Millimeter cloud radar - Knowledge (XXG)

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cross-polarized channel over the power in the co-polarized channel, named as linear depolarization ratio, is the polarimetric variable obtained by cloud radars of this type. Often cloud radars have two receiving units, which allows simultaneous measurements of the orthogonal components of the received signal. Some cloud radars have only one receiving unit and measure the orthogonal components consequently, with pulse-to-pulse switching of the receiving channel. Many of operational cloud radars with LDR-mode are pointed vertically together with other remote sensing instruments in order to retrieve microphysical properties of cloud particles. LDR, measured by vertically pointed cloud radar, is used for the detection of the melting layer (also denominated as

3063:. It corresponds to the variance of the Doppler spectrum. The Doppler width basically is a measure of the width of the spectrum of the detected velocities. It can also be a measure of the number of modes the targets size distribution has. A mono-modal distribution gives a small spectral width. A distribution that has several modes yields a larger spectral width, as illustrated in Figure 5. The spectral width is also influenced by turbulent motion of the targets in the sample volume: the spectral width increases with increasing turbulence. 2288: 2993: 3590:

that is one of the main problems in remote observations of mixed-phase clouds. The assumed shape of ice crystals is considered to be the main source of errors in size and number concentration retrievals based on vertical combined lidar and radar observations. Furthermore, in the existing numerical weather prediction models the assumed shape defines the depositional growth rate of ice particles and the area-mass-terminal velocity relations of ice crystals. Thus, ice habit can lead to significant uncertainties.

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volume. Terminal velocity contains the information about microphysical properties of cloud particles. In order to obtain the terminal velocity from the cloud-radar observations, the influence of air motions that shift the spectrum have to be removed from the Doppler spectra, improving in this way the microphysics representativity. An approach to correct this shift is given by Kollias et al., improving the accuracy of the relation between the corrected Doppler velocity and the particle fall velocities.

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therefore, it is used in cloud radars for the classification of ice crystals. Determination of ice crystals' habit by ground based cloud radars requires elevation scanning and is based on analysis of the angular changes of the polarimetric variables. Evaluation of SLDR with in-situ observations showed the possibility to discriminate between rounded graupel, dendrite crystals, and aggregated ice particles.

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value around zero indicates a symmetric spectrum. In this way, the shape of a Doppler gives information on changes of cloud microphysics or of dynamical changes within the measured volume. The higher the elevation of the radar is, the higher are the dynamical influences on this parameter. Because wind shears lead to a broadening of the Doppler spectrum width, they can lead to rapid changes in

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be bi- or multiple-modal spectra. This means that the measured volume contains more than one hydrometeor population, which leads to two or more modes in the Doppler spectrum because of the different terminal velocities. A rapid change in Doppler width in combination with the mean Doppler velocity can also be used to separate two hydrometeor population.

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rectangular shaped waveguides having a vertical axis of symmetry shows that by setting appropriate dimensions of the waveguide, the resulting electric field is propagating parallel to the interior space of the waveguide in the vertical direction, having a y sinusoidal in time component (transverse wave).

164:, while shorter wavelengths are more sensitive to smaller particles. Accordingly, radar signals are less attenuated in Ka-band than in W-band, while W-band radars are able to detect smaller particles. Even though, the cloud radar beams are much less attenuated by cloud or precipitation particles than the 3604:

Some cloud radars operate in the SLDR-mode, that is a modification of traditional LDR-mode. In this mode the antenna system of the radar is rotated by 45°, i.e. the transmitted signal has +45° or -45° polarization. In contrast to LDR-mode, SLDR-mode is less sensitive to the particles orientation and,

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Since the air motion in the atmosphere affects the Doppler width, this parameter provides information about turbulence within the measured volume. Up- and downdrafts slow down the terminal fall velocities and can decrease or increase the Doppler width. If the measurements are not done pointing to the

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This parameter relates the location of the spectrum peak in respect to the mean spectrum value. Therefore, a positive skewness value indicates that the peak is located to the left with respect to the mean. A negative skewed spectrum has its peak on the right side with respect to the spectrum mean. A

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The Doppler width, or Doppler spectrum width, is the standard deviation of the spectrum. Accordingly, small values stand for narrow spectra, while higher spectrum width corresponds to a bigger spreading of the hydrometeors over the velocity domain (frequency domain). Reasons for a higher width could

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Usually numerous targets are present in the sample volume of the radar. Each of the individual targets produces a frequency shift according to its radial velocity. Measuring the returned power in any interval of the frequency shift allows the detection of the Doppler spectrum. This is illustrated in

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Pulsed Radar systems are considered active instruments because they transmit in the atmosphere an electromagnetic wave and receive the signal reflected back from the atmosphere. In such radars, the antenna sends out the electromagnetic wave, and then collects the returned signal. Radars are composed

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Outside of these networks, some research sites are also operating cloud radars. For example, at the Chilbolton Observatory (UK), two mm-wavelength radars are operating continuously at 3.2 and 9 mm for the study of insects migrations, while a 35 GHz cloud radar is operating in Cabauw (the

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If the radar measurements are done vertically, the skewness of the Doppler spectrum gives information about measured cloud microphysics. The horizontal wind within the measured volumes cause only a shift of the whole spectrum within the Doppler domain. This means that the spectrum is shifted along

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types (cloud droplets, drizzle, rain drops, ice particles, snow, etc.) and non-hydrometeorological targets. All these targets have different vertical velocities and shapes, and therefore the Doppler spectra and LDR can be used to distinguish between targets. In the figure below, an example of the

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and airborne cloud radars. These techniques enable advanced clutter filtering, discrimination between meteorological and non-meteorological targets, and classification of atmospheric scatterers. Another potential of polarimetric measurements of cloud radars is the estimation of ice crystals habit

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Given the mean Doppler velocity (mean frequency of the power spectrum) of the measured volume along the line of sight – the radial velocity. For vertical measurements, the Doppler velocities is the sum of terminal velocity of particles, caused by gravity force, and air motions within the measured

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As already mentioned, a weather signal is a composite of echoes coming from a very large number of hydrometeors. Such echoes are received continuously at the radar antenna after a delay equal to the time taken by the wave to reach the target and come back to the radar. Since individual echoes are

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and is zero outside the pulse envelope, as shown in figure 3 on page 10 of. This EM wave is sent to the atmosphere: every pulse is scattered by a volume of air filled with hydrometeors and comes back to the radar. The antenna collects the returned signal, which is then filtered to remove the high

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The electromagnetic wave sent in the atmosphere is an EM wave of the form shown in figure on page 10 of. Such wave is generated by an oscillator in the transmitter unit and then transferred through wave guides to the antenna, which radiates it in the atmosphere. The theory of propagating waves in

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Most of the existing pulse cloud radars operate in the LDR-mode. In this mode, a radar transmits a horizontally polarized radiation and receives horizontal and vertical components of the scattered radiation in co-polarized and cross-polarized channels, respectively. The ratio of the power in the

3554:<3 then it is called platykurtic, or platykurtotic. The shape of such a spectrum (in some cases) may have a lower, wider peak around the mean and thinner tails, but it can also be infinitely peaked, so kurtosis is not a good measure of "peakedness." Examples of such shapes can be found in the 5766:

Bouniol, Dominique; Protat, Alain; Delanoë, Julien; Pelon, Jacques; Piriou, Jean-Marcel; Bouyssel, François; Tompkins, Adrian M.; Wilson, Damian R.; Morille, Yohann; Haeffelin, Martial; O’Connor, Ewan J.; Hogan, Robin J.; Illingworth, Anthony J.; Donovan, David P.; Baltink, Henk-Klein (2010).

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CDR-mode cloud radars transmit a circularly polarized wave and receive co-polarized and cross-polarized components. The output polarimetric variable is the so-called circular depolarization ratio (CDR), and it is calculated as the ratio of cross-polarized power over the co-polarized power. In

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is >3, then the spectrum is called leptokurtic, or leptokurtotic. It can be assumed that the Doppler spectrum is dominated by one single particle population that leads to a strong and narrow peak, which in some (but not all) cases is indicated by high kurtosis. If the spectrum has

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zenith, the horizontal wind component influences the width as well. The knowledge of the actual wind components in the atmosphere can be used to correct the Doppler spectrum, so that the retrieved microphysical parameters can be improved and the uncertainties decreased.

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methods are considered to be a powerful tool in the remote sensing of the atmosphere, and particularly in radar observations of clouds and precipitation. Polarimetric techniques have been well developed for operational use in weather radar networks such as American

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Cloud radars are used nowadays to determine cloud boundaries (e.g. cloud bases and tops) and to estimate clouds microphysical properties, such as particle size and mass content, which aids in understanding how clouds reflect, absorb and transform

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Polarization-agile cloud radars use pulse-to-pulse switching between horizontal and vertical polarization state of the transmitted wave. In addition to LDR, such systems are able to measure differential reflectivity

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defines the range of the scatterers that contribute mostly to the sample of the signal. The number of distinct resolution volumes in space from which the radar collects information is equal to the number of samples

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system in Tito Scalo, Potenza (Italy) on 2 December 2014: (a) equivalent reflectivity, (b) Linear Depolarization Ratio, (c) Doppler velocity, where negative values indicate movement towards the radar, and (d) peak

2612: 145:). Usually they operate pointing to the zenith, but an increasing number of them have nowadays scanning units, that allow to retrieve additional information such as volume information when performing various 3066:

The expressions to calculate the Kurtosis and the Skewness are coming out of mathematical statistics several formulations are used. Some of them can be found in the quoted literature in Kurtosis section.

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ranges from a few meters for cloud radars using frequency modulation of the transmitted signal (e.g. 4 m for the Frequency-Modulated Continuous-Wave (FMCW) 94 GHz cloud radar operating at

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de Boer, Gijs; Eloranta, Edwin W.; Shupe, Matthew D. (2009). "Arctic Mixed-Phase Stratiform Cloud Properties from Multiple Years of Surface-Based Measurements at Two High-Latitude Locations".

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As radar transmits coherent pulses with a certain pulse repetition frequency (PRF), the doppler processing technique is applied. A Power spectrum can be calculated from a sequence of

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is the amplitude of the wave which depends on the power delivered to the antenna, on its characteristics and it is affected by the power losses in the waveguides. The function

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Shupe, Matthew D.; Daniel, John S.; De Boer, Gijs; Eloranta, Edwin W.; Kollias, Pavlos; Long, Charles N.; Luke, Edward P.; Turner, David D.; Verlinde, Johannes (2008).

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represents the shift in phase of the scattered wave in the direction of the radar due to the relative radial velocity of the target with respect to the radar, while

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The melting layer can be identified by an enhancement of the LDR, which is caused by irregular ice particles coated by liquid water during the phase transition.

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satellite since 2006. The first spaceborne CPR with Doppler capability will be launched in March 2023 aboard the Earth Clouds, Aerosols and Radiation Explorer (

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The scattered electric field collected by the antenna is a composite of discrete echoes from all the scatterers contained in the volume and can be written as:

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analysis started quite recently, so there are still few scientific publications dealing with this parameter. An example can be found in Kollias et al., where

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Even though most cloud radar systems are ground-based, they can also be airborne and space-based. Examples of airborne systems are cloud radars installed on

5890:"Evaluation of a 45° Slant Quasi-Linear Radar Polarization State for Distinguishing Drizzle Droplets, Pristine Ice Crystals, and Less Regular Ice Particles" 6296: 2706: 3641:

comparison with LDR, CDR is not affected by particles aligned in polarization plane, e.g. insects or ice crystals in electrified atmospheric conditions.

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is maximum. These frequencies correspond to wavelengths around 8 and 3 mm. Millimeter cloud radars have a high temporal and range resolution:

184:. Furthermore, cloud radars are being used for entomology studies for more than 40 years, since Ka and W-band radars detect almost exclusively 3794:

is in the market. Nowadays, there are eleven systems monitoring the cloud properties continuously in different sites, most of them in Europe.

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if the Doppler spectrum is dominated by small hydrometeors (slower than the mean) or bigger particles (faster than the mean Doppler velocity)

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of different hardware parts, each of which contains different elements. The figure on page 9 in Clothiaux et al. 1996 is showing such units.

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the Figure on the right, where a sketch of the Doppler spectrum is shown. The frequency is already converted into velocity in the x axis.

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Shupe, M. D.; Kollias, P.; Matrosov, S. Y.; Schneider, T. L. (2004). "Deriving mixed-phase cloud properties from doppler radar spectra".

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Regarding the different cloud radars operating wavelengths, it must be taken into account that longer wavelengths are less attenuated by

2521: 4974:"Objective determination of cloud heights and radar reflectivities using a combination of active remote sensors at the arm cart sites" 4815: 4521: 4472: 3752: 3312:

the Doppler velocity axis but it did not influence the broadening of the spectra. So the changes in skewness give information about:

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The main purpose of these radars is the investigation of cloud properties and evolution. They typically operate at 35 GHz in the

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Such spectra is the distribution of radial velocities of the targets in the volume analyzed weighted with the power of the signal.

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A number of different polarimetric configurations were evaluated in theoretical and experimental studies and are explained below.

982:{\displaystyle E_{r}(t)=\sum _{m=0}^{N_{s}}A_{r,m}e^{i({2k_{c}r_{m}-(\omega _{c}-\omega _{d,m})t+\phi _{s,m}+\phi _{t}})}U(t-r/c)} 3308:

as well. To be able to relate the change in skewness of the Doppler spectrum, the Doppler width should be cross-checked as well.

4178: 220: 5371:"Cloud radar doppler spectra in drizzling stratiform clouds: 2. observations and microphysical modeling of drizzle evolution" 3104:

parameter of the Doppler spectrum describes the asymmetry of the spectrum with respect to a symmetric Gaussian distribution.

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Mean Doppler velocity can be seen as the mean frequency of a power spectrum (Doppler velocity) of the backscattered power.

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Ground-based remote sensing of cloud properties using millimeter-wave radar. In: Radiation and Water in the Climate System

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Pazmany, A.; McIntosh, R.; Kelly, R.; Vali, G. (1994). "An airborne 95 GHz dual-polarized radar for cloud studies".

727:, and 0 elsewhere. Therefore, such electromagnetic (EM) field is oscillating sinusoidally in time within the pulse width 3799: 3278:{\displaystyle Sk={\frac {{\frac {1}{Z}}\int _{v_{min}}^{v_{max}}(v_{d}-V)^{3}|S(v_{d})|^{2}~\mathrm {d} v_{d}}{W^{3}}}} 470:{\displaystyle E_{i}(r,\theta ,\phi ,t)={\frac {A_{i}(\theta ,\phi )e^{i\phi t}}{r}}e^{i(k_{c}r-\omega _{c}t)}U(t-2r/c)} 5641:"Observations of ice crystal habits with a scanning polarimetric wband radar at slant linear depolarization ratio mode" 3509:{\displaystyle K={\frac {{\frac {1}{Z}}\int _{v_{min}}^{v_{max}}(v_{d}-V)^{4}|S(v_{d})|^{2}~\mathrm {d} v_{d}}{W^{4}}}} 3802:

models, assimilates their data, as well as data acquired by other instruments in the various sites with this purpose.

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of the Doppler spectrum also relates to its curve. It describes the tails of the spectrum curve relative to Gaussian.

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Therefore, after such sampling of the received signal, a time serie of I/Q signals is associated to every range gate.

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impossible to be resolved individually, we sample the signal coming from the atmosphere at given discrete time delays

5810:"Prospects for the measurement of ice cloud particle shape and orientation with elliptically polarized radar signals" 2173: 3670:

is shown, where using the information given by the different parameters, an identification of targets can be done:

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can be used not only for classification of ice particle habit but also for characterization of their orientations.

1554:), the so-called I and Q voltages are derived taking the real and imaginary part of the complex voltage given in ( 6039:

Galloway, J.; Pazmany, A.; Mead, J.; McIntosh, R. E.; Leon, D.; French, J.; Kelly, R.; Vali, G. (February 1997).

5503:"Cloud radar doppler spectra in drizzling stratiform clouds: 1. forward modeling and remote sensing applications" 3685: 1310:

that are collected by the radar between any two radar pulses. The expression of the sampled received voltage is:

199:(High Altitude and Long Range Research Aircraft) and Wyoming KingAir Research Aircraft. An example of spaceborne 6106: 6081: 6065: 6040: 5989: 5964: 5873: 5848: 5441: 4998: 4973: 2287: 6223: 4952: 2992: 1188:

are respectively the phase shift upon scattering and the transmitter phase, which can be assumed constants (

6314: 6082:"Interpretation of polarimetric radar covariance matrix for meteorological scatterers: Theoretical analysis" 5323:

Görsdorf, U.; Lehmann, V.; Bauer-Pfundstein, M.; Peters, G.; Vavriv, D.; Vinogradov, V.; Volkov, V. (2015).

150: 149:(RHI) scans at different angles and at a relatively high speed, and vertical wind profiles, when performing 1780: 1568: 5738: 5427: 146: 134: 5134: 1993: 256: 177: 5583:

Mech, M.; Orlandi, E.; Crewell, S.; Ament, F.; Hirsch, L.; Hagen, M.; Peters, G.; Stevens, B. (2014).

2969:{\displaystyle W={\sqrt {{\frac {1}{Z}}\int \limits _{v_{min}}^{v_{max}}(v_{d}-V)^{2}S(v_{d})dv_{d}}}} 1477:{\displaystyle V(\tau _{s})=\sum _{m=0}^{N_{g}}A_{r,m}e^{i(2k_{c}r_{m}-(\omega _{d,m})t+\phi _{s,m})}} 1221:

can depend on time for meteorological targets like vibrating water drops and tumbling ice particles).

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is used to interpret Doppler spectra and to understand the microphysical changes that it represents.

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components in the following way. In every range gate the FFT algorithm is applied to the serie of

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Matrosov, S. Y.; Mace, G. G.; Merchand, R.; Shupe, M. D.; Hallar, A. G.; McCubbin, I. B. (2012).

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Clothiaux, E.; Ackerman, T.; Mace, G.; Moran, K.; Marchand, R.; Miller, M.; Martner, B. (2000).

3755:'s atmospheric radiation measurement program. The radars operate continuously at these sites in 141:, being able to measure the particles irregularity by means of the linear depolarization ratio ( 2423: 1503: 1258: 1228: 1164: 664: 5849:"Cirrus Cloud Studies with Elliptically Polarized Ka-band Radar Signals: A Suggested Approach" 5250: 5218: 5143: 3538:

can give information about the spectrum tail weight, helping to describe the spectrum better.

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range from 1 mm to 1.11 cm, about ten times shorter than those used in conventional

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Reinking, Roger F.; Matrosov, Sergey Y.; Kropfli, Robert A.; Bartram, Bruce W. (March 2002).

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if the minority of the hydrometeors is falling faster or slower as the mean Doppler velocity

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Ice clouds are characterized by relatively high LDR signals due to their irregular shapes.

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National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration discussion of millimeter-wave cloud radar

6286: 6123:"Using cloud radar polarization measurements to evaluate stratus cloud and insect echoes" 2390: 2357: 2097:

is the number of FFT points used in the FFT. The result of the FFT is a complex spectrum

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targets on warm cloudless days, and more recently are also used for the study of giant

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Insects produce high LDR values and are usually within the Convective Boundary Layer (

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Since the late 2000s, a meteorological 35.5 GHz Ka-band commercial cloud radar (

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with operating frequencies between 24 and 110 GHz (Table 1). Accordingly, their

6041:"Detection of Ice Hydrometeor Alignment Using an Airborne W-band Polarimetric Radar" 5298: 2812:{\displaystyle V={\frac {1}{Z}}\int \limits _{v_{min}}^{v_{max}}v_{d}S(v_{d})dv_{d}} 2465: 6287:

Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program discussion of millimeter-wave cloud radar

5071: 3695: 3675: 3046: 3023: 3016:, depicted by the arrows, and the number of modes of the droplet size distribution. 2999: 2669: 2496: 138: 3709:

can be detected by slightly higher peak width values, in accordance to the higher

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far from the antenna is, adopting complex notation in spherical coordinate system

5457:"Arctic cloud microphysics retrievals from surface-based remote sensors at sheba" 5214: 200: 5965:"Theoretical Study of Radar Polarization Parameters Obtained from Cirrus Clouds" 3658: 3654: 3577: 3325:

changes over height or time can be related to a change in the cloud microphysics

129:), to several meters for magnetron based cloud radars (e.g. from 15 to 60 m for 5914: 5889: 5665: 5640: 5349: 5324: 3735: 122: 6188: 6163: 5568: 5543: 3747:

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) and Prosensing Inc. designed the

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is called the 0-moment of the Doppler spectrum, which equals the reflectivity

44: 5094:"A study on the use of radar and lidar for characterizing ultragiant aerosol" 5063: 4928: 4915: 4879: 4866: 4830: 4817: 4781: 4768: 4732: 4719: 4683: 4670: 4634: 4621: 4585: 4572: 4536: 4523: 4487: 4474: 4438: 4425: 4389: 4376: 4340: 4327: 4291: 4278: 4242: 4229: 4193: 4180: 4144: 4131: 4095: 4082: 4046: 4033: 3997: 3984: 3948: 3935: 2996:

Sketch of the Doppler width. It shows the relation between the Doppler width

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EarthCARE The Earth Cloud, Aerosol and Radiation Profiling Satellite Mission

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systems). The maximum detection range is between 14 and 20 km and the

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Khandwalla, A.; Majurec, N.; Sekelsky, S.; Williams, C.; Gage, K. (2002).

6147: 6122: 5527: 5502: 5395: 5370: 3772: 3756: 3699: 3566: 3562: 3555: 3551: 3546: 3542: 3535: 3335: 3305: 3101: 6164:"Zenith/nadir pointing mm-wave radars: Linear or circular polarization?" 3776: 2165:

is the Doppler frequency. The power spectra is then easily estimated by

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is a modulating function which is 1 when its argument is between 0 and

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is the amplitude of the electric field scattered by the mth scatterer,

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The first moment of the Doppler spectrum is the mean Doppler velocity

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s operate at a frequency of 35 and 94 GHz, being designated as

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Bharadwaj, Nitin; Nelson, Dan; Lindenmaier, Iosif; Johnson, Karen.

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but not in the LDR, since the liquid droplets are almost spherical.

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carrier frequency, amplified and then downconverted and digitized.

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is adjustable and typically ranges from 1 to 10 seconds, while the

6252: 5037:"Volcanic cloud retrieval by ground-based microwave weather radar" 3716: 2991: 2286: 165: 40: 36: 20: 5168: 2607:{\displaystyle Z=\int \limits _{v_{min}}^{v_{max}}S(v_{d})dv_{d}} 137:

velocity resolution is of few cm/s. Most of the cloud radars are

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If a Doppler spectrum is exactly normally distributed, then its

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the shape of the size distribution of the measured hydrometeors

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Madonna, F.; Amodeo, A.; D'Amico, G.; Pappalardo, G. (2013).

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and European OPERA, and, currently, are being implemented in

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The expression of the electric field radiated at a distance

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10.1175/1520-0426(2001)018<0315:ioprcm>2.0.co;2

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10.1175/1520-0426(1997)014<0003:DOIHAU>2.0.CO;2

5990:

10.1175/1520-0469(1991)048<1062:TSORPP>2.0.CO;2

5874:

10.1175/1520-0426(1993)010<0684:CCSWEP>2.0.CO;2

5442:

10.1175/1520-0426(2004)021<0660:dmcpfd>2.0.co;2

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10.1175/1520-0450(2000)039<0645:ODOCHA>2.0.CO;2

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to monitor clouds overhead at various testing sites of the

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Kollias, P.; Rémillard, J.; Luke, E.; Szyrmer, W. (2011).

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Kollias, P.; Szyrmer, W.; Rémillard, J.; Luke, E. (2011).

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Marzano, F.; Barbieri, S.; Vulpiani, G.; Rose, W. (2006).

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values, high falling velocities and a broadening of the

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denote the minimum and the maximum velocities, at which

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Clothiaux, E .E.; Ackerman, T. P.; Babb, D. M. (1996).

6269: 6206: 3688:), where up- and downdrafts are observed continuously. 3049: 3026: 3002: 2672: 2636: 2499: 2468: 2426: 2393: 2360: 2333: 2297: 3349: 3115: 2843: 2709: 2524: 2327:

is represented as a function of the Doppler velocity

2176: 2151: 2103: 2076: 2049: 1996: 1783: 1571: 1533: 1506: 1321: 1289: 1261: 1231: 1194: 1167: 1134: 1098: 1071: 1044: 1011: 772: 733: 713: 667: 640: 613: 586: 566: 546: 526: 499: 302: 259: 239: 5542:Huuskonen, A.; Saltikoff, E.; Holleman, I. (2013). 5133:Eisinger, Michael; et al. (26 November 2018). 3787: 6168:IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 6006:IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 5277:; Sirmans, D. S. (1979). "Doppler weather radar". 5044:IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 3508: 3277: 3055: 3032: 3008: 2968: 2811: 2678: 2658: 2606: 2505: 2477: 2454: 2412: 2379: 2346: 2319: 2255: 2157: 2137: 2089: 2062: 2035: 1963: 1751: 1546: 1519: 1476: 1302: 1274: 1244: 1213: 1180: 1153: 1120: 1084: 1057: 1030: 981: 749: 719: 699: 653: 626: 599: 572: 552: 532: 512: 469: 283: 245: 5544:"The operational weather radar network in europe" 5455:Shupe, M. D.; Uttal, T.; Matrosov, S. Y. (2005). 2291:Sketch of a Doppler spectrum. The spectral power 28:Millimeter Cloud Radar (MMCR) operating at 35 GHz 5958: 5956: 5847:Matrosov, S. Y.; Kropfli, R. A. (October 1993). 5318: 5316: 5314: 5312: 5310: 5308: 5022:Proceedings of the 12th ARM Science Team Meeting 4847:Tropical Western Pacific-Manus, Papua New Guinea 3792:Institute for Radio Astronomy, Kharkov (Ukraine) 3534:Since the measure is dominated by the extremes, 180:. They are also intensively used to investigate 6298:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 5686:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 5634: 5632: 5630: 5496: 5494: 5492: 5364: 5362: 5360: 5200: 5198: 5196: 5194: 5192: 3674:Liquid water clouds produce a signature in the 2256:{\displaystyle S(k)=S_{compl}*S_{compl}^{*}(k)} 64:Table 1: Millimetre cloud radar operating bands 5936:"Instrument : Ka ARM Zenith Radar (KAZR)" 5773:Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology 3043:The second moment is called the Doppler width 6218: 6216: 6162:Galletti, M.; Huang, D.; Kollias, P. (2014). 6086:Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 6045:Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 5894:Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 5853:Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 5412:Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 5329:Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 2698:) of the Doppler spectrum can be calculated: 8: 5507:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 5375:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 5098:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 6201: 6199: 2493:From the Doppler spectrum the reflectivity 6264: 6262: 5929: 5927: 5925: 4798:Tropical Western Pacific-Darwin, Australia 4504:North Slope of Alaska, Barrow, Alaska, USA 4455:North Slope of Alaska, Barrow, Alaska, USA 215:Measuring with a radar: from IQ to spectra 6187: 6146: 6105: 6064: 5988: 5913: 5872: 5792: 5742: 5705: 5664: 5618: 5608: 5567: 5526: 5480: 5431: 5394: 5348: 5117: 4997: 3810:Table 2: Cloud radar systems involved in 3573:Polarimetric measurements in cloud radars 3498: 3487: 3478: 3469: 3464: 3454: 3439: 3433: 3417: 3396: 3391: 3378: 3373: 3359: 3356: 3348: 3267: 3256: 3247: 3238: 3233: 3223: 3208: 3202: 3186: 3165: 3160: 3147: 3142: 3128: 3125: 3114: 3048: 3025: 3001: 2958: 2942: 2926: 2910: 2889: 2884: 2871: 2866: 2852: 2850: 2842: 2803: 2787: 2771: 2753: 2748: 2735: 2730: 2716: 2708: 2671: 2647: 2635: 2598: 2582: 2558: 2553: 2540: 2535: 2523: 2498: 2467: 2437: 2425: 2398: 2392: 2365: 2359: 2338: 2332: 2308: 2296: 2238: 2221: 2196: 2175: 2150: 2108: 2102: 2081: 2075: 2054: 2048: 2027: 2011: 2001: 1995: 1941: 1916: 1900: 1890: 1876: 1860: 1848: 1843: 1832: 1807: 1794: 1782: 1729: 1704: 1688: 1678: 1664: 1648: 1636: 1631: 1620: 1595: 1582: 1570: 1538: 1532: 1511: 1505: 1457: 1432: 1416: 1406: 1392: 1376: 1364: 1359: 1348: 1332: 1320: 1294: 1288: 1266: 1260: 1236: 1230: 1199: 1193: 1172: 1166: 1139: 1133: 1103: 1097: 1076: 1070: 1049: 1043: 1016: 1010: 968: 941: 922: 897: 884: 868: 858: 850: 843: 827: 815: 810: 799: 777: 771: 738: 732: 712: 686: 666: 645: 639: 618: 612: 591: 585: 565: 545: 525: 504: 498: 456: 424: 408: 397: 375: 350: 343: 307: 301: 258: 238: 5247:Doppler Radar & Weather Observations 3832: 3734: 2513:can be calculated using the expression: 67: 4964: 6207:"METEK – Your Partner for Meteorology" 1065:is the position of the mth scatterer, 520:is the carrier frequency of the wave, 153:(PPI) at few degrees from the zenith. 16:Weather radar tuned to cloud detection 6121:Martner, B. E.; Moran, K. P. (2001). 1964:{\displaystyle Q(\tau _{s},T_{s})=Im} 1752:{\displaystyle I(\tau _{s},T_{s})=Re} 35:, also denominated cloud radars, are 7: 6300:paper on millimeter-wave cloud radar 4749:Southern Great Plains, Oklahoma, USA 4700:Southern Great Plains, Oklahoma, USA 3739:Cloud radar instruments involved in 3340: 3106: 2834: 2700: 2515: 2167: 1774: 1562: 1312: 763: 293: 5969:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 5723:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2630:The integral of the spectral power 5589:Atmospheric Measurement Techniques 3753:United States Department of Energy 3479: 3248: 580:is the distance from the antenna, 14: 5169:"EarthCARE ESA Validation Portal" 3623:). The combined analysis of LDR, 2036:{\displaystyle N_{f}I_{n}+iQ_{n}} 284:{\displaystyle (r;\theta ;\phi )} 6127:Journal of Geophysical Research 5682:"A Focus on Mixed-Phase Clouds" 3749:Scanning ARM Cloud Radar (SACR) 3649:As the cloud radars sample the 3616:) and correlation coefficient ( 221:Pulse-Doppler signal processing 5620:11858/00-001M-0000-0015-79F2-9 5461:Journal of Applied Meteorology 5209:. Springer. pp. 323–366. 3694:Rain is characterized by high 3545:equals 3.0. If in general the 3465: 3460: 3447: 3440: 3430: 3410: 3234: 3229: 3216: 3209: 3199: 3179: 2948: 2935: 2923: 2903: 2793: 2780: 2653: 2640: 2588: 2575: 2443: 2430: 2314: 2301: 2250: 2244: 2186: 2180: 2132: 2126: 1958: 1953: 1928: 1909: 1880: 1825: 1813: 1787: 1746: 1741: 1716: 1697: 1668: 1613: 1601: 1575: 1527:) and for every pulse cycle ( 1469: 1444: 1425: 1396: 1338: 1325: 1121:{\displaystyle \omega _{d,m}t} 976: 956: 948: 909: 877: 847: 789: 783: 694: 671: 464: 441: 433: 401: 368: 356: 337: 313: 278: 260: 1: 5940:ARM Climate Research Facility 5808:Matrosov, S. Y. (July 1991). 3657:signal produced by different 2686:. Further, the first moment ( 1092:is the carrier frequency and 5963:Matrosov, Sergey Y. (1991). 5215:10.1007/978-3-662-03289-3_13 3721:Measurements performed by a 3666:cloud radar measurements in 2138:{\displaystyle S_{compl}(k)} 627:{\displaystyle \lambda _{c}} 39:systems designed to monitor 33:Millimeter-wave cloud radars 2694: 2688: 2485:is the velocity resolution. 1556: 1214:{\displaystyle \phi _{s,m}} 1154:{\displaystyle \phi _{s,m}} 1085:{\displaystyle \omega _{c}} 513:{\displaystyle \omega _{c}} 201:Cloud Profiling Radar (CPR) 6331: 5915:10.1175/1520-0426-19.3.296 5666:10.1175/JTECH-D-11-00131.1 5350:10.1175/JTECH-D-14-00066.1 4831:12.4246000°S 130.8915972°E 4537:71.3232583°N 156.6157500°W 4488:71.3232583°N 156.6157500°W 3790:in collaboration with the 2455:{\textstyle S(v_{d})>0} 1560:): Their expressions are: 218: 109:and at 94 GHz in the 6189:10.1109/tgrs.2013.2243155 5645:J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol 5569:10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00216.1 4929:47.4211111°N 10.9852778°E 4880:2.0610111°S 147.4253972°E 4684:67.4159972°N 26.5889722°E 4635:40.6044250°N 15.7200083°E 4439:48.1509306°N 11.5799528°E 4341:51.3522750°N 12.4341389°E 4047:41.4155056°N 81.8617917°W 3763:and the tropical western 2692:) and the second moment ( 1520:{\displaystyle \tau _{s}} 1275:{\displaystyle \tau _{s}} 1245:{\displaystyle \tau _{s}} 1181:{\displaystyle \phi _{t}} 700:{\displaystyle U(t-2r/c)} 634:is the wavelength, while 5064:10.1109/tgrs.2006.879116 4953:Extremely high frequency 4836:-12.4246000; 130.8915972 4542:71.3232583; -156.6157500 4493:71.3232583; -156.6157500 4390:47.5865250°N 9.8895889°E 4292:49.0119194°N 8.4169806°E 4243:50.9052833°N 6.4048278°E 4145:53.5656667°N 9.9750750°E 4096:53.2785528°N 9.0605167°W 3998:51.1445917°N 1.4387778°W 3949:51.1445917°N 1.4387778°W 113:, where the atmospheric 6270:"ARM Research Facility" 6080:Ryzhkov, A. V. (2001). 5610:10.5194/amt-7-4539-2014 5548:Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc 5291:10.1109/PROC.1979.11511 5279:Proceedings of the IEEE 5104:(17): 10, 056–10, 071. 4885:-2.0610111; 147.4253972 4782:36.605000°N 97.485000°W 4733:36.605000°N 97.485000°W 4052:41.4155056; -81.8617917 3822:and NOAA projects": --> 1500:For every range gate ( 1031:{\displaystyle A_{r,m}} 560:is the speed of light, 151:plan position indicator 5794:10.1175/2010JAMC2333.1 5707:10.1175/2008BAMS2378.1 4934:47.4211111; 10.9852778 4689:67.4159972; 26.5889722 4640:40.6044250; 15.7200083 4586:48.713000°N 2.209000°E 4444:48.1509306; 11.5799528 4346:51.3522750; 12.4341389 4101:53.2785528; -9.0605167 4003:51.1445917; -1.4387778 3954:51.1445917; -1.4387778 3744: 3727: 3705:Liquid layers within 3510: 3279: 3057: 3034: 3017: 3010: 2970: 2902: 2813: 2766: 2680: 2660: 2608: 2571: 2507: 2486: 2479: 2456: 2414: 2381: 2348: 2321: 2257: 2159: 2139: 2091: 2064: 2037: 1965: 1855: 1753: 1643: 1548: 1521: 1478: 1371: 1304: 1276: 1246: 1215: 1182: 1155: 1122: 1086: 1059: 1032: 983: 822: 751: 750:{\displaystyle T_{pw}} 721: 701: 655: 628: 607:is the wavenumber and 601: 574: 554: 534: 514: 471: 285: 247: 147:Range Height Indicator 29: 5753:10.1175/2009JAS3029.1 4787:36.605000; -97.485000 4738:36.605000; -97.485000 4395:47.5865250; 9.8895889 4297:49.0119194; 8.4169806 4248:50.9052833; 6.4048278 4194:63.74861°N 68.51972°W 4150:53.5656667; 9.9750750 3896:ARM Mobile Facility 2 3876:ARM Mobile Facility 1 3856:ARM Mobile Facility 1 3738: 3720: 3511: 3280: 3058: 3035: 3011: 2995: 2971: 2862: 2814: 2726: 2681: 2661: 2659:{\textstyle S(v_{d})} 2609: 2531: 2508: 2480: 2457: 2415: 2382: 2349: 2322: 2320:{\textstyle S(v_{d})} 2290: 2258: 2160: 2140: 2092: 2090:{\displaystyle N_{f}} 2065: 2063:{\displaystyle N_{f}} 2038: 1966: 1828: 1754: 1616: 1549: 1547:{\displaystyle T_{s}} 1522: 1479: 1344: 1305: 1303:{\displaystyle N_{g}} 1277: 1247: 1216: 1183: 1156: 1123: 1087: 1060: 1058:{\displaystyle r_{m}} 1033: 984: 795: 752: 722: 720:{\displaystyle \tau } 702: 656: 654:{\displaystyle A_{i}} 629: 602: 600:{\displaystyle k_{c}} 575: 555: 535: 515: 472: 286: 248: 24: 6148:10.1029/2000jd900623 5528:10.1029/2010JD015237 5396:10.1029/2010JD015238 4014:Cleveland, Ohio, USA 3347: 3113: 3047: 3024: 3000: 2841: 2707: 2670: 2634: 2522: 2497: 2466: 2424: 2413:{\textstyle v_{max}} 2391: 2380:{\textstyle v_{min}} 2358: 2331: 2295: 2174: 2149: 2101: 2074: 2047: 1994: 1781: 1569: 1531: 1504: 1319: 1287: 1259: 1229: 1192: 1165: 1132: 1096: 1069: 1042: 1009: 770: 731: 711: 665: 638: 611: 584: 564: 544: 524: 497: 300: 257: 237: 203:is operating in the 176:passing through the 6253:"Cesar Observatory" 6180:2014ITGRS..52..628G 6139:2001JGR...106.4891M 6098:2001JAtOT..18..315R 6057:1997JAtOT..14....3G 6018:1994ITGRS..32..731P 5981:1991JAtS...48.1062M 5906:2002JAtOT..19..296R 5865:1993JAtOT..10..684M 5826:1991RaSc...26..847M 5785:2010JApMC..49.1971B 5735:2009JAtS...66.2874D 5698:2008BAMS...89.1549S 5657:2012JAtOT..29..989M 5601:2014AMT.....7.4539M 5560:2014BAMS...95..897H 5519:2011JGRD..11613201K 5473:2005JApMe..44.1544S 5424:2004JAtOT..21..660S 5387:2011JGRD..11613203K 5341:2015JAtOT..32..675G 5110:2013JGRD..11810056M 5056:2006ITGRS..44.3235M 4990:2000JApMe..39..645C 4925: / 4876: / 4827: / 4778: / 4729: / 4680: / 4631: / 4591:48.713000; 2.209000 4582: / 4533: / 4484: / 4435: / 4386: / 4357:Lindenberg, Germany 4337: / 4288: / 4239: / 4199:63.74861; -68.51972 4190: / 4141: / 4092: / 4043: / 3994: / 3945: / 3731:Cloud radar systems 3653:, they measure the 3645:Measurement example 3409: 3178: 2283:The Doppler spectra 2243: 119:temporal resolution 5249:. Academic Press. 5119:10.1002/jgrd.50789 4896:Zugspitze, Germany 4651:Sodankyla, Finland 3745: 3728: 3707:mixed-phase clouds 3561:The Doppler radar 3506: 3369: 3275: 3138: 3053: 3030: 3018: 3006: 2966: 2809: 2676: 2656: 2604: 2503: 2487: 2475: 2452: 2410: 2377: 2347:{\textstyle v_{d}} 2344: 2317: 2253: 2217: 2155: 2135: 2087: 2070:IQ signals, where 2060: 2033: 1961: 1749: 1544: 1517: 1474: 1300: 1272: 1242: 1211: 1178: 1151: 1118: 1082: 1055: 1028: 979: 747: 717: 697: 651: 624: 597: 570: 550: 530: 510: 467: 281: 243: 77:Wavelength range 30: 6133:(D5): 4891–4897. 6026:10.1109/36.298002 5834:10.1029/91RS00965 5692:(10): 1549–1562. 5595:(12): 4539–4553. 5482:10.1175/JAM2297.1 5467:(10): 1544–1562. 5285:(11): 1522–1553. 5256:978-0-12-221420-2 5224:978-3-662-03289-3 5144:Salzburg, Austria 5050:(11): 3235–3246. 4978:J. Appl. Meteorol 4944: 4943: 4553:Palaiseau, France 4259:Kalsruhe, Germany 3743:and NOAA projects 3530: 3529: 3504: 3477: 3367: 3299: 3298: 3273: 3246: 3136: 2990: 2989: 2964: 2860: 2833: 2832: 2724: 2628: 2627: 2354:. The parameters 2277: 2276: 2158:{\displaystyle k} 1985: 1984: 1773: 1772: 1498: 1497: 1003: 1002: 573:{\displaystyle r} 553:{\displaystyle c} 533:{\displaystyle t} 491: 490: 391: 246:{\displaystyle r} 103: 102: 6322: 6274: 6273: 6266: 6257: 6256: 6249: 6240: 6239: 6237: 6235: 6230:on 14 April 2015 6226:. Archived from 6220: 6211: 6210: 6203: 6194: 6193: 6191: 6159: 6153: 6152: 6150: 6118: 6112: 6111: 6109: 6077: 6071: 6070: 6068: 6036: 6030: 6029: 6001: 5995: 5994: 5992: 5975:(8): 1062–1070. 5960: 5951: 5950: 5948: 5946: 5931: 5920: 5919: 5917: 5885: 5879: 5878: 5876: 5844: 5838: 5837: 5805: 5799: 5798: 5796: 5779:(9): 1971–1991. 5763: 5757: 5756: 5746: 5729:(9): 2874–2887. 5718: 5712: 5711: 5709: 5677: 5671: 5670: 5668: 5636: 5625: 5624: 5622: 5612: 5580: 5574: 5573: 5571: 5539: 5533: 5532: 5530: 5498: 5487: 5486: 5484: 5452: 5446: 5445: 5435: 5407: 5401: 5400: 5398: 5366: 5355: 5354: 5352: 5320: 5303: 5302: 5267: 5261: 5260: 5235: 5229: 5228: 5202: 5187: 5186: 5184: 5182: 5165: 5159: 5158: 5156: 5154: 5141: 5130: 5124: 5123: 5121: 5089: 5083: 5082: 5081:on 14 July 2012. 5080: 5074:. Archived from 5041: 5032: 5026: 5025: 5019: 5010: 5004: 5003: 5001: 4969: 4940: 4939: 4937: 4936: 4935: 4930: 4926: 4923: 4922: 4921: 4918: 4891: 4890: 4888: 4887: 4886: 4881: 4877: 4874: 4873: 4872: 4869: 4842: 4841: 4839: 4838: 4837: 4832: 4828: 4825: 4824: 4823: 4820: 4793: 4792: 4790: 4789: 4788: 4783: 4779: 4776: 4775: 4774: 4771: 4744: 4743: 4741: 4740: 4739: 4734: 4730: 4727: 4726: 4725: 4722: 4695: 4694: 4692: 4691: 4690: 4685: 4681: 4678: 4677: 4676: 4673: 4646: 4645: 4643: 4642: 4641: 4636: 4632: 4629: 4628: 4627: 4624: 4597: 4596: 4594: 4593: 4592: 4587: 4583: 4580: 4579: 4578: 4575: 4548: 4547: 4545: 4544: 4543: 4538: 4534: 4531: 4530: 4529: 4526: 4499: 4498: 4496: 4495: 4494: 4489: 4485: 4482: 4481: 4480: 4477: 4450: 4449: 4447: 4446: 4445: 4440: 4436: 4433: 4432: 4431: 4428: 4401: 4400: 4398: 4397: 4396: 4391: 4387: 4384: 4383: 4382: 4379: 4352: 4351: 4349: 4348: 4347: 4342: 4338: 4335: 4334: 4333: 4330: 4308:Leipzig, Germany 4303: 4302: 4300: 4299: 4298: 4293: 4289: 4286: 4285: 4284: 4281: 4254: 4253: 4251: 4250: 4249: 4244: 4240: 4237: 4236: 4235: 4232: 4210:Juelich, Germany 4205: 4204: 4202: 4201: 4200: 4195: 4191: 4188: 4187: 4186: 4183: 4156: 4155: 4153: 4152: 4151: 4146: 4142: 4139: 4138: 4137: 4134: 4112:Hamburg, Germany 4107: 4106: 4104: 4103: 4102: 4097: 4093: 4090: 4089: 4088: 4085: 4058: 4057: 4055: 4054: 4053: 4048: 4044: 4041: 4040: 4039: 4036: 4009: 4008: 4006: 4005: 4004: 3999: 3995: 3992: 3991: 3990: 3987: 3960: 3959: 3957: 3956: 3955: 3950: 3946: 3943: 3942: 3941: 3938: 3833: 3830: 3829: 3825: 3524: 3515: 3513: 3512: 3507: 3505: 3503: 3502: 3493: 3492: 3491: 3482: 3475: 3474: 3473: 3468: 3459: 3458: 3443: 3438: 3437: 3422: 3421: 3408: 3407: 3406: 3390: 3389: 3388: 3368: 3360: 3357: 3341: 3293: 3284: 3282: 3281: 3276: 3274: 3272: 3271: 3262: 3261: 3260: 3251: 3244: 3243: 3242: 3237: 3228: 3227: 3212: 3207: 3206: 3191: 3190: 3177: 3176: 3175: 3159: 3158: 3157: 3137: 3129: 3126: 3107: 3071:Doppler velocity 3062: 3060: 3059: 3054: 3039: 3037: 3036: 3031: 3015: 3013: 3012: 3007: 2984: 2975: 2973: 2972: 2967: 2965: 2963: 2962: 2947: 2946: 2931: 2930: 2915: 2914: 2901: 2900: 2899: 2883: 2882: 2881: 2861: 2853: 2851: 2835: 2827: 2818: 2816: 2815: 2810: 2808: 2807: 2792: 2791: 2776: 2775: 2765: 2764: 2763: 2747: 2746: 2745: 2725: 2717: 2701: 2685: 2683: 2682: 2677: 2665: 2663: 2662: 2657: 2652: 2651: 2622: 2613: 2611: 2610: 2605: 2603: 2602: 2587: 2586: 2570: 2569: 2568: 2552: 2551: 2550: 2516: 2512: 2510: 2509: 2504: 2484: 2482: 2481: 2476: 2461: 2459: 2458: 2453: 2442: 2441: 2419: 2417: 2416: 2411: 2409: 2408: 2386: 2384: 2383: 2378: 2376: 2375: 2353: 2351: 2350: 2345: 2343: 2342: 2326: 2324: 2323: 2318: 2313: 2312: 2271: 2262: 2260: 2259: 2254: 2242: 2237: 2213: 2212: 2168: 2164: 2162: 2161: 2156: 2144: 2142: 2141: 2136: 2125: 2124: 2096: 2094: 2093: 2088: 2086: 2085: 2069: 2067: 2066: 2061: 2059: 2058: 2042: 2040: 2039: 2034: 2032: 2031: 2016: 2015: 2006: 2005: 1979: 1970: 1968: 1967: 1962: 1957: 1956: 1952: 1951: 1927: 1926: 1905: 1904: 1895: 1894: 1871: 1870: 1854: 1853: 1852: 1842: 1812: 1811: 1799: 1798: 1775: 1767: 1758: 1756: 1755: 1750: 1745: 1744: 1740: 1739: 1715: 1714: 1693: 1692: 1683: 1682: 1659: 1658: 1642: 1641: 1640: 1630: 1600: 1599: 1587: 1586: 1563: 1553: 1551: 1550: 1545: 1543: 1542: 1526: 1524: 1523: 1518: 1516: 1515: 1492: 1483: 1481: 1480: 1475: 1473: 1472: 1468: 1467: 1443: 1442: 1421: 1420: 1411: 1410: 1387: 1386: 1370: 1369: 1368: 1358: 1337: 1336: 1313: 1309: 1307: 1306: 1301: 1299: 1298: 1281: 1279: 1278: 1273: 1271: 1270: 1251: 1249: 1248: 1243: 1241: 1240: 1220: 1218: 1217: 1212: 1210: 1209: 1187: 1185: 1184: 1179: 1177: 1176: 1160: 1158: 1157: 1152: 1150: 1149: 1127: 1125: 1124: 1119: 1114: 1113: 1091: 1089: 1088: 1083: 1081: 1080: 1064: 1062: 1061: 1056: 1054: 1053: 1037: 1035: 1034: 1029: 1027: 1026: 997: 988: 986: 985: 980: 972: 952: 951: 947: 946: 945: 933: 932: 908: 907: 889: 888: 873: 872: 863: 862: 838: 837: 821: 820: 819: 809: 782: 781: 764: 756: 754: 753: 748: 746: 745: 726: 724: 723: 718: 706: 704: 703: 698: 690: 660: 658: 657: 652: 650: 649: 633: 631: 630: 625: 623: 622: 606: 604: 603: 598: 596: 595: 579: 577: 576: 571: 559: 557: 556: 551: 539: 537: 536: 531: 519: 517: 516: 511: 509: 508: 485: 476: 474: 473: 468: 460: 437: 436: 429: 428: 413: 412: 392: 387: 386: 385: 355: 354: 344: 312: 311: 294: 290: 288: 287: 282: 252: 250: 249: 244: 123:range resolution 74:Frequency range 68: 6330: 6329: 6325: 6324: 6323: 6321: 6320: 6319: 6305: 6304: 6283: 6278: 6277: 6268: 6267: 6260: 6251: 6250: 6243: 6233: 6231: 6224:"Home Redirect" 6222: 6221: 6214: 6205: 6204: 6197: 6161: 6160: 6156: 6120: 6119: 6115: 6079: 6078: 6074: 6038: 6037: 6033: 6003: 6002: 5998: 5962: 5961: 5954: 5944: 5942: 5933: 5932: 5923: 5887: 5886: 5882: 5846: 5845: 5841: 5807: 5806: 5802: 5765: 5764: 5760: 5744:10.1.1.454.2210 5720: 5719: 5715: 5679: 5678: 5674: 5651:(8): 989–1008. 5638: 5637: 5628: 5582: 5581: 5577: 5541: 5540: 5536: 5513:(D13): D13201. 5500: 5499: 5490: 5454: 5453: 5449: 5433:10.1.1.595.6468 5409: 5408: 5404: 5368: 5367: 5358: 5322: 5321: 5306: 5269: 5268: 5264: 5257: 5237: 5236: 5232: 5225: 5204: 5203: 5190: 5180: 5178: 5177:. 26 March 2021 5167: 5166: 5162: 5152: 5150: 5139: 5132: 5131: 5127: 5091: 5090: 5086: 5078: 5039: 5034: 5033: 5029: 5017: 5012: 5011: 5007: 4971: 4970: 4966: 4961: 4949: 4933: 4931: 4927: 4924: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4912: 4911: 4884: 4882: 4878: 4875: 4870: 4867: 4865: 4863: 4862: 4835: 4833: 4829: 4826: 4821: 4818: 4816: 4814: 4813: 4786: 4784: 4780: 4777: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4765: 4764: 4737: 4735: 4731: 4728: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4716: 4715: 4688: 4686: 4682: 4679: 4674: 4671: 4669: 4667: 4666: 4639: 4637: 4633: 4630: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4618: 4617: 4590: 4588: 4584: 4581: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4569: 4568: 4541: 4539: 4535: 4532: 4527: 4524: 4522: 4520: 4519: 4492: 4490: 4486: 4483: 4478: 4475: 4473: 4471: 4470: 4443: 4441: 4437: 4434: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4422: 4421: 4406:Munich, Germany 4394: 4392: 4388: 4385: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4373: 4372: 4345: 4343: 4339: 4336: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4324: 4323: 4296: 4294: 4290: 4287: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4275: 4274: 4247: 4245: 4241: 4238: 4233: 4230: 4228: 4226: 4225: 4198: 4196: 4192: 4189: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4177: 4176: 4161:Iqaluit, Canada 4149: 4147: 4143: 4140: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4128: 4127: 4100: 4098: 4094: 4091: 4086: 4083: 4081: 4079: 4078: 4063:Galway, Ireland 4051: 4049: 4045: 4042: 4037: 4034: 4032: 4030: 4029: 4002: 4000: 3996: 3993: 3988: 3985: 3983: 3981: 3980: 3953: 3951: 3947: 3944: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3932: 3931: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3821: 3820: 3733: 3647: 3635: 3628: 3621: 3614: 3575: 3522: 3494: 3483: 3463: 3450: 3429: 3413: 3392: 3374: 3358: 3345: 3344: 3332: 3291: 3263: 3252: 3232: 3219: 3198: 3182: 3161: 3143: 3127: 3111: 3110: 3098: 3085: 3073: 3045: 3044: 3022: 3021: 2998: 2997: 2982: 2954: 2938: 2922: 2906: 2885: 2867: 2839: 2838: 2825: 2799: 2783: 2767: 2749: 2731: 2705: 2704: 2668: 2667: 2643: 2632: 2631: 2620: 2594: 2578: 2554: 2536: 2520: 2519: 2495: 2494: 2478:{\textstyle dv} 2464: 2463: 2433: 2422: 2421: 2394: 2389: 2388: 2361: 2356: 2355: 2334: 2329: 2328: 2304: 2293: 2292: 2285: 2269: 2192: 2172: 2171: 2147: 2146: 2104: 2099: 2098: 2077: 2072: 2071: 2050: 2045: 2044: 2023: 2007: 1997: 1992: 1991: 1977: 1937: 1912: 1896: 1886: 1872: 1856: 1844: 1803: 1790: 1779: 1778: 1765: 1725: 1700: 1684: 1674: 1660: 1644: 1632: 1591: 1578: 1567: 1566: 1534: 1529: 1528: 1507: 1502: 1501: 1490: 1453: 1428: 1412: 1402: 1388: 1372: 1360: 1328: 1317: 1316: 1290: 1285: 1284: 1262: 1257: 1256: 1232: 1227: 1226: 1195: 1190: 1189: 1168: 1163: 1162: 1135: 1130: 1129: 1099: 1094: 1093: 1072: 1067: 1066: 1045: 1040: 1039: 1012: 1007: 1006: 995: 937: 918: 893: 880: 864: 854: 839: 823: 811: 773: 768: 767: 734: 729: 728: 709: 708: 663: 662: 641: 636: 635: 614: 609: 608: 587: 582: 581: 562: 561: 542: 541: 522: 521: 500: 495: 494: 483: 420: 404: 393: 371: 346: 345: 303: 298: 297: 255: 254: 235: 234: 223: 217: 66: 61: 51:radars such as 17: 12: 11: 5: 6328: 6326: 6318: 6317: 6315:Weather radars 6307: 6306: 6303: 6302: 6294: 6289: 6282: 6281:External links 6279: 6276: 6275: 6258: 6241: 6212: 6195: 6174:(1): 628–639. 6154: 6113: 6092:(3): 315–328. 6072: 6031: 6012:(4): 731–739. 5996: 5952: 5921: 5900:(3): 296–321. 5880: 5859:(5): 684–692. 5839: 5820:(4): 847–856. 5800: 5758: 5713: 5672: 5626: 5575: 5554:(6): 897–907. 5534: 5488: 5447: 5418:(4): 660–670. 5402: 5381:(13): D13203. 5356: 5335:(4): 675–690. 5304: 5262: 5255: 5230: 5223: 5188: 5160: 5142:. ATMOS-2018. 5125: 5084: 5027: 5005: 4984:(5): 645–665. 4963: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4956: 4955: 4948: 4945: 4942: 4941: 4909: 4906: 4903: 4900: 4897: 4893: 4892: 4871:147°25′31.43″E 4860: 4857: 4854: 4851: 4848: 4844: 4843: 4822:130°53′29.75″E 4811: 4808: 4805: 4802: 4799: 4795: 4794: 4762: 4759: 4756: 4753: 4750: 4746: 4745: 4713: 4710: 4707: 4704: 4701: 4697: 4696: 4664: 4661: 4658: 4655: 4652: 4648: 4647: 4615: 4612: 4609: 4606: 4603: 4602:Potenza, Italy 4599: 4598: 4566: 4563: 4560: 4557: 4554: 4550: 4549: 4528:156°36′56.70″W 4517: 4514: 4511: 4508: 4505: 4501: 4500: 4479:156°36′56.70″W 4468: 4465: 4462: 4459: 4456: 4452: 4451: 4419: 4416: 4413: 4410: 4407: 4403: 4402: 4370: 4367: 4364: 4361: 4358: 4354: 4353: 4321: 4318: 4315: 4312: 4309: 4305: 4304: 4272: 4269: 4266: 4263: 4260: 4256: 4255: 4223: 4220: 4217: 4214: 4211: 4207: 4206: 4174: 4171: 4168: 4165: 4162: 4158: 4157: 4125: 4122: 4119: 4116: 4113: 4109: 4108: 4076: 4073: 4070: 4067: 4064: 4060: 4059: 4027: 4024: 4021: 4018: 4015: 4011: 4010: 3978: 3975: 3972: 3969: 3966: 3965:Chilbolton, UK 3962: 3961: 3929: 3926: 3923: 3920: 3917: 3916:Chilbolton, UK 3913: 3912: 3909: 3906: 3903: 3900: 3897: 3893: 3892: 3889: 3886: 3883: 3880: 3877: 3873: 3872: 3869: 3866: 3863: 3860: 3857: 3853: 3852: 3849: 3846: 3843: 3840: 3837: 3819: 3808: 3806:Netherlands). 3786:) designed by 3779:respectively. 3732: 3729: 3715: 3714: 3703: 3692: 3689: 3682: 3679: 3646: 3643: 3633: 3626: 3619: 3612: 3574: 3571: 3528: 3527: 3518: 3516: 3501: 3497: 3490: 3486: 3481: 3472: 3467: 3462: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3446: 3442: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3425: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3405: 3402: 3399: 3395: 3387: 3384: 3381: 3377: 3372: 3366: 3363: 3355: 3352: 3331: 3328: 3327: 3326: 3323: 3320: 3317: 3297: 3296: 3287: 3285: 3270: 3266: 3259: 3255: 3250: 3241: 3236: 3231: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3215: 3211: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3194: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3174: 3171: 3168: 3164: 3156: 3153: 3150: 3146: 3141: 3135: 3132: 3124: 3121: 3118: 3097: 3094: 3084: 3081: 3072: 3069: 3056:{\textstyle W} 3052: 3033:{\textstyle V} 3029: 3009:{\textstyle W} 3005: 2988: 2987: 2978: 2976: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2950: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2934: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2918: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2898: 2895: 2892: 2888: 2880: 2877: 2874: 2870: 2865: 2859: 2856: 2849: 2846: 2831: 2830: 2821: 2819: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2795: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2779: 2774: 2770: 2762: 2759: 2756: 2752: 2744: 2741: 2738: 2734: 2729: 2723: 2720: 2715: 2712: 2679:{\textstyle Z} 2675: 2655: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2639: 2626: 2625: 2616: 2614: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2590: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2574: 2567: 2564: 2561: 2557: 2549: 2546: 2543: 2539: 2534: 2530: 2527: 2506:{\textstyle Z} 2502: 2474: 2471: 2451: 2448: 2445: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2429: 2407: 2404: 2401: 2397: 2374: 2371: 2368: 2364: 2341: 2337: 2316: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2300: 2284: 2281: 2275: 2274: 2265: 2263: 2252: 2249: 2246: 2241: 2236: 2233: 2230: 2227: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2211: 2208: 2205: 2202: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2188: 2185: 2182: 2179: 2154: 2134: 2131: 2128: 2123: 2120: 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6299: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6284: 6280: 6271: 6265: 6263: 6259: 6254: 6248: 6246: 6242: 6229: 6225: 6219: 6217: 6213: 6208: 6202: 6200: 6196: 6190: 6185: 6181: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6158: 6155: 6149: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6132: 6128: 6124: 6117: 6114: 6108: 6103: 6099: 6095: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6076: 6073: 6067: 6062: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6035: 6032: 6027: 6023: 6019: 6015: 6011: 6007: 6000: 5997: 5991: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5959: 5957: 5953: 5941: 5937: 5930: 5928: 5926: 5922: 5916: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5891: 5884: 5881: 5875: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5850: 5843: 5840: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5815: 5814:Radio Science 5811: 5804: 5801: 5795: 5790: 5786: 5782: 5778: 5774: 5770: 5762: 5759: 5754: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5724: 5717: 5714: 5708: 5703: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5676: 5673: 5667: 5662: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5635: 5633: 5631: 5627: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5602: 5598: 5594: 5590: 5586: 5579: 5576: 5570: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5538: 5535: 5529: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5497: 5495: 5493: 5489: 5483: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5451: 5448: 5443: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5406: 5403: 5397: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5365: 5363: 5361: 5357: 5351: 5346: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5319: 5317: 5315: 5313: 5311: 5309: 5305: 5300: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5271:Doviak, R. J. 5266: 5263: 5258: 5252: 5248: 5244: 5240: 5239:Doviak, R. J. 5234: 5231: 5226: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5201: 5199: 5197: 5195: 5193: 5189: 5176: 5175: 5170: 5164: 5161: 5149: 5145: 5138: 5137: 5129: 5126: 5120: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5088: 5085: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5038: 5031: 5028: 5023: 5016: 5009: 5006: 5000: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4968: 4965: 4958: 4954: 4951: 4950: 4946: 4938: 4917:47°25′16.00″N 4910: 4907: 4904: 4901: 4898: 4895: 4894: 4889: 4861: 4858: 4855: 4852: 4849: 4846: 4845: 4840: 4819:12°25′28.56″S 4812: 4809: 4806: 4803: 4800: 4797: 4796: 4791: 4763: 4760: 4757: 4754: 4751: 4748: 4747: 4742: 4714: 4711: 4708: 4705: 4702: 4699: 4698: 4693: 4675:26°35′20.30″E 4672:67°24′57.59″N 4665: 4662: 4659: 4656: 4653: 4650: 4649: 4644: 4626:15°43′12.03″E 4623:40°36′15.93″N 4616: 4613: 4610: 4607: 4604: 4601: 4600: 4595: 4567: 4564: 4561: 4558: 4555: 4552: 4551: 4546: 4525:71°19′23.73″N 4518: 4515: 4512: 4509: 4506: 4503: 4502: 4497: 4476:71°19′23.73″N 4469: 4466: 4463: 4460: 4457: 4454: 4453: 4448: 4430:11°34′47.83″E 4420: 4417: 4414: 4411: 4408: 4405: 4404: 4399: 4378:47°35′11.49″N 4371: 4368: 4365: 4362: 4359: 4356: 4355: 4350: 4322: 4319: 4316: 4313: 4310: 4307: 4306: 4301: 4273: 4270: 4267: 4264: 4261: 4258: 4257: 4252: 4231:50°54′19.02″N 4224: 4221: 4218: 4215: 4212: 4209: 4208: 4203: 4175: 4172: 4169: 4166: 4163: 4160: 4159: 4154: 4133:53°33′56.40″N 4126: 4123: 4120: 4117: 4114: 4111: 4110: 4105: 4084:53°16′42.79″N 4077: 4074: 4071: 4068: 4065: 4062: 4061: 4056: 4038:81°51′42.45″W 4035:41°24′55.82″N 4028: 4025: 4022: 4019: 4016: 4013: 4012: 4007: 3979: 3976: 3973: 3970: 3967: 3964: 3963: 3958: 3930: 3927: 3924: 3921: 3918: 3915: 3914: 3910: 3907: 3904: 3901: 3898: 3895: 3894: 3890: 3887: 3884: 3881: 3878: 3875: 3874: 3870: 3867: 3864: 3861: 3858: 3855: 3854: 3850: 3847: 3844: 3841: 3838: 3835: 3834: 3826: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3807: 3803: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3780: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3765:Pacific Ocean 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3742: 3737: 3730: 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