal a day with water, if at all. When food was scarce, slaveholders would get priority over the slaves. Sometimes captives were allowed to move around during the day, but many ships kept the shackles on throughout the arduous journey. Aboard certain French ships, the enslaved were brought on deck to periodically receive fresh air. While the enslaved females were typically permitted to be on deck more frequently, enslaved males would be watched closely to prevent revolt when above deck.
2024:
ship, or 1.5 to 2.4 per ton. The
English ships of the time normally fell on the larger side of this spectrum and the French on the smaller side. Ships purposely designed to be smaller and more maneuverable were meant to navigate the African coastal rivers into farther inland ports; these ships therefore increased the effects of the slave trade on Africa. Additionally, the ships' sizes increased slightly throughout the 1700s; however the number of enslaved Africans per ship remained the same. This reduction in the ratio of enslaved Africans to ship tonnage was designed to increase the amount of space per person and thus improve the survival chances of everyone on board. These ships also had temporary storage decks that were separated by an open
41:
2020:
become known for throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. The new designs that allowed ships to navigate faster and into rivers' mouths ensured access to many more enslaving posts along the West
African coast. The monetary value of enslaved Africans on any given American auction-block during the mid-18th century ranged between $ 800 and $ 1,200, which in modern times would be equivalent to $ 32,000–48,000 per person ($ 100 then is now worth $ 4,000 due to inflation). Therefore, ship captains and investors sought technologies that would protect their human cargo.
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instruments and to amplify their songs. This combination of "instruments" was both a way for the enslaved to communicate as well as creating a new identity since slavers attempted to strip them of that. Although most of the enslaved were from various regions around Africa, their situation allowed them to come together and create a new culture and identity aboard the ships with a common language and method of communication:
1914:
1761:
1925:
2032:. Ship masters would presumably use these chambers to divide enslaved Africans and help prevent mutiny. Some ships developed by the turn of the 19th century even had ventilation ports built into the sides and between gun ports (with hatches to keep inclement weather out). These open deck designs increased airflow and thus helped improve survival rates, diminishing potential investment losses.
2079:
people into obedient enslaved. Pregnant women on the ships who delivered their babies aboard risked the chance of their children being killed in order for the mothers to be sold. The worst punishments were for rebelling; in one instance a captain punished a failed rebellion by killing one involved enslaved man immediately, and forcing two other slaves to eat his heart and liver.
2091:
Slaves resisted in many ways. The two most common types of resistance were refusal to eat and suicide. Suicide was a frequent occurrence, often by refusal of food or medicine or jumping overboard, as well as by a variety of other opportunistic means. If an enslaved person jumped overboard, they would
1962:
The duration of the transatlantic voyage varied widely, from one to six months depending on weather conditions. The journey became more efficient over the centuries: while an average transatlantic journey of the early 16th century lasted several months, by the 19th century the crossing often required
2039:
in the 18th century, followed by some other countries and companies in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, realized that the inclusion of surgeons and other medical practitioners aboard their ships was an endeavor that proved too costly for the benefits. So instead of including medical personnel
1899:
According to modern research, roughly 12.5 million slaves were transported through the Middle
Passage to the Americas. The enslaved were transported in wretched conditions, men and women separated, across the Atlantic. Mortality was high; those with strong bodies survived. Young women and girls were
1803:
The First
Passage was the forced march of African slaves from their inland homes, where they had often been captured by other tribes or by other members of their own tribe, to African ports where they were imprisoned until they were sold and loaded onto a ship. The Final Passage was the journey from
2181:
While the owners and captains of slave ships could expect vast profits, the ordinary sailors were often inadequately paid and subject to brutal discipline. Sailors often had to live and sleep without shelter on the open deck for the entirety of the
Atlantic voyage as the entire space below deck was
2138:
Aboard ships, the captives were not always willing to follow orders. Sometimes they reacted in violence. Slave ships were designed and operated to try to prevent the slaves from revolting. Resistance among the slaves usually ended in failure and participants in the rebellion were punished severely.
2078:
While the enslaved were kept fed and supplied with drink as healthy slaves were more valuable, if resources ran low on the long, unpredictable voyages, the crew received preferential treatment. Punishment of the enslaved and torture was very common, as on the voyage the crew had to turn independent
2066:
voyage slow and lack of drinking water became a concern. The crew decided to drown some slaves at sea, to conserve water and allow the owners to collect insurance for lost cargo. About 130 slaves were killed and a number chose to kill themselves in defiance, by jumping into the water willingly. The
2107:
Suicide by jumping overboard was such a problem that captains had to address it directly in many cases. They used the sharks that followed the ships as a terror weapon. One captain, who had a rash of suicides on his ship, took a woman and lowered her into the water on a rope, and pulled her out as
2099:
Both suicide and self-starving were prevented as much as possible by slaver crews; the enslaved were often force-fed or tortured until they ate, though some still managed to starve themselves to death; the enslaved were kept away from means of suicide, and the sides of the deck were often netted.
2048:
Treatment of the enslaved was horrific due to the captured
African men and women being considered less than human; to slavers, they were "cargo", or "goods", and treated as such. Women with children were not as desirable for enslavement for they took up too much space, and toddlers were not wanted
2040:
they just stocked the ships with a large variety of medicines. While this was better than no medicines, and given the fact that many crew members at least had some idea of how disease was spread, without the inclusion of medical personnel the mortality rate was still very high in the 18th century.
2019:
The need for profits in the 18th-century
Atlantic market economy drove changes in ship designs and in managing human cargo, which included enslaved Africans and the mostly European crew. Improvements in air flow on board the ships helped to decrease the infamous mortality rate that these ships had
2196:
The sailors were often employed through coercion as they generally knew about and hated the slave trade. In port towns, recruiters and tavern owners would induce sailors to become very drunk (and indebted) and then offer to relieve their debt if they signed contracts with slave ships. If they did
2116:
In order to interact with each other on the voyage, the enslaved created a communication system unbeknownst to
Europeans: They would construct choruses on the passages using their voices, bodies, and ships themselves; the hollow design of the ships allowed the enslaved to use them as percussive
2082:
As a way to counteract disease and suicide attempts, the crew would force the enslaved onto the deck of the ship for exercise, usually resulting in beatings because the enslaved would be unwilling to dance for them or interact. These beatings would often be severe and could result in the enslaved
2023:
Throughout the height of the
Atlantic slave trade (1570–1808), ships that transported the enslaved were normally smaller than traditional cargo ships, with most ships that transported the enslaved, weighing between 150 and 250 tons. This equated to about 350 to 450 enslaved Africans on each slave
1982:
The enslaved below the decks lived for months in conditions of squalor and indescribable horror. Disease spread and ill health was one of the biggest killers. Mortality rates were high, and death made these conditions below the decks even worse. Even though the corpses were thrown overboard, many
1904:
considerably higher in Africa itself during the process of capturing and transporting slaves to the coast. The total number of deaths directly attributable to the Middle
Passage voyage is estimated at up to two million; a broader look at African deaths directly attributable to the institution of
2010:
The rate of death increased with the length of the voyage, since the incidence of dysentery and of scurvy increased with longer stints at sea as the quality and amount of food and water diminished. In addition to physical sickness, many of the enslaved became too depressed to eat or function
2129:
This communication was a direct subversion of European authority and allowed the enslaved to have a form of power and identity otherwise prohibited. Furthermore, such organization and coming together enabled revolts and uprisings to actually be coordinated and successful at times.
2193:), flogging or slave uprisings. A high crew mortality rate on the return voyage was in the captain's interests as it reduced the number of sailors who had to be paid on reaching the home port. Crew members who survived were frequently cheated out of their wages on their return.
1966:
African kings, warlords, and private kidnappers sold captives to Europeans who held several coastal forts. The captives were usually force-marched to these ports along the western coast of Africa, where they were held for sale to the European or American slave traders in the
1808:
or other destination where they would be put to work. The Middle Passage across the Atlantic joined these two. Voyages on the Middle Passage were large financial undertakings, generally organized by companies or groups of investors rather than individuals.
1539:
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not, they would be imprisoned. Sailors in prison had a hard time getting jobs outside of the slave ship industry since most other maritime industries would not hire "jail-birds", so they were forced to go to the slave ships anyway.
1905:
slavery from 1500 to 1900 suggests up to four million deaths. The "Middle Passage" was considered a time of in-betweenness where captive Africans forged bonds of kinship, which then created forced transatlantic communities.
1983:
crew members avoided going into the hold. The enslaved who had already been ill were not always found immediately. Many of the living enslaved could have been shackled to someone that was dead for hours and sometimes days.
1974:
The male captives were normally chained together in pairs to save space; right leg to the next man's left leg—while the women and children may have had somewhat more room. The chains or hand and leg cuffs were known as
1986:
Most contemporary historians estimate that between 9.4 and 12.6 million Africans embarked for the New World. Disease and starvation due to the length of the passage were the main contributors to the death toll with
2096:, came to be understood as holding substandard value as slaves, because they developed a reputation for being too proud to be enslaved, and for attempting suicide immediately upon losing their freedom.
2149:
When we found ourselves at last taken away, death was more preferable than life, and a plan was concerted amongst us, that we might burn and blow up the ship, and to perish all together in the flames.
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The number of rebels varied widely; often the uprisings would end with the death of a few slaves and crew. Surviving rebels were punished or executed as examples to the other slaves on board.
1660:
2059:, took too many enslaved on a voyage to the New World in 1781. Overcrowding combined with malnutrition and disease killed several crew members and around 60 enslaved. Bad weather made the
1937:
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into the sea. Slaves generally believed that if they jumped overboard, they would be returned to their family and friends in their village or to their ancestors in the afterlife.
2035:
Another major factor in "cargo protection" was the increase in knowledge of diseases and medicines (along with the inclusion of a variety of medicines on the ships). First the
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for African markets with manufactured goods (first side of the triangle), which were then traded for slaves with rulers of African states and other African slave traders.
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and mythology. They would appeal to their gods for protection and vengeance upon their captors, and would also try to curse and otherwise harm the crew using
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all and response soundings allowed men and women speaking different languages to communicate about the conditions of their captivity. In fact, on board the
860:
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Bell, Karen B. (2010). "Rice, Resistance, and Force Transatlantic Communities: (Re)Envisioning the African Diaspora in Low Country Georgia, 1750–1800".
808:
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572:
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Bush, Barbara (March–June 2010). "African Caribbean Slave Mothers And Children: Traumas Of Dislocation And Enslavement Across The Atlantic World".
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transported the slaves across the Atlantic (second side of the triangle). The proceeds from selling slaves were then used to buy products such as
1737:
2145:, who was enslaved and taken from Africa as a child, later described an uprising aboard the ship on which he was transported to the West Indies:
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A marker on the Long Wharf in Boston serves as a reminder of the active role of Boston in the slave trade, with details about the Middle Passage.
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2957:"Summary of The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African. Written by Himself. Vol. I"
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The enslaved were still successful, especially at jumping overboard. Often when an uprising failed, the mutineers would jump
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661:
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119:
2173:. One crew found fetishes in their water supply, placed by the enslaved who believed they would kill all who drank from it.
2812:
Haines, Robin; Shlomowitz, Ralph (2000). "Explaining the mortality decline in the eighteenth-century British slave trade".
1800:, rum, and raw materials, which would be transported back to Europe (third side of the triangle) to complete the triangle.
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A crew mortality rate of around 20% was expected during a voyage, with sailors dying as a result of disease (specifically
2162:
1665:
1448:
309:
1670:
1514:
1384:
1045:
813:
793:
353:
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1896:, the transatlantic slave trade gradually declined until being fully abolished in the second-half of the 19th century.
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fast as possible. When she came in view, the sharks had already killed her—and bitten off the lower half of her body.
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1680:
1404:
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2125:, what began as murmurs and morphed into song erupted before long into the shouts and cries of coordinated revolt.
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Bly, Antonio T. (1998). "Crossing the Lake of Fire: Slave Resistance during the Middle Passage, 1720–1842".
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traders dominated the trade in the 16th and 17th centuries, though by the 18th they were supplanted by the
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2879:"The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade: A Forgotten Crime Against Humanity as Defined by International Law"
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often be left to drown or shot from the boat. Over the centuries, some African peoples, such as the
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https://web.archive.org/web/20160304102446/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0208/feature4/
3343:
https://web.archive.org/web/20120210012633/http://www.wvculture.org/museum/Marie/henrietta.pdf
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Hereditary Society for descendants of people of African descent enslaved in the United States:
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movement and a major court case, as the insurance company refused to compensate for the loss.
1988:
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1918:
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1212:
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20:
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626:
331:
77:
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1901:
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1825:
1813:
1702:
1596:
166:
129:
87:
3346:
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3055:
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2561:
2457:
Wolfe, Brendan (2021). "Slave Ships and the Middle Passage". In Miller, Patti (ed.).
2214:
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1016:
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774:
604:
594:
378:
28:
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2711:
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1971:. Typical slave ships contained several hundred slaves with about 30 crew members.
1913:
1893:
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1760:
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Bury the Chains: Prophets, Slaves, and Rebels in the First Human Rights Crusade
3140:
Bury the Chains: Prophets, Slaves, and Rebels in the First Human Rights Crusade
3252:
2286:
2204:
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2011:
efficiently due to loss of freedom, family, security, and their own humanity.
1929:
1805:
1789:
1635:
932:
636:
503:
2680:
Eltis, David and Richardson, David. "The Numbers Game". In: Northrup, David:
2825:
2761:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: National Bureau of Economic Research. p. 25
2170:
1968:
1817:
880:
545:
407:
562:
3170:
Royal Navy Versus the Slave Traders: Enforcing Abolition at Sea 1808–1898
2000:
1996:
1777:
1470:
1028:
972:
924:
584:
429:
284:
190:
3084:
Deadly Notes: Atlantic Soundscapes and the Writing of the Middle Passage
3047:
2620:
2186:
2007:, and other diseases spread rapidly in the close-quarter compartments.
2004:
1976:
1453:
535:
215:
32:
2997:"Haunting relics from a slave ship headed for African American museum"
1992:
1900:
raped by the crew. An estimated 15% of them died during voyage, with
1889:
1845:
1785:
1155:
977:
557:
540:
402:
237:
205:
3039:
2755:
Determinants of Slave and Crew Mortality in the Atlantic Slave Trade
2161:
The enslaved also resisted through certain manifestations of their
2668:
Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1800
2276:
1947:
1912:
1759:
412:
398:
373:
2728:
The Slave Trade: The story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870
2389:
The Slave Trade: the story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870
1812:
The first European slave ship transported enslaved Africans from
1750:
This article is about the slave trade route. For other uses, see
2463:. Charlottesville, VA: Virginia Humanities – Library of Virginia
279:
109:
3291:
Slavery at Sea: Terror, Sex, and Sickness in the Middle Passage
2978:
Johnston, Harry; Johnston, Harry Hamilton; Stapf, Otto (1906).
2139:
About one out of ten ships experienced some sort of rebellion.
1776:
in which millions of enslaved Africans were transported to the
2889:(4). Washington College of Law Journals & Law Reviews: 900
2789:(Cambridge: The University of Cambridge, 1999), pp. 143–146.
1995:
causing the majority of deaths. Additionally, outbreaks of
3316:"Sons & Daughters of the United States Middle Passage"
1864:. The enslaved Africans came mostly from the regions of
2511:
Rosenbaum, Alan S.; Charny, Israel W. (17 April 2018).
3315:
2335:
McKissack, Patricia C.; McKissack, Frederick (1995).
3168:
Bernard Edwards; Bernard Edwards (Captain.) (2007).
2731:. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 422–423.
1410:
Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery
1936:. (From an Abstract of Evidence delivered before a
3332:"Last Voyage of the Slave Ship Henrietta Marie"],
3277:
2629:Freedom on My Mind: A History of African Americans
2336:
2049:because of everyday maintenance. For example, the
1804:the port of disembarkation in the Americas to the
3132:
3130:
3128:
2752:Steckel, Richard H.; Jensen, Richard A. (1985).
2083:dying or becoming more susceptible to diseases.
1894:abolitionist movement in Europe and the Americas
1757:Transoceanic segment of the Atlantic slave trade
1525:13th Amendment to the United States Constitution
2645:. : Tate Pub & Enterprises Ll. p. 84.
2339:The Royal Kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhay
2959:. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
2684:, second edition, Houghton Mifflin Co., 2002.
1731:
8:
2883:American University International Law Review
2434:Colonial Blackness: A History of Afro-Mexico
1530:Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom
2631:(New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2013), 32.
2576:The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas
2044:Treatment of enslaved people and resistance
3345:A Slave Ship Speaks (PDF)], archived from
2670:. Cambridge University Press. p. 155.
2499:The Creation of the British Atlantic World
2392:. New York: Simon & Schuster. p.
1738:
1724:
15:
3372:Pre-emancipation African-American history
3228:. Penguin Publishing Group. p. 138.
3172:. Pen & Sword Books. pp. 26–27.
2712:"The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database"
2778:
2776:
2588:Cottman, Michael H. (February 7, 1999).
2484:, Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade – Estimates
2436:. Indiana University Press. p. 11.
2366:
2364:
1923:
1535:Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf
1400:Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery
1380:Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90
2837:
2835:
2302:
1836:. Other European nations involved were
27:
3100:. The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation
3019:
3017:
2612:
2610:
2311:"Boston Slavery Exhibit | Boston.gov"
2262:European colonization of the Americas
1422:Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention
1099:Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea
7:
3284:. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
2798:Ron Soodalter, "Hell on the water" (
1614:Slave marriages in the United States
1218:Human trafficking in the Middle East
2877:Muhammad, Esq, Patricia M. (2003).
2590:"THE GHOSTS OF THE HENRIETTA MARIE"
2541:Journal of African American History
953:Human trafficking in Southeast Asia
2995:Ruane, Michael E. (13 July 2016).
2242:Abolitionism in the United Kingdom
1607:last survivors of American slavery
14:
2643:Trace: Our connection to the past
2247:Abolitionism in the United States
568:Field slaves in the United States
435:Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate
2221:
2207:
445:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate
440:Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate
269:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate
39:
3293:. University of Illinois Press.
3226:The Slave Ship: A Human History
2710:Eltis, David (3 January 2021).
2554:10.5323/jafriamerhist.95.2.0157
1752:Middle Passage (disambiguation)
1395:Committee of Experts on Slavery
946:East, Southeast, and South Asia
3289:Mustakeem, Sowande M. (2016).
2924:. International Slavery Museum
2856:10.1080/00086495.2010.11672362
1094:Slave raiding in Easter Island
1:
3367:History of the Atlantic Ocean
2421:. Cambridge University Press.
2182:occupied by enslaved people.
2071:incident became fuel for the
3276:Faragher, John Mack (2006).
3199:. Houghton Mifflin. p.
3143:. Houghton Mifflin. p.
1958:, a British slave ship, 1787
1860:as well as traders from the
1385:Temporary Slavery Commission
1046:Slavery in the Mongol Empire
2922:"Life on board slave ships"
2814:The Economic History Review
2432:Bennett, Herman L. (2009).
1405:Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery
450:Volga Bulgarian slave trade
3388:
3082:Skeehan, Danielle (2013).
2641:Allen, Weslynn M. (2009).
2517:. Routledge. p. 132.
2419:Transformations in Slavery
2112:Identity and communication
1749:
1590:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
1427:Anti-Slavery International
1192:North Africa and West Asia
3193:Hochschild, Adam (2005).
3137:Hochschild, Adam (2005).
2417:Lovejoy, Paul E. (2000).
2371:Walker, Theodore (2004).
1686:Emancipation Proclamation
1358:Opposition and resistance
1116:Sex trafficking in Europe
1104:Blackbirding in Polynesia
667:Trans-Saharan slave trade
3298:Rediker, Marcus (2007).
3027:Journal of Negro History
2787:The Atlantic Slave Trade
2682:The Atlantic Slave Trade
2514:Is the Holocaust Unique?
2272:Indian Ocean slave trade
2037:Dutch East India Company
1466:Compensated emancipation
677:Indian Ocean slave trade
3224:Marcus Rediker (2007).
2826:10.1111/1468-0289.00160
2698:The African Slave Trade
2666:Thornton, John (1998).
1390:1926 Slavery Convention
1146:Germany in World War II
763:North and South America
285:Contract of manumission
2493:Mancke, Elizabeth and
2373:Mothership Connections
2151:
2127:
1963:fewer than six weeks.
1959:
1945:
1921:
1782:triangular slave trade
1765:
871:British Virgin Islands
423:Circassian slave trade
389:Safavid imperial harem
384:Ottoman Imperial Harem
3258:Los pilotos de altura
3118:Taylor, Eric Robert.
2942:Taylor, Eric Robert.
2725:Thomas, Hugh (1999).
2460:Encyclopedia Virginia
2386:Thomas, Hugh (1999).
2343:. Macmillan. p.
2147:
2119:
1951:
1927:
1916:
1772:was the stage of the
1763:
1110:Europe and North Asia
1070:Australia and Oceania
770:Pre-Columbian America
342:Slave raid of Suðuroy
274:Slavery in al-Andalus
196:Black Sea slave trade
125:21st-century jihadism
3362:Atlantic slave trade
2625:Waldo E. Martin, Jr.
2578:, 2000, pp. 156–157.
2257:Atlantic slave trade
2015:Sailing technologies
1934:Atlantic slave trade
1774:Atlantic slave trade
1565:Indentured servitude
1493:Underground Railroad
1293:United Arab Emirates
682:Zanzibar slave trade
649:By country or region
462:Atlantic slave trade
364:Ma malakat aymanukum
248:Venetian slave trade
3334:National Geographic
2844:Caribbean Quarterly
1952:Description of the
1892:. With the growing
1858:Italian city-states
1651:Slave Route Project
782:Americas indigenous
672:Red Sea slave trade
662:Contemporary Africa
525:Topics and practice
295:Crimean slave trade
290:Bukhara slave trade
243:Genoese slave trade
120:Contemporary Africa
100:Forced prostitution
3122:, 2006, pp. 38–39.
2946:, 2006, pp. 37–38.
2617:Deborah Gray White
2501:, 2005, pp. 30–31.
1960:
1946:
1944:in 1790 and 1791.)
1922:
1766:
1432:Blockade of Africa
739:Somali slave trade
655:Sub-Saharan Africa
347:Turkish Abductions
305:Khivan slave trade
300:Khazar slave trade
253:Balkan slave trade
211:Prague slave trade
3261:. Madrid: Anaya.
3235:978-1-4406-2084-3
3179:978-1-84415-633-7
3068:Rediker, Marcus.
2907:Rediker, Marcus.
2267:History of Africa
2252:Asiento de Negros
1989:amoebic dysentery
1784:. Ships departed
1748:
1747:
1698:Freedmen's Bureau
1520:Third Servile War
1515:International law
1082:Human trafficking
844:Human trafficking
519:Thirteen colonies
337:Sack of Baltimore
105:Human trafficking
3379:
3336:, archived from
3326:
3324:
3323:
3303:
3302:. Penguin Books.
3294:
3285:
3283:
3272:
3240:
3239:
3221:
3215:
3214:
3190:
3184:
3183:
3165:
3159:
3158:
3134:
3123:
3116:
3110:
3109:
3107:
3105:
3098:"Middle Passage"
3094:
3088:
3087:
3079:
3073:
3066:
3060:
3059:
3021:
3012:
3011:
3009:
3007:
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2912:
2905:
2899:
2898:
2896:
2894:
2874:
2868:
2867:
2839:
2830:
2829:
2809:
2803:
2796:
2790:
2783:Herbert S. Klein
2780:
2771:
2770:
2768:
2766:
2760:
2749:
2743:
2742:
2722:
2716:
2715:
2707:
2701:
2691:
2685:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2663:
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2656:
2638:
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2614:
2605:
2604:
2602:
2600:
2585:
2579:
2572:
2566:
2565:
2535:
2529:
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2502:
2491:
2485:
2479:
2473:
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2448:
2447:
2429:
2423:
2422:
2414:
2408:
2407:
2383:
2377:
2376:
2368:
2359:
2358:
2342:
2332:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2322:
2307:
2292:Triangular trade
2231:
2229:Caribbean portal
2226:
2225:
2224:
2217:
2212:
2211:
2210:
2177:Sailors and crew
2157:African religion
2065:
1942:House of Commons
1938:select committee
1919:triangular trade
1850:Poland–Lithuania
1740:
1733:
1726:
1710:Emancipation Day
1543:
1510:Slave Trade Acts
201:Byzantine Empire
43:
16:
3387:
3386:
3382:
3381:
3380:
3378:
3377:
3376:
3352:
3351:
3321:
3319:
3314:
3310:
3297:
3288:
3275:
3269:
3251:
3248:
3246:Further reading
3243:
3236:
3223:
3222:
3218:
3211:
3192:
3191:
3187:
3180:
3167:
3166:
3162:
3155:
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3135:
3126:
3117:
3113:
3103:
3101:
3096:
3095:
3091:
3081:
3080:
3076:
3067:
3063:
3040:10.2307/2649014
3023:
3022:
3015:
3005:
3003:
3001:Washington Post
2994:
2993:
2989:
2977:
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2972:
2962:
2960:
2955:
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2941:
2937:
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2902:
2892:
2890:
2876:
2875:
2871:
2841:
2840:
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2811:
2810:
2806:
2800:Civil War Times
2797:
2793:
2781:
2774:
2764:
2762:
2758:
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2750:
2746:
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2724:
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2660:
2653:
2640:
2639:
2635:
2615:
2608:
2598:
2596:
2594:Washington Post
2587:
2586:
2582:
2573:
2569:
2548:(2): 157–182 .
2537:
2536:
2532:
2525:
2510:
2509:
2505:
2495:Shammas, Carole
2492:
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2300:
2227:
2222:
2220:
2213:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2179:
2159:
2143:Ottobah Cugoano
2136:
2114:
2089:
2063:
2046:
2017:
1911:
1902:mortality rates
1886:Bight of Biafra
1780:as part of the
1758:
1755:
1744:
1715:
1714:
1619:Slave narrative
1575:Fugitive slaves
1555:
1547:
1546:
1537:
1505:Slave rebellion
1360:
1350:
1349:
1308:
1298:
1297:
1120:United Kingdom
1056:Yankee princess
650:
642:
641:
369:Avret Pazarları
315:Avret Pazarları
184:Medieval Europe
150:
140:
139:
78:Forced marriage
53:
12:
11:
5:
3385:
3383:
3375:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3354:
3353:
3350:
3349:
3340:
3327:
3309:
3308:External links
3306:
3305:
3304:
3300:The Slave Ship
3295:
3286:
3273:
3267:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3241:
3234:
3216:
3210:978-0618104697
3209:
3185:
3178:
3160:
3154:978-0618104697
3153:
3124:
3120:If We Must Die
3111:
3089:
3074:
3072:, 2007, p. 40.
3070:The Slave Ship
3061:
3034:(3): 178–186.
3013:
2987:
2984:. p. 110.
2970:
2948:
2944:If We Must Die
2935:
2913:
2911:, 2007, p. 16.
2909:The Slave Ship
2900:
2869:
2850:(1–2): 69–94.
2831:
2804:
2802:, 2011), p. 1.
2791:
2772:
2744:
2737:
2717:
2702:
2700:(1961), p. 95.
2694:Basil Davidson
2686:
2673:
2658:
2652:978-1607998334
2651:
2633:
2606:
2580:
2574:Eltis, David.
2567:
2530:
2523:
2503:
2486:
2474:
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2409:
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2315:www.boston.gov
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2045:
2042:
2016:
2013:
1910:
1907:
1882:Bight of Benin
1874:Windward Coast
1856:, and various
1842:Denmark–Norway
1794:furs and hides
1770:Middle Passage
1756:
1746:
1745:
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1742:
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1604:
1597:List of slaves
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1141:Dutch Republic
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600:Child soldiers
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582:
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509:Spanish Empire
506:
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489:Middle Passage
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310:Ottoman Empire
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130:Sexual slavery
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107:
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88:Child marriage
85:
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70:
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63:Child soldiers
60:
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36:
35:
25:
24:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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3274:
3270:
3268:84-667-1681-5
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3259:
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2516:
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2500:
2496:
2490:
2487:
2483:
2482:Slave Voyages
2478:
2475:
2462:
2461:
2453:
2450:
2445:
2443:9780253223319
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2428:
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2375:. p. 10.
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2215:Africa portal
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1928:Diagram of a
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1862:United States
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1570:Forced labour
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824:prison labour
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794:United States
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29:Forced labour
26:
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3347:the original
3338:the original
3333:
3320:. Retrieved
3299:
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3257:
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3195:
3188:
3169:
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3139:
3119:
3114:
3102:. Retrieved
3092:
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3031:
3025:
3004:. Retrieved
3000:
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2963:November 15,
2961:. Retrieved
2951:
2943:
2938:
2928:November 15,
2926:. Retrieved
2916:
2908:
2903:
2891:. Retrieved
2886:
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2817:
2813:
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2799:
2794:
2786:
2763:. Retrieved
2754:
2747:
2727:
2720:
2705:
2697:
2689:
2681:
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2667:
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2636:
2628:
2597:. Retrieved
2593:
2583:
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2545:
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2533:
2513:
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2498:
2489:
2477:
2465:. Retrieved
2459:
2452:
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2427:
2418:
2412:
2388:
2381:
2372:
2338:
2330:
2319:. Retrieved
2317:. 2024-02-23
2314:
2305:
2237:Abolitionism
2195:
2191:yellow fever
2184:
2180:
2160:
2152:
2148:
2141:
2137:
2128:
2122:
2120:
2115:
2106:
2101:
2098:
2090:
2081:
2077:
2073:abolitionist
2068:
2060:
2055:, a British
2051:
2047:
2034:
2022:
2018:
2009:
1985:
1981:
1973:
1965:
1961:
1953:
1898:
1870:Upper Guinea
1811:
1802:
1769:
1767:
1646:Slave patrol
1483:Freedom suit
1459:Sierra Leone
1449:Colonization
1365:Abolitionism
1345:Baháʼí Faith
1318:Christianity
1268:Saudi Arabia
1124:Penal Labour
1089:Blackbirding
995:Debt bondage
983:penal system
809:Contemporary
799:Field slaves
787:U.S. Natives
746:South Africa
617:Galley slave
590:Slave market
580:House slaves
553:Blackbirding
531:Conscription
488:
455:21st century
418:Umm al-walad
262:Muslim world
231:Emancipation
135:Wage slavery
115:Penal labour
93:Wife selling
83:Bride buying
68:Conscription
58:Child Labour
51:Contemporary
3280:Out of many
3253:Baroja, Pio
2026:latticework
1917:Map of the
1796:, tobacco,
1790:Slave ships
1661:court cases
1538: [
1488:Slave Power
1476:Manumission
1323:Catholicism
1198:Afghanistan
939:Puerto Rico
851:The Bahamas
829:Slave codes
632:Shanghaiing
622:Impressment
514:Slave Coast
394:Qajar harem
354:Concubinage
327:slave trade
3356:Categories
3322:2023-05-14
3104:5 December
2820:(2): 262.
2738:0684835657
2403:0684835657
2354:0805042598
2321:2024-04-25
2298:References
2287:Slave ship
2282:Press gang
2057:slave ship
1969:barracoons
1930:slave ship
1878:Gold Coast
1866:Senegambia
1822:Portuguese
1806:plantation
1676:J.Q. Adams
1666:Washington
1636:Slave name
1585:convention
1560:Common law
933:Encomienda
729:Seychelles
714:Mauritania
637:Slave ship
504:Panyarring
499:New France
148:Historical
3056:140948545
2864:141289167
2562:140985496
2163:religions
2134:Uprisings
2028:or grate
1932:from the
1820:in 1525.
1818:New Spain
1671:Jefferson
1328:Mormonism
1263:Palestine
1077:Australia
1007:Indonesia
898:Lei Áurea
881:Code Noir
861:Caribbean
834:Treatment
573:Treatment
546:Devshirme
408:Odalisque
226:In Russia
167:Babylonia
155:Antiquity
3255:(2002).
2599:July 21,
2201:See also
2171:fetishes
2123:Hubridas
2102:en masse
2030:bulkhead
2001:syphilis
1997:smallpox
1814:São Tomé
1778:Americas
1703:Iron bit
1693:40 acres
1656:breeding
1471:Freedman
1306:Religion
1166:Portugal
1051:Thailand
1041:Maldives
1036:Malaysia
1029:Kwalliso
973:Booi Aha
925:Restavek
905:Colombia
876:Trinidad
866:Barbados
756:Zanzibar
704:Ethiopia
585:Saqaliba
479:Database
430:Saqaliba
191:Ancillae
21:a series
19:Part of
3048:2649014
3006:5 March
2981:Liberia
2893:7 March
2765:7 March
2621:Mia Bay
2467:4 March
2187:malaria
2087:Suicide
2005:measles
1977:bilboes
1955:Brookes
1940:of the
1909:Journey
1854:Prussia
1830:British
1681:Lincoln
1554:Related
1454:Liberia
1340:Judaism
1278:Tunisia
1253:Morocco
1243:Lebanon
1208:Bahrain
1203:Algeria
1171:Romania
1136:Denmark
1129:Slavery
1063:Vietnam
734:Somalia
724:Nigeria
699:Comoros
627:Pirates
536:Ghilman
469:Bristol
359:history
332:pirates
221:History
110:Peonage
33:slavery
3318:. 2023
3265:
3232:
3207:
3176:
3151:
3054:
3046:
2862:
2735:
2649:
2623:, and
2560:
2521:
2440:
2400:
2351:
2064:'s
1993:scurvy
1890:Angola
1888:, and
1846:Sweden
1834:French
1786:Europe
1602:owners
1238:Kuwait
1233:Jordan
1186:Sweden
1176:Russia
1161:Poland
1156:Norway
978:Laogai
963:Brunei
958:Bhutan
920:revolt
893:Brazil
856:Canada
819:partus
804:female
689:Angola
558:Coolie
541:Mamluk
494:Nantes
474:Brazil
403:Cariye
238:Thrall
206:Kholop
172:Greece
3052:S2CID
3044:JSTOR
2860:S2CID
2759:(PDF)
2558:S2CID
2277:Maafa
2167:idols
1838:Spain
1826:Dutch
1798:sugar
1629:songs
1624:films
1542:]
1498:songs
1335:Islam
1313:Bible
1288:Yemen
1283:Qatar
1273:Syria
1248:Libya
1213:Egypt
1181:Spain
1151:Malta
1024:Korea
1012:Japan
990:India
968:China
915:Haiti
775:Aztec
751:Sudan
719:Niger
611:Naval
484:Dutch
413:Qiyan
399:Jarya
374:Harem
216:Serfs
162:Egypt
3263:ISBN
3230:ISBN
3205:ISBN
3174:ISBN
3149:ISBN
3106:2017
3008:2021
2965:2017
2930:2017
2895:2021
2767:2021
2733:ISBN
2647:ISBN
2601:2015
2519:ISBN
2469:2021
2438:ISBN
2398:ISBN
2349:ISBN
2189:and
2169:and
2069:Zong
2061:Zong
2052:Zong
1991:and
1832:and
1824:and
1768:The
1580:laws
1442:U.S.
1437:U.K.
1375:U.S.
1370:U.K.
1258:Oman
1228:Iraq
1223:Iran
910:Cuba
814:maps
709:Mali
694:Chad
280:Baqt
177:Rome
73:Debt
31:and
3145:114
3036:doi
2852:doi
2822:doi
2550:doi
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
