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424:, at €0.10 per gram of alcohol. This meant that some of the cheapest forms of alcohol rose substantially in price: a 700 mL bottle of 37.5% spirits would cost a minimum of €20.71, whereas before MUP it was available for €13 or less. A bottle of wine cost over €7, whereas previously the cheapest wine was available for less than €5. A 500 mL can of cider or beer would now sell for €1.66 or more, depending on strength; prior to this, some cans were available for less than one euro. MUP is not a tax; most of the price increase goes directly to retailers, with the state collecting some
31:
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York City to Los
Angeles trip, a flight that cost as little as $ 278 in 2013. In 1978, the US government deregulated airfares, on the grounds that flying is not a necessity (like food or prescription drugs), and nor was it addictive (like alcohol). The government deregulated airfares so that increased competition would lead to a drop in airfare prices. By 2011, the inflation-adjusted cost of air travel dropped by half as compared with 1978. By 2000, half of Americans were taking at least one round-trip air flight per year.
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permits are not sold, and permits for immediate use are always made available at the ceiling price, even if sales have already reached the permit cap. To the extent the price is controlled by these limits, it is a tax. So if the floor is set equal to the ceiling, cap-and-trade becomes a pure carbon tax.
506:
Until the late 1970s, government regulated price floors on airfares in the US made flying "absurdly expensive" to the point that in 1965, more than 80% of
Americans had never flown on a jet. For example, in 1974, US air carriers had to charge at least $ 1,442 (in inflation-adjusted dollars) for a New
477:
is being implemented by governments to reduce the use of carbon fuels. Carbon pricing can be determined by specific policies such as taxes or caps or by commitments such as emission reduction commitments or price commitments. However, emission reduction commitments (used by the Kyoto
Protocol) can be
70:
in
Canadian agriculture. Other price floors include regulated US airfares prior to 1978 and minimum price per-drink laws for alcohol. While price floors are often imposed by governments, there are also price floors which are implemented by non-governmental organizations such as companies, such as the
489:
provisions." Such designs are often referred to as hybrid designs. The stability provisions referred to are typically floor and ceiling prices (a ceiling price is also known as a safety valve), which are implemented as follows. When permits are auctioned, there is a floor (reserve) price below which
447:
justified the move on public-health grounds, claiming that "The heaviest drinkers buy the cheapest alcohol. Minimum unit pricing on alcohol targets these drinkers, reducing its affordability so that less alcohol is purchased. This will reduce the harm that alcohol causes them and others. This should
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find they must now pay a higher price for the same product. As a result, they reduce their purchases, switch to substitutes (e.g., from butter to margarine) or drop out of the market entirely. Meanwhile, suppliers find they are guaranteed a new, higher price than they were charging before, but with
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Taken together, these effects mean there is now an excess supply (known as a "surplus") of the product in the market to maintain the price floor over the long term. The equilibrium price is determined when the quantity demanded is equal to the quantity supplied. Further, the effect of mandating a
58:
in order to be effective. The equilibrium price, commonly called the "market price", is the price where economic forces such as supply and demand are balanced and in the absence of external influences the (equilibrium) values of economic variables will not change, often described as the point at
252:
Supply management's supporters say that the system offers stability for producers, processors, service providers and retailers. Detractors have criticized tariff-rate import quotas, price-control and supply-control mechanisms used by provincial and national governing agencies, organizations and
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is a national agricultural policy framework that coordinates the supply of dairy, poultry, and eggs through production and import control and pricing mechanisms designed to prevent shortages and surpluses, to ensure farmers' rates of return and
Canadian consumers' access to these products. With
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of employees' labour. When the minimum wage is set above the equilibrium market price for unskilled or low-skilled labour, employers hire fewer workers. Employers may cut their use of labour by switching to a "self-serve" model in which customers do an action previously done by staff (e.g.,
143:. As a result, prices vary from transaction to transaction. Price floors can thus affect the price of certain transactions but not others, even if they are below the average price. The market price can also vary over time, and a price floor can affect the market price during low periods.
261:
Canada's supply management system, which encompasses "five types of products: dairy, chicken and turkey products, table eggs, and broiler hatching eggs", "coordinates production and demand while controlling imports as a means of setting stable prices for both farmers and consumers." The
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equilibrium price. In the first graph at right, the dashed green line represents a price floor set below the free-market price. In this case, the floor has no practical effect. The government has mandated a minimum price, but the market already bears and is using a higher price.
679:
Larue, Bruno; Lambert, RĂ©my (2012). A Primer on the
Economics of Supply Management and Food Supply Chains (PDF) (Report). Working Paper. Québec City, QC.: Structure and Performance of Agriculture and Agri-products industry Network (SPAA Network). p. 71. Retrieved June 29,
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supply management, the
Canadian "government sets a minimum price that processors have to pay the farmers, or a 'price floor.' Critics have argued that floor is artificially high, meaning dairy and other products cost more for Canadian consumers that they might otherwise."
135:
By contrast, in the second graph, the dashed green line represents a price floor set above the free-market price. In this case, the price floor has a measurable impact on the market. It ensures prices stay high, causing a surplus in the market.
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also criticised MUP in its FactCheck section, saying that it was not proven to work in
British Columbia, saying "there is little or no scientific evidence establishing an observed link between minimum unit pricing and declining health harms."
352:. The government introduced the Act to discourage excessive drinking. As a price floor, the Act is expected to increase the cost of the lowest-cost alcoholic beverages, such as bargain-priced cider. The Act was passed with the support of the
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laws. The price floors were introduced when teams sought to prevent "...season-ticket holders from selling tickets at prices below face value." In 2013, the New York
Yankees and Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim declined to participate in
404:. In the 10 months between 1 October 2018, the date that the floor price and other measures were imposed by the NT government, and 31 July 2019, there was a 26% decrease in alcohol-related assaults in the Territory.
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and costly with money transferred from consumers to producers through higher prices on milk, poultry and eggs which some label as a subsidy. Canada's trade partners posit that SM limits market access.
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because of the higher salary. The result is a surplus in the amount of labor available. The equilibrium wage for workers would be dependent upon their skill sets along with market conditions.
83:
agree that the distributors will sell the manufacturer's product at certain prices (resale price maintenance), at or above a price floor (minimum resale price maintenance) or at or below a
1037:
There are many sad stories to tell about the U.S. economy, but here's some good news for everybody, from radical capitalists to consumer advocates: The incredible falling price of flying
502:
A Boeing 707 at JFK airport in 1970. During the mid-1960s, airfares had a regulated price floor that made flying twice the cost of the 2010s, due to the ending of price controls in 1978.
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is created (more people are looking for jobs than there are jobs available). At the same time, a minimum wage above the equilibrium wage would allow (or entice) more people to enter the
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is a government intervention policy program. The farmers are paid prices above market determined rates to help them. Support prices helped India gain food security during period of
959:
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which quantity demanded and quantity supplied are equal (in a perfectly competitive market). Governments use price floors to keep certain prices from going too low.
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In practice, many goods and services are not perfectly identical, real markets experience friction and hysteresis, different participants have different amounts of
428:. Vincent Jennings, chief executive of the Convenience Stores and Newsagents Association criticised the change, saying that it would increase purchases over the
283:
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The IMF’s Fact Sheet states that “Cap-and-trade systems are another option, but generally they should be designed to look like taxes through revenue-raising and
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laws, where the government sets out the minimum hourly rate that can be paid for labour. In this case, the wage is the price of labour, and employees are the
38:
as part of the "Fight for $ 15" effort to require a $ 15 per hour minimum wage in 2015. A government-set minimum wage is a price floor on the price of labour.
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While the setting of price floors is often associated with government measures, there are also private sector-imposed price floors. Until
November 2016, the
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estimated that the higher consumer prices that are attributable to supply management push between 133,000 and 189,000 Canadians below the poverty line.
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met by non-price policies, so they do not necessarily determine a carbon price. Carbon policies can be either price-based (taxes) or quantity-based (
2181:
1872:
1172:
1004:
IPCC (2014). "Social, Economic and Ethical Concepts and Methods" (PDF). UN. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-06-29. Retrieved 2014-08-03.
482:). A cap-and-trade system is quantity-based because the regulator sets an emissions quantity cap and the market determines the carbon price.
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519:(NFL) set a price floor on tickets that were sold on league websites, a practice which a 2016 court case found to be in violation of US
232:, the EU buys enough of the product that the decrease in supply raises the price to the intervention price level. As a result of this, "
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87:(maximum resale price maintenance). A related government- or group-imposed intervention, which is also a price control, is the
689:"OECD Policy Brief: Economic Survey of Canada, 2008". OECD Observer. OECD (June 2008). June 11, 2008. Retrieved June 26, 2018.
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IMF (2014). "Factsheet: Climate, Environment, and the IMF" (PDF). International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 2014-08-02.
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self-serve gas stations); or buying machines, computers or robots to do part or all of employees' jobs (e.g.,
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856:"Alcohol-related domestic violence and assaults drop dramatically one year on from floor price introduction"
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614:"The Effects of a Minimum-Wage Increase on Employment and Family Income | Congressional Budget Office"
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or limit on how low a price can be charged for a product, good, commodity, or service. It is one type of
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758:"Awareness about Minimum Support Price and Its Impact on Diversification Decision of Farmers in India"
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Aditya, K. S.; Subash, S. P.; Praveen, K. V.; Nithyashree, M. L.; Bhuvana, N.; Sharma, Akriti (2017).
706:. Library of Parliament Research Publications. Economics, Resources and International Affairs Division
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has long been a problem. The 220 recommendations included a floor price for all alcohol products at
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because this online ticket resale website did not allow teams to put a price floor in place.
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Supply management: economists love to hate it, and Canadian farmers are loath to give it up.
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criticised MUP, saying that it would disproportionately impact those on low incomes.
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as the price moves upward from the equilibrium price. A price floor may lead to
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if the market is not able to allocate scarce resources in an efficient manner.
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A price floor set above the market equilibrium price has several side-effects.
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960:"New minimum pricing system for alcohol will hit low-income families harder"
923:"Minimum Unit Pricing on Alcohol – what is it and what will it mean for me?"
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Desrochers, Pierre; Geloso, Vincent; Moreau, Alexandre (2017-11-30).
649:"Canada's supply management is flashpoint in NAFTA talks: Here's why"
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1054:"N.F.L. Agrees to Stop Calling for Price Floor on Resold Tickets"
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236:" of surplus products in EU warehouses have sometimes resulted.
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979:"FactCheck: Is minimum unit alcohol pricing "proven" to work?"
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942:"The alcohol pricing changes coming into all shops next week"
905:"Minimum pricing for alcohol to come into effect in January"
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committees. The policy has been described as regressive and
1081:"Practical guide to buying live event and sports tickets"
806:"Scottish minimum alcohol pricing passed by parliament"
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in banks, automated ticket kiosks in parking garages).
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International Conference on Population and Development
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have called for the elimination of supply management.
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price floor, causing a surplus (supply exceeds demand)
883:"Minimum Alcohol Pricing: What does it mean for me?"
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Damjanovic, Dijana; La Canna, Xavier (19 Oct 2017).
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727:"Supply Management and Household Poverty in Canada"
384:A review in October 2017 by former chief justice
593:"Price floor – Definitions from Dictionary.com"
452:and 6,000 fewer hospital admissions per year."
284:School of Public Policy, University of Calgary
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436:, and pointing out that MUP did not apply to
344:minimum price for alcohol, initially 50p per
333:Alcohol (Minimum Pricing) (Scotland) Act 2012
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388:brought about huge changes to policy in the
348:, as an element in the programme to counter
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1087:. National Consumer League. August 2014
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34:Protesters call for an increased legal
940:McCarthy, Clare (December 30, 2021).
862:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation
835:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation
762:Asia & the Pacific Policy Studies
272:Atlantic Institute for Market Studies
115:A price floor could be set below the
7:
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1019:Thompson, Derek (28 February 2013).
808:. Glasgow: BBC Scotland. 24 May 2012
412:In 2022, minimum unit pricing (MUP;
111:price floor, below equilibrium price
2242:Voluntary Human Extinction Movement
854:Heaney, Chelsea (19 October 2019).
701:"Canada's Supply Management System"
160:higher price transfers some of the
75:. With resale price maintenance, a
1729:Microfoundations of macroeconomics
46:is a government- or group-imposed
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2134:Population and Development Review
1121:Concise Encyclopedia of Economics
881:McGlynn, Michelle (May 4, 2021).
731:International Review of Economics
280:Frontier Centre for Public Policy
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1888:Projections of population growth
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1052:Belson, Ken (15 November 2016).
977:MacGuill, Dan (21 August 2016).
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192:of labor and the company is the
2283:Human impact on the environment
2217:Population Action International
184:An example of a price floor is
2232:United Nations Population Fund
1124:(2nd ed.). Indianapolis:
338:Act of the Scottish Parliament
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307:Minimum support price (India)
455:Neil Fetherstonhaugh of the
220:Previously, price floors in
62:Two common price floors are
2257:World Population Foundation
2247:World Population Conference
2160:World population milestones
1674:Civil engineering economics
1659:Statistical decision theory
1299:Income elasticity of demand
448:result in around 200 fewer
276:Montreal Economic Institute
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2129:Population and Environment
1309:Price elasticity of supply
1304:Price elasticity of demand
1294:Cross elasticity of demand
595:. dictionary.reference.com
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1863:Demographics of the world
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743:10.1007/s12232-018-0295-x
311:Green Revolution in India
199:automated teller machines
2044:Compulsory sterilization
1365:Income–consumption curve
573:Resale price maintenance
517:National Football League
445:Health Service Executive
420:) was introduced in the
376:from alcohol retailers.
73:resale price maintenance
1986:Malthusian growth model
1699:Industrial organization
354:Scottish National Party
2113:Zero population growth
2108:Sustainable population
2032:Malthusian catastrophe
1991:Overshoot (population)
1868:Demographic transition
1110:Rockoff, Hugh (2008).
655:. CBC. 17 October 2017
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494:US airfare before 1978
450:alcohol-related deaths
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289:A 2017 study from the
156:fewer willing buyers.
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340:, which introduces a
297:Minimum Support Price
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2071:Political demography
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1486:Price discrimination
1380:Intertemporal choice
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620:. February 18, 2014.
418:Ăosphraghsáil aonaid
224:have been common in
147:Effect on the market
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1797:Business portal
1734:Operations research
1561:Substitution effect
1025:www.theatlantic.com
568:General equilibrium
422:Republic of Ireland
408:Republic of Ireland
392:, Australia, where
168:, while creating a
2227:Population Matters
1942:Population pyramid
1920:Population density
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1375:Indifference curve
1343:Goods and services
1284:Economies of scope
1279:Economies of scale
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204:Consequentially,
68:supply management
64:minimum wage laws
56:equilibrium price
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2295:
2293:Sustainability
2290:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2269:
2267:
2266:Related topics
2263:
2262:
2260:
2259:
2254:
2249:
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2239:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2198:
2196:
2191:
2188:
2187:
2185:
2184:
2179:
2178:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2157:
2155:Largest cities
2152:
2146:
2144:
2140:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2131:
2125:
2123:
2119:
2118:
2116:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2104:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2062:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2036:
2035:
2034:
2024:
2016:
2010:
2008:
2002:
2001:
1999:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1975:I = P × A  × T
1971:
1966:
1960:
1958:
1951:
1948:
1947:
1945:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1928:
1927:
1917:
1911:
1909:
1902:
1899:
1898:
1896:
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1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
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1847:
1845:
1844:
1837:
1830:
1822:
1813:
1812:
1810:
1809:
1799:
1786:
1783:
1782:
1780:
1779:
1774:
1772:Macroeconomics
1769:
1768:
1767:
1756:
1754:
1750:
1749:
1747:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1711:
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1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1508:
1507:
1502:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1471:Price controls
1463:
1458:
1453:
1452:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1435:
1434:
1429:
1419:
1414:
1413:
1412:
1407:
1392:
1390:Market failure
1387:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1356:
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1340:
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1185:
1182:Microeconomics
1180:
1178:
1177:
1170:
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1155:
1149:
1148:
1135:978-0865976658
1134:
1105:
1102:
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1098:
1085:www.nclnet.org
1072:
1041:
1027:. The Atlantic
1006:
997:
988:
969:
951:
932:
914:
892:
887:Irish Examiner
873:
846:
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797:
768:(3): 514–526.
748:
737:(2): 231–240.
717:
691:
682:
669:
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605:
583:
582:
580:
577:
576:
575:
570:
565:
560:
554:
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537:
534:
512:
511:Private sector
509:
495:
492:
475:Carbon pricing
471:
470:Carbon pricing
468:
409:
406:
402:standard drink
381:
378:
323:
320:
318:
315:
303:
300:
298:
295:
241:
238:
217:
214:
181:
178:
174:market failure
148:
145:
127:An effective,
100:
97:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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2303:
2300:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
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2276:
2274:
2273:Bennett's law
2271:
2270:
2268:
2264:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
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2220:
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2210:
2208:
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2197:
2194:organizations
2189:
2183:
2180:
2176:
2173:
2171:
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2166:
2163:
2162:
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2148:
2147:
2145:
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2132:
2130:
2127:
2126:
2124:
2120:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2078:
2077:
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2072:
2069:
2067:
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2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2041:
2040:
2037:
2033:
2030:
2029:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2009:
2003:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1981:Kaya identity
1979:
1976:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1949:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1922:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1900:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
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1858:
1854:
1850:
1843:
1838:
1836:
1831:
1829:
1824:
1823:
1820:
1808:
1800:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1787:
1784:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1766:
1763:
1762:
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1751:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1704:Institutional
1702:
1700:
1697:
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1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1662:
1660:
1657:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1649:Computational
1647:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1637:
1636:
1634:
1630:
1624:
1621:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1608:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1595:
1594:Law of supply
1591:
1588:
1586:
1585:Law of demand
1582:
1579:
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1574:
1572:
1571:Social choice
1569:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1556:Excess supply
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1542:Risk aversion
1540:
1538:
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1530:
1528:
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1503:
1501:
1497:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1487:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1476:Price ceiling
1474:
1472:
1469:
1468:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1433:
1432:Complementary
1430:
1428:
1425:
1424:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
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1383:
1381:
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1376:
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1351:
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1336:
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1326:
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1291:
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1285:
1282:
1280:
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1253:
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1238:
1237:
1236:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1226:
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1222:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1215:non-convexity
1212:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1197:
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1193:
1191:
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1183:
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1108:
1107:
1103:
1086:
1082:
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1060:
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1038:
1026:
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1015:
1013:
1011:
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1001:
998:
992:
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984:
983:TheJournal.ie
980:
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785:
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749:
744:
740:
736:
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718:
702:
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692:
686:
683:
676:
674:
670:
666:
654:
650:
644:
641:
637:
633:
627:
624:
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615:
609:
606:
594:
588:
585:
578:
574:
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569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
558:Price ceiling
556:
555:
551:
545:
540:
535:
533:
531:
527:
522:
518:
510:
508:
500:
493:
491:
488:
483:
481:
480:cap and trade
476:
469:
467:
464:
463:TheJournal.ie
460:
459:
453:
451:
446:
441:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
407:
405:
403:
395:
391:
387:
379:
377:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
358:Conservatives
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
334:
329:
321:
316:
314:
312:
308:
301:
296:
294:
292:
287:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
259:
256:
255:protectionist
250:
247:
239:
237:
235:
231:
227:
223:
215:
213:
211:
207:
202:
200:
195:
191:
187:
179:
177:
175:
171:
167:
163:
157:
154:
146:
144:
142:
137:
130:
125:
121:
118:
110:
105:
99:Effectiveness
98:
96:
94:
90:
89:price ceiling
86:
85:price ceiling
82:
78:
74:
69:
65:
60:
57:
53:
52:price support
49:
48:price control
45:
37:
32:
19:
18:Minimum price
2310:
2122:Publications
2081:Antinatalism
2019:
1996:World3 model
1856:Major topics
1739:Optimization
1724:Mathematical
1684:Experimental
1679:Evolutionary
1664:Econometrics
1522:Public goods
1496:Price system
1491:Price signal
1480:
1405:Monopolistic
1274:Distribution
1189:Major topics
1119:
1089:. Retrieved
1084:
1075:
1063:. Retrieved
1057:
1036:
1029:. Retrieved
1024:
1000:
991:
982:
972:
963:
954:
946:Irish Mirror
945:
935:
926:
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908:
886:
876:
864:. Retrieved
859:
849:
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810:. Retrieved
800:
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761:
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720:
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694:
685:
664:
657:. Retrieved
652:
643:
631:
626:
617:
608:
597:. Retrieved
587:
514:
505:
484:
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458:Sunday World
456:
454:
442:
430:Irish border
411:
386:Trevor Riley
383:
331:
325:
305:
288:
274:(AIMS), the
260:
251:
243:
219:
210:labor market
206:unemployment
203:
193:
189:
186:minimum wage
183:
180:Minimum wage
158:
150:
141:market power
138:
134:
128:
114:
108:
93:rent control
81:distributors
77:manufacturer
71:practice of
61:
43:
41:
36:minimum wage
2005:Society and
1964:Biocapacity
1689:Game theory
1654:Development
1601:Uncertainty
1481:Price floor
1461:Preferences
1400:Competition
1370:Information
1333:Externality
1316:Equilibrium
1257:Transaction
1235:Opportunity
1196:Aggregation
1031:25 December
964:sundayworld
927:www2.hse.ie
659:25 December
636:McGraw-Hill
618:www.cbo.gov
244:In Canada,
222:agriculture
216:Agriculture
117:free-market
109:non-binding
44:price floor
2192:Events and
2007:population
1953:Population
1904:Population
1849:Population
1719:Managerial
1639:Behavioral
1512:Production
1449:Oligopsony
1289:Elasticity
1201:Budget set
866:20 October
839:20 October
653:www.cbc.ca
599:2008-05-02
579:References
282:, and the
2288:Migration
2165:6 billion
1760:Economics
1632:Subfields
1527:Rationing
1444:Oligopoly
1439:Monopsony
1427:Bilateral
1360:Household
1211:Convexity
1144:237794267
792:158304705
784:2050-2680
632:Economics
521:antitrust
440:alcohol.
438:duty-free
380:Australia
342:statutory
268:C.D. Howe
190:suppliers
153:Consumers
2338:Category
2323:Category
2091:Natalism
2014:Eugenics
1807:Category
1753:See also
1644:Business
1616:Marginal
1611:Expected
1552:Shortage
1547:Scarcity
1422:Monopoly
1328:Exchange
1240:Implicit
1230:Marginal
1091:3 August
1065:3 August
860:ABC News
833:ABC News
710:June 21,
536:See also
364:and the
328:Scotland
322:Scotland
194:consumer
79:and its
2312:Commons
1955:ecology
1906:biology
1765:Applied
1744:Welfare
1606:Utility
1566:Surplus
1505:Pricing
1417:Duopoly
1410:Perfect
1353:Service
1321:General
1225:Average
1118:(ed.).
530:StubHub
398:A$ 1.50
317:Alcohol
278:(MEI),
129:binding
2022:genics
1590:Supply
1581:Demand
1517:Profit
1385:Market
1247:Social
1142:
1132:
812:16 May
790:
782:
366:Greens
360:, the
356:, the
336:is an
240:Canada
226:Europe
2143:Lists
1709:Labor
1694:Green
1466:Price
1348:Goods
1338:Firms
1114:. In
788:S2CID
704:(PDF)
680:2018.
414:Irish
302:India
1623:Wage
1532:Rent
1500:Free
1252:Sunk
1220:Cost
1213:and
1140:OCLC
1130:ISBN
1093:2019
1067:2019
1033:2018
868:2019
841:2019
814:2013
780:ISSN
712:2018
661:2018
638:1994
443:The
400:per
346:unit
66:and
2020:Dys
1714:Law
770:doi
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432:in
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164:to
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
