512:, a winch that was driven by the horses walking in a circle. The hauling cable (made of natural fibre) or cast-iron chain was wound up and down over a vertical axle. The cable was routed down the shaft and hauled barrels of ore up and down. Due to the shaft's incline, barrels were covered with iron runners on one side, resting partly on the side of the shaft. Above ground at the pithead the ore was emptied out and transported away by horse and cart for processing. From the 18th century shaft depths of several hundred metres were being achieved and horse whims were reaching the limits of their capability. Where the mines were lucrative and their energy consumption high as a result of shaft depth or the ingress of water, water power had been used since the 16th century.
726:
31:
1117:
47:
404:. Next one or two transverse boreholes with a 6–7 cm diameter were drilled by hand Usually two-man boring was employed: one turned the borer whilst a second hit it with his sledge. The holes were filled with gunpowder and stuffed with a wooden peg which had a hole for a slow-match wick. Unlike blasting with modern explosive, the stemming had to be wedged in using an iron rod centred on the borehole and a thick wooden prop in a slot (
138:
380:). This required the erection of a wooden ceiling over the active workings so that packing material did not fall into it and onto the face workers there. If the expected supply of ore or its quality did not justify sinking the main shaft deeper, or if the workings were a long way from it, draw-shafts were sunk. These blind shafts saved having to pack the 'old man'. In the Hornstatt, 1 or 2 labourers (
1166:
352:
sections and frequent changes of angle away from the vertical. There were two reasons for this approach: firstly, it had to be possible to extract ore from the beginning (as soon as the shaft was sunk) in order to make the pit economic as early as possible. Secondly, the rock in the ore lode, which formed a 'zone of disturbance', was much softer than the surrounding rock. The typical Harz
312:
948:
791:. The use of water power increased around the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries and it began to be employed in processing to enrich the ore concentration. On the one hand water was used as an energy source; on the other it was used to wash out the unwanted clay and to separate ore from gangue by making use of the different
129:) downwards. In their heyday the Upper Harz Mines were among the deepest in the world. For example, as early as 1700 or so shafts were already exceeding depths of 300 metres and, around 1830, a depth of 600 metres was achieved – which was considered significant at that time because it was below sea level.
962:. It is the preparation and smelting of ore that enables metals to be extracted and used. Only by adapting and developing the smelting processes over the course of the centuries could mining in the region be maintained, because the lodes changed their primary metal content sharply with increasing depth.
101:
The Upper Harz was once one of the most important mining regions in
Germany. The major products of its mines were silver, copper, lead, iron and, from the 19th century, zinc as well. The main source of income, however, was silver. From the 16th to the middle of the 19th centuries about 40–50% of the
799:
from the washing process were simply emptied into the rivers of the Harz along with the used driving water. The low efficiency of the first ore processing machines resulted in a high content of heavy metals in the rivers. As a consequence of using the aforementioned water-based method of processing
921:
After 1850 the small and scattered stamp mills and ore washeries were replaced by central ore dressing plants. The basic steps - coarse crushing - manual separation - sieving - jigging - fine crushing - table work and slime washing - remained much the same. The process was increasingly mechanised
351:
of ore, which were only a few metres wide, but dipped for several hundred metres into the earth. Hauling shafts were usually positioned in centre of the ore allotment on the lode and followed it into the ground. This resulted in inclined shafts with their characteristic, right-angled, longitudinal
211:
The Upper Harz mines attained their greatest productivity in the 16th and 17th centuries, even though there were frequent crises during that time. In 1690 the metal produced reached a quantity that was not exceeded until 1850. That was especially thanks to the construction of artificial water
679:
Until the beginning of the 19th century the miners of the Upper Harz had to enter and leave the mine using ladders. Towards the end, for shaft depths of around 700 metres this took up to 2 hours of the daily work time. This effort was almost impossible for older miners. In 1833, master miner
199:
Because the considerable energy needed to drain the mines increased as the mines became deeper and deeper, attempts were made early on to reduce energy consumption by driving drainage adits. This entailed cutting tunnels from the mine into the neighbouring valleys, through which water could drain
61:
region of central
Germany was a major industry for several centuries, especially for the production of silver, lead, copper, and, latterly, zinc as well. Great wealth was accumulated from the mining of silver from the 16th to the 19th centuries, as well as from important technical inventions. The
712:
drives (Queen Maria Shaft) and
Emperor William II Shaft) brought improvements. On the introduction of electrical power around 1900 cable-hauled lifts also became common and remained so until the end. In 1905 passenger trains appeared in the underground galleries for the first time (the so-called
466:
In the middle of the 19th century, the many individual pits transferred to larger mine complexes with central shafts, at which point the sinking of inclined shafts and the mixing of layout and equipment with the workings was abandoned entirely. The central, vertical shafts lay in the host rock
1135:
By the Early Middle Ages ore had to be transported over kilometres to the smelting works due to the lack of wood. One particularly well-known route is the transportation road from Goslar's
Rammelsberg on the northern edge of the Harz over the Upper Harz to Riefensbeek and Kamschlacken on its
161:. At first outcropping lodes on the surface of the ground were sought out and sections of ore near the surface were dug out with hammers and chisels. Mining first boomed between 1200 and 1360. In the upper workings there were particularly rich veins of silver ore (up to 9% Ag).
347:). The ore deposits that lay immediately on the surface were quickly exhausted and, as early as the 12th and 13th century miners were forced to switch entirely over to underground mining. The mining methods that could be used were limited by the steep, almost vertical,
939:. This technique enabled the required production of metal concentration without manual pre-sorting and a much higher yield. The flotation process was steadily developed during the 20th century and was used right up to the end of vein mining in the Upper Harz in 1992.
102:
entire German silver production originated in the Upper Harz. The taxes raised from this contributed significantly to the revenue of the royal houses in
Hanover and Brunswick-WolfenbĂĽttel and helped to secure their positions of power and influence within the empire.
499:
for several centuries (long before the introduction of blasting). In the 17th century the shafts reached depths of between 100 and 200 m. Ore could no longer be removed by hand and horsepower was increasingly used. The horses worked in a cone-shaped building, the
434:
From the second half of the 18th century the method of mining was reversed. Now the roof was always mined and so extraction proceeded upwards. That meant the miners worked on top of the packing and could transport the ore under gravity using so-called chute holes
989:) were built of natural rock and earth from the vicinity, and were by no means simple in their construction. They could only be used for a few days of continuous furnace campaign. Fixed buildings were not erected. Over 200 slag sites and smelting sites have been
672:
248:. Around 1900 shaft depths of 1,000 metres were reached and the mining of ore became increasingly costly. At the same time the mines had to compete with other domestic and foreign mines in a climate of ever-improving transportation. Overexploitation during the
368:
had a height of up to 3 metres and followed one another about 5 to 6 metres apart. In longitudinal section, therefore, a pit looked like a
Christmas tree standing on its head. The deepest point of the pit was usually the main shaft. This enabled it to collect
1088:). The comparatively low kiln temperatures of around 1000 °C produced no liquid slag, the residue (gangue) remained in solid form. Not until the development of more powerful fan shaft kilns around 1850 were the concentrates roasted in double-deck ovens (
395:
was used both for ore extraction and for driving gangways. This increased the daily headway considerably, from a few centimetres into the lode to a metre or more. The disadvantage, however, was that even more wood was needed to extend the mine, because
808:) were located in the deeper river valleys. As a rule, they obtained water from the pits, where it had been used to drive water wheels and reversing wheels. Until the beginning of the industrial era, mechanical processing was carried out as follows:
408:) on the opposite side. This operation frequently led to serious accidents when the gunpowder self-ignited as a result of friction-generated heat. Normal detonation was carried out using cord that had been impregnated with sulphur and gunpowder.
704:. Due to the water wheel drive and frequent bends in the inclined shafts only a few miners could be transported simultaneously to begin with and they had to periodically switch over to ladders. The use of steel wire cables as rods in the
276:
Following the closure of the mines in 1930, several shafts switched to the generation of electricity. Here, water from the Upper Harz Water Regale's network of ponds and channels was transported down chutes into the shafts, in which
1128:. Construction wood was needed above ground for accommodation huts as well as mining and smelting buildings. Below ground it was needed to extend the pits. The greatest consumption of wood, however, was for the smelting of ore with
926:
on the site of the old central ore processing plant of 1872. It employed up to 650 workers and processed all ore from the
Clausthal and Zellerfeld pits until 1930. A change occurred in the 1920s with the introduction of the
476:
918:) were sold to the smelters. The preparation of the different types of ore was carried out as far as possible by visually sorting the concentrates by hand in order e.g. to separate out lead from copper concentrates.
105:
Its lucrativeness justified a high commitment in terms of investment and effort. The Upper Harz mining industry produced a considerable number of innovations and inventions, including such important advances as the
659:) battery-driven locomotives were used from the 1970s and, finally, diesel engines on wheels with rubber tyres. One feature mining in the Upper Harz was the underground transportation of material in boats on the
171:
depopulated the Harz to a great extent and almost brought mining operations to a standstill. Another factor was probably that mining had reached its technical limits at the time with depths of up to about 60 m.
540:) near the shaft (the cable drum being set on the same axle as the water wheel) or above ground in the valley. When using the latter method the wheel's rotation was converted into reciprocating motion using a
297:
expired and the profitability of the power stations continued to fall at a time of sharply rising wages and stagnating electricity prices. These years saw the permanent closure of the last surviving mines.
1068:
near Aachen. The various metalworks, especially the
Clausthal Works left behind considerable environmental damage. By contrast, the buildings and facilities in the Upper Harz have completely disappeared.
1100:) and molten slag. The argentiferous lead was initially worked immediately in the German tests on lightened silver. At the start of the 20th century a multi-stage refining process was carried out in
443:) rather than shafts. Overhand stoping remained the only mining method in the Upper Harz mines until the end and was perfected in the final years through the use of trackless wagons, roof bolts (
1001:
have carried out excavations and undertaken a considerable amount of archeological and archaeometallurgical research. The high medieval smelting technology of the 10th to 12th centuries at the
204:, built in the mid-19th century, which was 26 kilometres long. It collected water from the mines in Bockswiese, Lautenthal, Zellerfeld, Clausthal and Wildemann and transported it to
1154:
Because the shortage of wood was time and again one of the limiting factors for mining and smelting, the forestry situation was a standing agenda item at meetings in the mining office.
487:
To begin with the ore was chiseled free and carted to the surface of the open pits or shallow mines in baskets. Once shaft depths increased to between about 10–60 metres hand winches (
861:). By dipping an ore-filled sieve several times in water the heavier pieces that were more ore-rich, settled in a lower layer. This process was later mechanised using jigging sieves (
575:
necessary for its operation could be delivered by railway towards the end of the 19th century. Electricity began to be generated at about the same time using water power from the
1139:
From the 18th century a systematic reforestation of the largely destroyed forests was begun. As a result, the Upper Harz contributed significantly to the development of modern
192:
to provide water power for the mines. In order to entice the necessary labourers, tradesmen and even mining companies to the Harz, the dukes granted 'mining freedoms' (
220:
from 1630 onwards. During the course of the 18th century there were constant crises as a result of the lack of wood. The problem was eased by the introduction of
360:, were driven out to the boundary of the mine allotment. From these gangways, miners began to extract the ore, heading downwards into the floor, by 'brushing down' (
922:
and perfected. In 1905 the most modern ore dressing plant in
Germany went into operation in Clausthal using the gravity dressing process. It was located near the
188:, who gave added impetus to existing mining operations in the Upper Harz and initiated the creation of further infrastructure, especially the structures of the
536:) powered the transportation of ore or winnings. Depending on the terrain conditions the reversible wheels were located either in underground wheel houses (
281:
were driven to produce electricity at the level of the deepest drainage adit. The generation of electricity was carried out by
Preussag until 1980 in the
1009:), i.e. those who were doing the smelting in the woodlands, were able to produce copper, lead and silver from the poly-metallic ores of the Rammelsberg.
495:). The crude ore was placed in wooden buckets for transportation. For the rather short, horizontal gangways leading to the shaft the ore was carried in
1506:
1184:
579:- an extensive network of ponds, dams, ditches and tunnels, originally built to supply the mines with water power. In 1900 water was passed through
400:
caused the rock to fissure. When blasting, first a cut in the lode was made about 3 metres high and deep and a little less than a metre wide using
1076:) was used in the Upper Harz. Instead of the usual roasting (desulphurising) of the ore, the slag was melted using charcoal with granulated iron (
615:. As the distance between shaft and workings lengthened and increasing quantities of material had to be moved, wheelbarrows or small wagons (the
1516:
1012:
In the second major phase of mining in the Upper Harz from 1524, smelting was gradually moved into fixed sites. The transportation of logs as
181:
1511:
376:
The packing (gangue material used for filling) from the upper main gangways was placed in the exhausted cavities (the so-called 'old man' or
185:
1151:. The consequences of this intensive forestry, which continued until the 1970s, are still to be seen in many areas of the Upper Harz today.
1501:
356:
was far harder than concrete. As a result, the majority of drainage adits followed the vein. From the shaft, main gangways, the so-called
684:) Georg Ludwig Wilhelm Dörell (1793–1854) came up with a simple, but ingenious mechanical method of getting in and out of the mine, the
200:
away downhill under gravity. The deeper the water level lay, the longer these adits needed to be. The longest of these tunnels was the
1401:
1339:
1285:
39:
1408:
1036:), the most famous one in the Upper Harz. It was worked until 31 December 1967. Other important smelters were the silver works (
899:). The fundamental principle was that heavy particles of ore remained on the table and the gangue would be washed away by water.
981:
of the ore, oak and beech wood were especially well-suited. The billets of wood were located near the smelting sites. The low
973:) predominated. The smelting sites were only used for a few weeks and followed the logging of the requisite wood. For the
180:
A clear recovery followed from about 1520 onwards, initially at the instigation of the Duke of Brunswick-WolfenbĂĽttel,
1496:
282:
902:
The slimes or tailings from the preceding set of processes were further separated from the particles of ore in tyes (
1124:
The steadily rising demand for wood from the pits and smelting works led to overexploitation of the forests by the
1179:
788:
604:
401:
1396:
Bastian Asmus (2012), Medieval Copper Smelting in the Harz Mountains, Germany. Bochum: Deutsches Bergbaumuseum.
1194:
1189:
1065:
467:(usually in the hanging wall), just as permanently established as the main gangways (usually in the footwall).
1016:
and the use of water power led to the selection of advantageous sites on the rivers in the Harz - such as the
608:
1061:
760:
in the Upper Harz, ore minerals to be processed into concentrations with a higher metal content than that of
552:, several hundred metres long, to the shaft. Here, reciprocating motion was re-converted into rotary motion.
725:
576:
365:
189:
936:
623:) were used underground as horizontal methods of transportation. Up to 1800 they ran on wooden planks with
775:
the ore was broken up above ground using sledges and sorted by hand into silver, lead and copper ores and
529:
452:
201:
153:
to supply energy to the mines were constructed in the 13th century in the Pandelbach valley southeast of
1049:
838:) were sorted, dry crushed and went straight on sale (to the smelters). The work on the picking tables (
761:
696:) in Wildemann the first main shaft to be equipped with a man engine was the Duke George William Shaft (
480:
90:
30:
560:
556:
1072:
From the first mining period until just before the industrial age the so-called precipitation method (
607:(1787–1846) made a cable out of steel wire which was first successfully tested on 23 July 1834 at the
293:(maximum output 1.5 MW) shafts. The hydropower stations were closed in the early 1980s when the
257:
70:
1057:
923:
290:
772:
709:
701:
648:
555:
Due to the availability of water power this system was used until the closure of the Clausthal and
336:
111:
331:. With increasing depth a form of mixed mining developed that was somewhere between open cast and
820:
748:
extracted. For example, the density of the Upper Harz lodes was very variable. Unlike the ore at
332:
237:
225:
932:
261:
756:
were less intermingled with one another and the host rock. This enabled, from the beginning of
1397:
1335:
1281:
1125:
1116:
966:
952:
757:
320:
74:
1136:
southern perimeter. Traces of the road may be seen at many places in the Upper Harz forests.
1199:
990:
928:
253:
158:
51:
46:
541:
249:
157:. At that time mining, including this early use of water systems, was carried out by the
887:) using gravity. Depending on the design and drive mechanism, they were called vanners (
224:
for the smelters around 1800. On 1 January 1864 the mines were nationalised by the
1383:
Asmus, Bastian (2012). Medieval Copper Smelting in the Harz mountains, Germany. Bochum.
1105:
1013:
584:
348:
1417:
137:
1490:
1021:
738:
700:) in the Burgstätter Mining Field. The first man engines had wooden rods with a high
632:
509:
411:
After clearing the blast debris, the material to be screened was loaded into wagons (
397:
278:
217:
671:
1056:, to 1912). After the Upper Harz metal works were closed the ores of the remaining
993:
recorded from this smelting period. Since the 1980s the mining archaeology team of
965:
The beginnings of smelting go back to the start of mining in the Upper Harz in the
568:
294:
150:
125:) predominated. Excavation followed the almost vertically standing lodes or veins (
17:
1210:
1171:
1148:
1002:
768:
753:
749:
639:) only one metre long. Until 1900 the wagons were almost always pushed by hand.
588:
521:
513:
244:) took over the running of mines in the Upper Harz. It was succeeded in 1924 by
221:
168:
164:
149:
Mining activity in the Harz goes back to the 10th and 11th centuries. The first
66:
1262:(in German), Landesamt fĂĽr Bergbau, Energie und Geologie Clausthal, IV B 1b 151
1217:
1204:
1161:
1041:
982:
959:
873:
801:
784:
705:
685:
640:
612:
572:
265:
115:
107:
86:
63:
591:. The most important innovation in the Upper Harz hauling technology was the
268:
had to close. Mining operations continued in Bad Grund, however, until 1992.
1165:
1120:
Typical spruce monoculture of the mining area with trees all of the same age
880:) of ore which is more finely mixed with the gangue until it forms a 'sand'.
734:
448:
392:
370:
353:
252:
and plummeting metal prices resulted in major closures at the height of the
213:
82:
78:
35:
1476:
1028:. At one location that had already been used in medieval times (1180), the
311:
1140:
1129:
1017:
978:
974:
834:) of the coarse lumps of ore, pure ore minerals (so-called rough ores or
796:
549:
286:
245:
205:
1465:(in German), Hannover: Bundesanstalt fĂĽr Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe
1319:(in German), Hannover: Bundesanstalt fĂĽr Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe
947:
824:
813:
792:
580:
1438:(in German), Goslar: Harzverein fĂĽr Geschichte und Altertumskunde e.V.
663:
about 300 metres deep, in Clausthal and Zellerfeld from 1835 to 1898.
643:
were not used in the Upper Harz. From 1905 at the Clausthal Ore Mine (
1144:
776:
744:
The processing of minerals in the Upper Harz depended on the type of
624:
373:
in the shaft 'sump'. As mining progressed the shaft was sunk deeper.
328:
154:
42:
in Clausthal is one of the oldest surviving winding towers in Germany
1084:) (direct conversion from metal sulphide to metal) in arched kilns (
688:. Following successful pilot trials in the Spiegelthal Hope Shaft (
475:
1456:(in German), Hameln: Niedersächsisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege
1416:(in German), Clausthal-Zellerfeld: Harzwasserwerke, archived from
1373:(in German), Hameln: Niedersächsisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege
1302:
Wilhelm August Julius Albert und die Erfindung der Eisendrahtseile
1115:
946:
724:
670:
474:
385:
364:) in stepped fashion, a technique known as underhand stoping. The
310:
136:
45:
29:
1280:(in German) (2nd ed.), Clausthal-Zellerfeld: Papierflieger,
1260:
Blei-, Silber- und Kupfererzeugung im Oberharz und am Rammelsberg
1025:
1278:
Kulturdenkmal "Oberharzer Wasserregal" – eine epochale Leistung
1032:
emerged, which later became the Clausthal Lead Smelting Works (
1245:
Die Oberharzer Wasserwirtschaft in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart
1092:) and sintering pans and then melted in crucible shaft kilns (
745:
1481:
827:). The ore is washed (and gangue removed) and sorted by size.
1445:
Vom frĂĽhneuzeitlichen Montangewerbe bis zur Bergbauindustrie
1356:
Vom frĂĽhneuzeitlichen Montangewerbe bis zur Bergbauindustrie
1334:(in German) (5th ed.), Clausthal-Zellerfeld: Pieper,
1080:) as a reduction medium using the roast-reaction process (
842:) was carried out mainly by women, the elderly and youths.
236:
Following the annexation of the Kingdom of Hanover by the
1132:. There were some 30,000 wood billets in the Harz alone.
787:
used have occasionally been found in recent times during
315:
Stope working - longitudinal section, greatly simplified
958:
Mining in the Upper Harz is inextricably bound up with
708:
at St. Andreasberg and steel man engines with steam or
969:. In medieval metallurgy, so-called nomadic smelting (
388:
and lifted the ore to the next highest main gallery.
319:
In the early days of mining in the Upper Harz simple
62:
centre of the mining industry was the group of seven
1005:
was well established and complex. The wood dweller (
1143:. Although not typical of the region, fast-growing
1300:Friedrich Wilhelm Conrad Eduard Bornhardt (1934),
1258:Friedrich Wilhelm Conrad Eduard Bornhardt (1929),
431:) were first broken up with sledges and crowbars.
655:or "Deepest Watercourse". In the Grund Ore Mine (
232:Industrial Revolution to the Closure of the Mines
951:Refining furnace for silver extraction based on
812:Coarse crushing with a heavy sledge (later with
692:), a light shaft for the Tiefen George Gallery (
240:in 1866 the Royal Prussian Mining Inspectorate (
176:Early Modern Period to the Industrial Revolution
1454:Auf den Spuren einer frĂĽhen Industrielandschaft
1371:Auf den Spuren einer frĂĽhen Industrielandschaft
1247:(in German), Clausthal-Zellerfeld: TU Clausthal
1332:Kunstbauten alter Wasserwirtschaft im Oberharz
587:. At that time modern pits emerged with steel
491:) were used, operated by one or two workers (
483:with a 9.5 m diameter in Clausthal-Zellerfeld
8:
1447:(in German), Bochum: Deutsches Bergbaumuseum
1358:(in German), Bochum: Deutsches Bergbaumuseum
1052:(to 1911) and the Andreasberg Silver Works (
647:) underground haulage was carried out using
1096:) on silver-containing argentiferous lead (
635:took over, initially as hand-forged rails (
463:) did not get past the experimental stage.
212:supply structures and the introduction of
54:recall aspects of mining all over the Harz
1271:
1269:
1238:
1236:
1234:
883:Separation of the stamped ore on tables (
1410:Das Kulturdenkmal Oberharzer Wasserregal
1276:Walter Knissel; Gerhard Fleisch (2005),
1185:Mining and metallurgy in medieval Europe
196:) based on Bohemian and Saxon practice.
1230:
455:packing. Trials with sublevel stoping (
1482:Lehrbergwerk Roter Bär St. Andreasberg
242:Königlich-Preußische Bergbauinspektion
524:in order to keep the mine dewatered (
7:
729:Stamp mill of the old Saiger works (
571:was first used in earnest when the
302:Mining technology in the Upper Harz
256:in 1930, when the big mines around
186:Julius, Duke of Brunswick-LĂĽneburg
25:
1452:Christiane Segers-Glocke (2000),
1369:Christiane Segers-Glocke (2000),
611:Shaft. That was the birth of the
272:Re-use for electricity generation
1164:
1147:trees were exclusively grown in
857:) in water-filled jigging tubs (
121:In the Upper Harz, vein mining (
1507:Early modern history of Germany
1304:(in German), Berlin: VDI-Verlag
1104:and silver extracted using the
865:, not to be confused with the
690:Spiegelthaler Hoffnungsschacht
159:Cistercian abbey of Walkenried
1:
1517:Technology in the Middle Ages
1064:(to 1981) and finally in the
721:Preparation of Upper Harz ore
717:or people-transport wagons).
1512:History of mining in Germany
910:The resulting concentrates (
651:in the gallery known as the
548:) and transmitted over twin
461:Blockbau mit Rahmenzimmerung
459:) and square set timbering (
335:. These mines were known as
1502:Medieval history of Germany
675:Principle of the man engine
1533:
1443:Christoph Bartels (1992),
1354:Christoph Bartels (1992),
943:Smelting in the Upper Harz
789:archaeological excavations
599:). Chief Mining Engineer (
585:electrical winding engines
559:in the 1930s (e.g. at the
27:Historical German industry
1180:List of mines in the Harz
1066:Binsfeldhammer Lead Works
285:(maximum output 4.5
208:on the edge of the Harz.
1477:Upper Harz Mining Museum
1463:Gangkarte des Oberharzes
1317:Gangkarte des Oberharzes
1243:Gerhard Fleisch (1983),
1195:Upper Harz Mining Museum
1190:Mining in the Lower Harz
1082:Röst-Reaktions-Verfahren
977:that was needed for the
145:north of Oberschulenberg
59:Mining in the Upper Harz
1461:Dieter Stoppel (1981),
1407:Martin Schmidt (2005),
1315:Dieter Stoppel (1981),
1054:SilberhĂĽtte Andreasberg
1048:), the silver works in
1044:(later merged with the
779:. The pounding stones (
771:until the start of the
627:wheels and guide pins (
577:Upper Harz Water Regale
530:Reversible water wheels
343:) or simply dip mines (
190:Upper Harz Water Regale
1434:Hardanus Hake (1981),
1121:
999:Friedrich-Albert Linke
955:
895:) or rotating tables (
891:), percussion tables (
741:
676:
653:Tiefsten Wasserstrecke
484:
327:) was the predominant
316:
184:. But it was his son,
146:
55:
43:
1119:
950:
795:of the minerals. The
728:
674:
645:Erzbergwerk Clausthal
563:and the Black Pit or
481:reversible waterwheel
478:
471:Extraction technology
314:
167:epidemics during the
141:Medieval mine on the
140:
71:Clausthal, Zellerfeld
49:
40:Emperor William Shaft
33:
1060:were reduced in the
698:Herzog Georg Wilhelm
694:Tiefen-Georg-Stollen
479:Reconstruction of a
427:). Larger boulders (
258:Clausthal-Zellerfeld
1330:Hugo Haase (1985),
1112:Mining and forestry
1074:Niederschlagsarbeit
1046:BleihĂĽtte Clausthal
1034:BleihĂĽtte Clausthal
906:) by sedimentation.
849:) of the 'smalls' (
830:Manual separation (
773:Early Modern Period
710:water-column engine
661:Tiefe Wasserstrecke
631:). Thereafter iron
202:Ernst August Tunnel
143:Bockswieser Gangzug
112:water-column engine
1497:Mining in the Harz
1122:
1030:Frankenscharrn Hut
956:
869:used in crushing).
823:in coarse sieves (
742:
677:
485:
457:Teilsohlenbruchbau
333:underground mining
317:
238:Kingdom of Prussia
226:Kingdom of Hanover
147:
56:
44:
18:Mining in the Harz
1126:Early Middle Ages
967:Early Middle Ages
814:crushing machines
758:mining operations
737:-GrĂĽnthal in the
657:Erzbergwerk Grund
649:conductor engines
561:Silbersegen Shaft
508:, which housed a
402:hammer and chisel
321:open cast working
182:Henry the Younger
75:Sankt Andreasberg
52:Dennert Fir Trees
16:(Redirected from
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1174:
1169:
1168:
1094:Tiegelschaftofen
1062:Upper Harz works
991:archaeologically
971:WanderverhĂĽttung
929:froth floatation
715:Leuteförderwagen
384:) worked a hand
329:method of mining
254:Great Depression
21:
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1114:
995:Lothar Klappauf
945:
853:) or ore dust (
723:
682:Oberbergmeister
669:
557:Lautenthal Pits
542:crank mechanism
473:
419:) using rakes (
358:Feldortstrecken
309:
304:
274:
250:First World War
234:
178:
135:
133:The Middle Ages
99:
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1471:External links
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1106:Parkes process
1078:Eisengranalien
1058:Grund Ore Mine
953:Georg Agricola
944:
941:
924:Ottiliae Shaft
908:
907:
900:
881:
870:
843:
828:
817:
722:
719:
668:
665:
605:Wilhelm Albert
565:Schwarze Grube
546:Krummen Zapfen
472:
469:
308:
307:Mining the ore
305:
303:
300:
283:Kaiser Wilhelm
273:
270:
233:
230:
194:Bergfreiheiten
177:
174:
134:
131:
123:Gangerzbergbau
98:
95:
50:The so-called
26:
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14:
13:
10:
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1432:
1423:on 2009-04-19
1419:
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1402:3-937203-63-X
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1341:3-923605-42-0
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1287:3-89720-725-7
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1200:Roter Bär Pit
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938:
935:and later in
934:
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904:Schlammgräben
901:
898:
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868:
867:Setzmaschinen
864:
863:Setzmaschinen
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848:
844:
841:
837:
833:
832:Handscheidung
829:
826:
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786:
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763:
762:unroasted ore
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739:Ore Mountains
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453:lean concrete
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65:
60:
53:
48:
41:
37:
32:
19:
1462:
1453:
1444:
1435:
1425:, retrieved
1418:the original
1409:
1379:
1370:
1364:
1355:
1349:
1331:
1325:
1316:
1310:
1301:
1295:
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1149:monocultures
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1102:Kesselherden
1101:
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854:
851:Grubenkleins
850:
846:
840:Klaustischen
839:
835:
831:
805:
780:
766:
754:ore minerals
743:
730:
714:
706:Samson Shaft
697:
693:
689:
681:
678:
660:
656:
652:
644:
636:
628:
620:
616:
600:
596:
593:Albert Cable
592:
589:hoist frames
564:
554:
545:
537:
533:
525:
522:piston pumps
517:
514:Water wheels
505:
501:
496:
492:
488:
486:
465:
460:
456:
444:
440:
436:
433:
428:
424:
423:) and tubs (
420:
416:
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361:
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295:water rights
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151:water wheels
148:
142:
126:
122:
120:
104:
100:
67:mining towns
58:
57:
1436:Bergchronik
1211:Kunstgraben
1172:Harz portal
1038:SilberhĂĽtte
1003:Rammelsberg
987:Schachtöfen
983:shaft kilns
885:Herdwäschen
859:Setzfässern
847:Siebwaschen
802:stamp mills
769:Middle Ages
750:Rammelsberg
731:SaigerhĂĽtte
702:dead weight
637:Hammelpfote
601:Oberbergrat
597:Albert-Seil
569:Steam power
391:From 1633
337:glory holes
222:coking coal
169:Middle Ages
1491:Categories
1427:2010-05-02
1225:References
1218:Kunstteich
1205:Samson Pit
1090:Etagenöfen
1042:Lautenthal
960:metallurgy
937:Lautenthal
878:Nasspochen
781:Pochsteine
686:man engine
641:Pit ponies
629:Spurnägeln
625:flangeless
613:wire cable
573:stone coal
518:Kunsträder
510:horse whim
489:Handhäspel
378:Alter Mann
362:NachreiĂźen
266:Lautenthal
262:Bockswiese
116:wire cable
108:man engine
87:Lautenthal
64:Upper Harz
1086:Krummofen
979:reduction
933:Bad Grund
897:Rundherde
893:StoĂźherde
889:Planherde
845:Washing (
821:screening
806:Pochwerke
735:Olbernhau
550:flat rods
538:Radstuben
534:Kehrräder
526:zu Sumpfe
449:shotcrete
437:Rollöcher
393:gunpowder
371:pit water
354:grauwacke
349:lenticles
214:gunpowder
127:Erzgängen
79:Wildemann
36:headframe
1158:See also
1141:forestry
1130:charcoal
1098:Werkblei
1018:Innerste
975:charcoal
916:Schliech
874:stamping
855:Feinerze
836:Derberze
825:trommels
797:tailings
667:Movement
609:Carolina
581:turbines
520:) drove
493:Knechten
406:BĂĽhnloch
398:blasting
291:Ottiliae
279:turbines
246:Preussag
206:Gittelde
114:and the
1391:Sources
1050:Altenau
1007:Silvani
912:Schlieg
793:density
767:In the
382:Knechte
325:Schurfe
97:History
91:Altenau
38:of the
1400:
1338:
1284:
1145:spruce
785:stamps
777:gangue
752:, the
506:Gaipel
445:Ankern
441:Rollen
421:Kratze
366:stopes
341:Pingen
289:) and
165:Plague
155:Seesen
110:, the
1421:(PDF)
1414:(PDF)
1040:) in
1022:Grane
1014:rafts
783:) or
733:) of
633:rails
621:Hunde
617:Hunte
502:Göpel
497:Trogs
429:Wände
417:Hunte
413:Hunde
386:winch
83:Grund
1398:ISBN
1336:ISBN
1282:ISBN
1026:Oker
1024:and
997:and
872:Wet
819:Wet
800:the
583:and
451:and
425:Trog
264:and
216:for
89:und
34:The
931:in
914:or
746:ore
619:or
567:).
528:).
504:or
447:),
439:or
415:or
69:of
1493::
1268:^
1233:^
1108:.
1020:,
816:).
764:.
603:)
544:(
287:MW
260:,
228:.
118:.
93:.
85:,
81:,
77:,
73:,
985:(
876:(
804:(
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532:(
516:(
435:(
339:(
323:(
20:)
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