124:, the central government encouraged private exploration and mineral use under the policy of "speeding up the water flow". In 1986, China passed its first Mineral Resources Law, which confirmed state ownership of mineral resources and authorized exploration of mineral resources by various kinds of public and private entities. Per these policies, SOEs continued to own and operate the largest and richest mines in China although smaller mines in less strategic industries were available to private and collective enterprises. During this period, the mining industry and the regulatory environment remained relatively underdeveloped and profitability in the industry was generally low.
203:) emphasizes leveraging domestic supply sources of resources (including through increased investment in prospecting and mining) and international sources of resources (through various strategies, including foreign acquisition, investment, short-term purchasing, and long-term purchase contracts). Related, the One Third, One Third, One Third policy prescribes that in procuring natural resources, one third of China's supply should come from domestic production, one third from direct procurement contracts, and one third from foreign acquisitions.
135:. In 1996, the Mineral Resources Law was revised to more clearly define procedures for mineral extraction and the regulatory roles of government bodies. In the late 1990s, reform of China's state-owned enterprises resulted in numerous state-owned enterprises in the minerals industry being acquired by private investors. By the end of the 1990s, China had become the world's second largest producer of solid minerals and was the largest producer of various specific minerals, including iron and coal, among others.
196:, nonmetallic minerals, and salt. Resource taxes were based on the volume of minerals until 2011, when resource taxes became based on the sales value of minerals. In addition to taxes, mining enterprises must also pay a nontax Mineral Resource Compensation fee based on the sales value of mineral products. Local governments in resource-rich areas may also require mining enterprises to pay local taxes (that are not split with the central government) or local nontax fees.
379:, which produced 272 tonnes (9,600,000 oz; 300 short tons). South Africa had until then been the largest for 101 years straight since 1905. The major reasons for this change in position had been due to South African production falling by 50% in the past decade as production costs there have risen, more stringent safety regulations have been implemented, and existing mines have become depleted. In 2014, production had increased to 450 tonnes.
359:
532:, consumer electronics and other clean energy technologies. Rare earth elements are also important to national governments because they are used in the defense industry. China has implemented export restrictions on certain rare earth elements and banned the export of rare earth processing technology. At present, China accounts for over 95 percent of the world's production of rare earths.
173:
specified by the
Mineral Resources Law. The Mineral Resources Law is also the legislation which provides that exploration of mineral resources must authorized by the State Council or provincial-level governments, though in practice the State Council or provincial-level governments delegation this authority to local land and resources departments at the county level or higher.
142:
In the mid-2000s, the
Chinese government sought to consolidate the mining industry, including through state-owned enterprises acquiring smaller private mines. This approach was driven by concern over environmental harm, workplace safety, and inefficient utilization of mineral deposits.China's mining
67:
Its mineral resources are widely but not evenly distributed throughout the country. Although China's national economy and exports do not rely extensively on mineral production, various subnational governments rely heavily on the mining and resources industry. Regions where mining is a major part of
220:
Some subnational
Chinese governments seek to promote diversification in non-resource industries by requiring or incentivizing mining companies to also invest in other industries. For example, since 2004, some local governments in Shanxi province have required that coal mining companies set aside
146:
From 2010 to 2011, China's central government designated 69 resource-depleted cities and offered a policy package designed to help their economies transition away from a focus on resource extraction. The policy support included financial subsidies, earmarked loans, compensation for environmental
564:
Per China's Two
Markets, Two Resources frame work and its One Third, One Third, One Third policy, China has significantly invested in developing domestic sources of uranium. In 2000, China's uranium output was 700 tonnes. By 2010, China had ten uranium mines producing approximately 1,200 tonnes
172:
All mineral resources in China are owned by the state, regardless of ownership of the land itself. Mining companies must obtain government approval to obtain mining rights (which can last for up to 30 years) and must pay prospecting and mining fees. The state's ownership of mineral resources is
54:
in the 1980s and became increasingly marketized in the 1990s. In the mid-2000s, the
Chinese government sought to consolidate the industry due to concerns about underutilization of resources, workplace safety, and environmental harm. During that period, state-owned enterprises purchased smaller
63:
China's mineral resources include fuel (such as coal, oil, and natural gas), nonfuel metals, and nonmetal minerals. As of at least 2022, more than 200 types of minerals in China are actively explored or mined. The country is both a major producer and a major consumer of mineral resources.
375:. In 2022, China mined 403 tons of gold. Data indicates the marginal costs are often above the world price for gold. For the year 2007, gold output rose 12% from 2006 to 276 tonnes (9,700,000 oz; 304 short tons) to become the world's largest for the first time—overtaking
1108:
417:
created CBMX, an iron ore spot trading platform in China. In 2014, the CBMX platform was transferred to a
Chinese and foreign joint venture (the Beijing Iron Ore Trading Center Corporation, or COREX) and ownership was broadened to include trading houses and the four largest
92:
sites in China include Baiyin silver mine, Tongling copper mine, Dexing copper mine, Dachang tin mine, and
Jinchuan nickel and cobalt mine. In addition to mega mining sites, China has thousands of large and medium-sized mines and tens of thousands of small mines.
138:
In the early 2000s, Inner
Mongolia huge mineral deposits including coal (such as Dongsheng Coalfield) and rare earth metals were discovered in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, leading to major economic growth for the historically underdeveloped region.
217:, China is attempting to decrease its reliance on mining for its mineral supply. Academic Jing Vivian Zhan writes that promoting the circular economy helps China to avoid the resource curse and helps to alleviate overreliance on extractive industries.
575:
China's uranium procurement approach includes investment in foreign mining operations. From 2008 until at least 2024, China was one of only four countries to report non-domestic uranium exploration and development expenses. Chinese investment in
27:
China's mineral resources are diverse and rich. As of at least 2022, more than 200 types of minerals are actively explored or mined in China. These resources are widely but not evenly distributed throughout the country. Taken as a whole,
565:
annually. In 2015, China produced 1,616 tonnes of uranium, which was approximately 3% of global production that year. As of at least 2020, the country produced 1,885 tonnes annually, which amounted to 19% of its annual requirements.
224:
The
Chinese government requires mining companies to restore the environment around exhausted mines by refilling excavated pits and planting crops or trees. Many mining companies use these recovered mines for
560:
China's uranium resources are significantly less than its needs. At most, 1% of known recoverable uranium reserves are located in China. Its domestic sources are low quality and therefore expensive to mine.
459:. Geological expeditions discovered the reserves in the 1950s but commercial exploitation lagged until China's Reform and Opening Up. The 1989 opening of the Qinghai Potash Fertilizer Factory in the remote
39:
owns all mineral rights, regardless of the ownership of the land on which the minerals are located. Mining rights can be obtained upon government approval, and payment of mining and prospecting fees.
493:
subsidiary) and Sino-Agri Group. China is generally concerned about further consolidation in the international potash industry following the 2010 merger of the two largest
Russian potash exporters,
425:
In July 2022, China's central government created the state-owned entity China Mineral Resources Group, which is designed to better coordinate China's interactions with the global iron ore industry.
323:
is one of the most critical industrial minerals given its importance in any electricity-related technology. It is essential in traditional power generating technology, but even more central to for
293:
is the most abundant mineral resource in China by a large margin. It exists in almost all Chinese provinces although major coal mining sites are largely located in northern and central China.
485:
Although China had greatly increased its potash production by the 2010s, as of at least 2024 the country is highly import dependent on potash. The two key importation enterprises are
270:
147:
damage caused by the mining industry, and support in incubating non-resource industries. These 69 cities then experienced significant GDP growth and income growth among workers.
258:
55:
privately-owned mines. China's mining industry grew substantially and the period from the early 2000s to 2012 is often referred to as a "golden decade" in the mining industry.
210:
of China's mandate is to stockpile strategic resources and to intervene when necessary in markets. For example, in 2005 and 2021, it released copper into the global markets.
207:
151:
451:
China's domestic potash production comes from isolated mining sites located inland. Most potash deposits in China are concentrated in the deserts and salt flats of the
504:
The global potash market is subject to benchmark negotiations pricing negotiations. As of at least 2023, China is the lead benchmark negotiator on the buyer side.
468:
50:
and collectively-owned enterprises and private exploration of mineral resources was largely prohibited. The industry was opened to private enterprises during the
528:
are a group of elements on the periodic table with similar properties. Rare earth metals are used to manufacture technologies including electric vehicles (EVs),
165:
Mineral exploration and extraction are highly regulated in China. Various regulatory bodies active in the industry include industry and commerce departments,
414:
273:
more than 70% of the world's cobalt, and most of this production goes to China. Chinese companies account for the majority of cobalt mining in the DRC.
1087:
300:
by 2060, a nationwide effort to reduce overcapacity resulted in the closure of many small and dirty coal mines. Major coal-producing regions like
956:
568:
China's poor uranium resources have resulted in the country developing a strong foreign procurement strategy. China became the world's largest
1001:
919:
803:
636:
369:
1144:
651:
589:
554:
266:
545:
is highly concentrated because Chinese policy identifies uranium as a strategic resource and only select companies are authorized to
478:
The domestic potash production industry is heavily consolidated, with 21 mining companies operating in China (19 in Qinghai and 2 in
1215:
1184:
1063:
550:
166:
1239:
143:
industry grew substantially and the period from the early 2000s to 2012 is often referred to as a "golden decade" in the industry.
572:
in 2008 and has continued to be as of at least 2023. Two entities in China account for most of the country's uranium importation.
448:
is one of the three essential plant nutrients and is a major fertilizer ingredient. It cannot be manufactured and must be mined.
403:
132:
110:
47:
243:
581:
413:
In 2012, CISA along with the China Chamber of Commerce of Metals, Minerals & Chemicals Importers & Exporters and the
250:
production, followed by Russia with 18.2% and Tajikistan with 15.5%. In 2024, China placed exports restrictions on antimony.
32:
and exports do not rely on the mining industry, but the industry is critical to various subnational Chinese governments.
577:
521:
514:
676:
185:
1342:
795:
671:
157:
In 2017, mining industry profits again increased, having previously dropped after the early 2000s "golden decade".
1311:
646:
585:
1337:
1261:
Medeiros, Carlos Aguiar De; Trebat, Nicholas M.; Medeiros, Carlos Aguiar De; Trebat, Nicholas M. (July 2017).
1055:
911:
666:
601:
419:
117:
51:
406:(CISA) the new negotiator. The benchmark pricing system for iron ore ended in 2010 and was replaced with a
623:
376:
1079:
341:
China became the world's largest importer of copper in 2008 and has continued to be as of at least 2023.
180:
at a low rate in comparison to the value of the minerals. Resource tax was first established in 1984 on
388:
Beginning in 2003 and continuing through at least 2024, China has been the world's largest importer of
597:
365:
351:
328:
113:
and collectively-owned enterprises. Private exploration of mineral resources was largely prohibited.
1263:"Transforming natural resources into industrial advantage: the case of China's rare earths industry"
908:
China's Vulnerability Paradox: How the World's Largest Consumer Transformed Global Commodity Markets
592:
in uranium mining and Chinese companies have invested in Namibia's three biggest uranium producers:
993:
613:
324:
36:
549:. The country's civilian nuclear industry and its mining are industry are largely concentrated in
935:
525:
464:
297:
265:, a metal for which China is the world's largest consumer due to its importance in batteries for
1133:
1284:
1211:
1207:
1180:
1059:
997:
915:
799:
335:
193:
177:
1274:
1176:
961:
957:"China will limit exports of antimony, a mineral used in products from batteries to weapons"
658:
452:
214:
29:
17:
641:
276:
China is a world leader in refining Cobalt, with a 68% share in global supply as of 2022.
102:
395:
China's domestic iron ore sector is highly fragmented among a large number of companies.
188:, and natural gas. The 1994 tax reform expanded the resource tax to include also include
1231:
631:
618:
569:
546:
542:
305:
296:
As part of China's efforts to achieve its pledges of peak coal consumption by 2030 and
81:
467:
sixfold, from less than 40,000 t (39,000 long tons; 44,000 short tons) a year at
358:
35:
Mining is extensively regulated in China and involves numerous regulatory bodies. The
1331:
285:
200:
181:
128:
121:
402:
became the lead negotiator on the buyer side. In 2009, the Chinese government named
1279:
1262:
529:
460:
792:
China's Contained Resource Curse: How Minerals Shape State-Capital-Labor Relations
398:
The global iron ore market was subject to benchmark pricing negotiating. In 2006,
1201:
1170:
1121:
221:
funds for investing in noncoal business like agriculture and produce processing.
407:
372:
89:
593:
226:
106:
43:
1288:
1122:
allAfrica.com: South Africa: Booming China is World's New Egoli (Page 1 of 1)
475:
to just under 240,000 t (240,000 long tons; 260,000 short tons) a year.
1020:
498:
494:
490:
486:
479:
399:
389:
247:
85:
456:
434:
301:
189:
73:
1303:
472:
445:
320:
309:
262:
69:
1134:"U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2016"
1080:""Gold Mining Map and Gold Production in 2016 - World Gold Council"
357:
77:
1140:
584:'s current position as the world's largest exporter of uranium.
557:, two state-owned enterprises that report to the State Council.
392:. Its domestic production peaked in 2007 at 402 million tonnes.
290:
1232:"China may not issue new 2011 rare earths export quota: report"
1052:
High Wire: How China Regulates Big Tech and Governs Its Economy
990:
Advantage China: Agent of Change in an Era of Global Disruption
1025:
1021:"Tensions Grow as China Ramps up Global Mining for Green Tech"
154:
designated 262 cities across China as "resource-rich cities".
1172:
An Introduction to Saline Lakes on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau
199:
China's Two Markets, Two Resources (which is related to the
1304:"USGS Report Series 2011–1042: China's Rare-Earth Industry"
208:
National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration
109:era, mineral exploration and mining was limited to
46:era, mineral exploration and mining was limited to
1203:Potash: Deposits, Processing, Properties, and Uses
1175:, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, p.
437:, with a 72% share in global supply as of 2022.
312:instituted administrative caps on coal output.
259:China and the Democratic Republic of the Congo
366:Gold mining in the People's Republic of China
8:
415:China Beijing International Mining Exchange
910:. New York, NY, United States of America:
1278:
1045:
1043:
689:
455:of its western provinces, particularly
169:, work safety, and land and resources.
1267:Brazilian Journal of Political Economy
1206:, London: Chapman & Hall, p.
213:As part of its efforts to enhance the
1242:from the original on 15 February 2022
1109:"China – Mining by the numbers, 2022"
983:
981:
979:
936:"Antimony Statistics and Information"
901:
899:
897:
895:
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729:
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725:
723:
721:
719:
717:
715:
713:
637:Aluminum Corporation of China Limited
246:, China accounted for 54.5% of total
7:
1314:from the original on 20 January 2022
1150:from the original on 10 January 2019
1015:
1013:
943:National Minerals Information Center
833:
831:
829:
827:
825:
823:
821:
819:
817:
815:
711:
709:
707:
705:
703:
701:
699:
697:
695:
693:
433:China is a world leader in refining
334:As of 2010, China had more than 800
127:China's mining industry became more
652:China Nonferrous Metal Mining Group
331:, and electric vehicle technology.
590:destination for Chinese investment
555:China National Nuclear Corporation
133:Deng Xiaoping's 1992 Southern Tour
25:
551:China General Nuclear Power Group
161:Policy and regulatory environment
1200:Garrett, Donald Everett (1996),
513:This section is an excerpt from
463:increased China's production of
404:China Iron and Steel Association
350:This section is an excerpt from
116:During the 1980s as part of the
82:Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region
1090:from the original on 2018-09-29
244:United States Geological Survey
131:in the 1990s, especially after
1280:10.1590/0101-31572017v37n03a03
362:China mined production of gold
1:
794:. Cambridge, United Kingdom:
1050:Zhang, Angela Huyue (2024).
522:rare earth industry in China
515:Rare earth industry in China
422:mills, in addition to CISA.
18:Mineral exploration in China
677:Petroleum industry in China
269:. As of at least 2024, the
1359:
796:Cambridge University Press
790:Zhan, Jing Vivian (2022).
672:Lithium batteries in China
512:
480:Xinjiang Autonomous Region
368:has made that country the
349:
283:
261:have significant trade in
242:In 2022, according to the
86:Xinjiang Autonomous Region
647:China National Coal Group
988:Garlick, Jeremy (2024).
906:Massot, Pascale (2024).
167:environmental protection
1169:Zheng Mianping (1997),
1056:Oxford University Press
912:Oxford University Press
667:Steel industry of China
588:has been another major
176:Extracted minerals are
118:Chinese economic reform
111:state-owned enterprises
52:Chinese economic reform
48:state-owned enterprises
624:List of mines in China
363:
524:is a large industry.
361:
68:the economy include:
1238:. 31 December 2010.
663:Related industries:
580:have contributed to
352:Gold mining in China
994:Bloomsbury Academic
614:Mining in Hong Kong
570:importer of uranium
543:market for uranium
465:potassium chloride
364:
1343:Industry in China
1003:978-1-350-25231-8
921:978-0-19-777140-2
805:978-1-009-04898-9
541:China's domestic
298:carbon neutrality
267:electric vehicles
233:Industry segments
194:nonferrous metals
16:(Redirected from
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962:Associated Press
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903:
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659:Economy of China
578:Kazakhstan mines
453:endorheic basins
215:circular economy
21:
1358:
1357:
1353:
1352:
1351:
1349:
1348:
1347:
1338:Mining in China
1328:
1327:
1326:
1317:
1315:
1302:Tse, Pui-Kwan.
1301:
1300:
1296:
1260:
1259:
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938:
934:
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929:
922:
905:
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813:
806:
789:
788:
691:
687:
642:China Minmetals
610:
598:Langer Heinrich
539:
534:
533:
518:
510:
443:
431:
386:
381:
380:
370:world's largest
355:
347:
318:
288:
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256:
240:
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163:
103:planned economy
99:
61:
30:China's economy
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1356:
1354:
1346:
1345:
1340:
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1325:
1324:
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1273:(3): 504–526.
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1223:
1216:
1192:
1185:
1161:
1125:
1114:
1100:
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1039:
1009:
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632:Jiangxi Copper
626:
621:
619:Mining in Asia
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306:Inner Mongolia
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190:ferrous metals
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24:
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3:
2:
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1309:
1308:pubs.usgs.gov
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1217:9789400915459
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1186:9789401154581
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1065:9780197682258
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530:wind turbines
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526:Rare earths
508:Rare earths
408:spot market
329:solar power
101:During the
90:Mega mining
42:During the
1332:Categories
1318:2018-04-04
1094:2017-07-05
1033:2024-09-04
969:2024-09-09
685:References
582:Kazakhstan
325:wind power
284:See also:
229:business.
227:ecotourism
129:marketized
107:Mao Zedong
80:province,
76:province,
72:province,
44:Mao Zedong
1289:0101-3157
1312:Archived
1240:Archived
1145:Archived
1143:. 2016.
1088:Archived
608:See also
499:Silvinit
495:Uralkali
491:Sinochem
487:Sinofert
400:Baosteel
390:iron ore
248:antimony
238:Antimony
59:Overview
1236:Reuters
1208:176–177
945:. USGS.
602:Rössing
586:Namibia
547:mine it
537:Uranium
457:Qinghai
435:lithium
429:Lithium
302:Shaanxi
105:of the
97:History
74:Jiangxi
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473:Tanggu
446:Potash
441:Potash
321:Copper
316:Copper
310:Shanxi
308:, and
263:cobalt
254:Cobalt
120:under
84:, and
70:Shanxi
1148:(PDF)
1137:(PDF)
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594:Husab
469:Haixi
178:taxed
78:Henan
1285:ISSN
1248:2017
1212:ISBN
1181:ISBN
1156:2016
1141:USGS
1060:ISBN
998:ISBN
916:ISBN
800:ISBN
553:and
520:The
497:and
471:and
384:Iron
345:Gold
291:Coal
280:Coal
206:The
182:coal
1275:doi
1177:3–5
1026:BBC
482:).
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