670:. The Ca ions cause the mobilization of newly synthesized vesicles from a reserve pool to undergo this membrane fusion. This mechanism of action was discovered in squid giant axons. Lowering intracellular Ca ions provides a direct inhibitory effect on neurotransmitter release. After release of the neurotransmitter occurs, vesicular membranes are recycled to their origins of production. Calcium ion channels can vary depending on the location of incidence. For example, the channels at an axon terminal differ from the typical calcium channels of a cell body (whether
265:. As with sodium ions, graded potentials and action potentials are also dependent on potassium channels. While influx of Na ions into a neuron induce cellular depolarization, efflux of K ions out of a neuron causes a cell to repolarize to resting membrane potential. The activation of potassium ion channels themselves are dependent on the depolarization resulting from Na influx during an action potential. As with sodium channels, the potassium channels have their own toxins that block channel protein action. An example of such a toxin is the large cation,
556:
2176:
291:. A variety of different types of calcium ion channels are found in excitable cells. As with sodium ion channels, calcium ion channels have been isolated and cloned by chromatographic purification techniques. It is notable, as with the case of neurotransmitter release, that calcium channels can interact with intracellular proteins and plays a strong role in signaling, especially in locations such as the
428:. These receptors are named after agonists that facilitate glutamate activity. NMDA receptors are notable for their excitatory mechanisms to affect neuronal plasticity in learning and memory, as well as neuropathologies such as stroke and epilepsy. NDMA receptors have multiple binding sites just like ionotropic GABA receptors and can be influenced by co-agonists such the
2188:
464:
159:
1734:
705:(phenotypic differentiation of sexual characteristics) of the brain. Recent studies seem to suggest that regulating these dimorphisms has implications for understanding normal and abnormal brain function. Sexual dimorphisms may be significantly influenced by sex-based brain gene expression which varies from species to species.
720:, have been used to observe the origins and/or extent of sex bias in the brain versus the hormone-producing gonads of an animal. With the rodents, studies on genetic manipulation of sex chromosomes resulted in an effect on one sex that was completely opposite of the effect in the other sex. For example, a
375:
cells. It is responsible for inducing Cl ion influx into cells, thereby reducing the probability that membrane depolarization will occur upon the arrival of a graded potential or an action potential. GABA receptors can also interact with non-endogenous ligands to influence activity. For example, the
237:
which could be used to clone the channel protein. Cloning the channel itself allowed for applications such as identifying the same channels in other animals. Sodium channels are known for working in concert with potassium channels during the development of graded potentials and action potentials.
275:
mutant flies that shook uncontrollably upon anesthesia due to problems in cellular repolarization that led to abnormal neuron and muscle electrophysiology. Potassium channels were first identified by manipulating molecular genetics (of the flies) instead of performing channel protein purification
303:
Various types of receptors can be used for cell signaling and communication and can include ionotropic receptors and metabotropic receptors. These cell surface receptor types are differentiated by the mechanism and duration of action with ionotropic receptors being associated with fast signal
824:), it has been found that excitotoxicity is a significant cause of neuronal damage. This can be understandable in the case where sudden perfusion of blood after reduced blood flow to the brain can result in excessive synaptic activity caused by the presence of increased
455:(ACh) neurotransmitter to produce non-selective cation channel flow that generates excitatory postsynaptic responses. Receptor activity, which can be influenced by nicotine consumption, produces feelings of euphoria, relaxation, and inevitably addiction in high levels.
396:. The antagonistic mechanism of action for this compound is not directly on the GABA receptor, but there are other compounds that are capable of allosteric inactivation, including T-butylbicyclophorothionate (TBPS) and pentylenetetrazole (PZT). Compared with GABA
770:. Such changes have been found to be strongly influential in the incidence of brain disease, mental illness, and addiction. Epigenetic control has been shown to be involved in high levels of plasticity in early development, thereby defining its importance in the
731:
Observing sex-biased genes has the potential for clinical significance in observing brain physiology and the potential for related (whether directly or indirectly) neurological disorders. Examples of diseases with sex biases in development include
440:(EPSPs) produced by NMDA receptors, activating Ca-based signaling cascades (such as neurotransmitter release). AMPA generate shorter and larger excitatory postsynaptic currents than other ionotropic glutamate receptors.
317:
269:, but it is notable that the toxin does not have the same mechanism of action on all potassium channels, given the variety of channel types across species. The presence of potassium channels was first identified in
89:, regulate a significant fraction of vital body functions. It is possible to anatomically locate neurotransmitters by labeling techniques. It is possible to chemically identify certain neurotransmitters such as
653:
Initiation or inhibition of action potential in postsynaptic cell depending on whether the neurotransmitters are excitatory or inhibitory (excitatory will result in depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane)
758:
Many brain functions can be influenced at the cellular and molecular level by variations and changes in gene expression, without altering the sequence of DNA in an organism. This is otherwise known as
474:, are slow response receptors in postsynaptic cells. Typically these slow responses are characterized by more elaborate intracellular changes in biochemistry. Responses of neurotransmitter uptake by
188:. Their research demonstrated the selective permeability of cellular membranes, dependent on physiological conditions, and the electrical effects that result from these permeabilities to produce
304:
transmission and metabotropic receptors being associated with slow signal transmission. Metabotropic receptors happen to cover a wide variety of cell-surface receptors with notably different
126:, which involves raising antibodies against targeted chemical or biological entities, includes a few other techniques of interest. A targeted neurotransmitter could be specifically tagged by
728:
it was found that a large brain sex bias of expression occurred even after the gonads were removed, suggesting that sex bias could be independent of hormonal control in certain aspects.
502:
signaling cascade can significantly amplify the signal of a particular neurotransmitter to produce hundreds to thousands of second messengers in a cell. The mechanism of action by which
331:, are fast acting receptors that mediate neural and physiological function by ion channel flow with ligand-binding. Nicotinic, GABA, and Glutamate receptors are among some of the
436:(PCP). The NMDA receptors carry a current by Ca ions and can be blocked by extracellular Mg ions depending on voltage and membrane potential. This Ca influx is increased by
782:
of the brain results in a lower production of proteins and thus limited hippocampal function can result in learning and memory impairment and resultant suicidal tendencies.
384:
agonist which increases the affinity of the receptor for GABA. The increased physiological inhibitory effects resulting from increased GABA binding make diazepam a useful
404:
receptors have a higher affinity for GABA, they are likely to be longer-lasting in activity, and their responses are likely to be generated by lower GABA concentrations.
785:
In a study comparing genetic differences between healthy people and psychiatric patients 60 different epigenetic markers associated with brain cell signaling were found.
820:
neurotransmitter cause excessive activation in a postsynaptic neuron that can result in the death of the postsynaptic neuron. Following brain injury (such as from
816:
is phenomenon in which glutamate receptors are inappropriately activated. It can be caused by prolonged excitatory synaptic transmission in which high levels of
1138:
Kamb, Alexander; Linda E. Iverson; Mark A. Tanouye (31 July 1987). "Molecular characterization of Shaker, a
Drosophila gene that encodes a potassium channel".
2096:
174:. These can be observed throughout the nervous system in neurons. The first ion channels to be characterized were the sodium and potassium ion channels by
795:
Environmental enrichment in individuals is associated with increased hippocampal gene histone acetylation and thus improved memory consolidation (notably
150:. In the event that neurotransmitters cannot be histochemically identified, an alternative method is to locate them by their neural uptake mechanisms.
392:(antiepileptic drugs). On the other hand, GABA receptors can also be targeted by decreasing Cl cellular influx with the effect of convulsants like
666:. Vesicular fusion with the terminal membrane and release of the neurotransmitter is caused by the generation of Ca gradients induced by incoming
996:
1568:
848:
932:
decreases inhibition of upper motor neurons, resulting in ballistic involuntary motor movements, similar to symptoms of
Huntington's disease.
1122:
924:
of the basal ganglia. This poses the opposite effects of those associated with
Parkinson's disease, including inappropriate activation of
687:
1190:
1033:
980:
437:
1337:
893:, are not activated in a timely manner. Specific symptoms include rigidity, postural problems, slow movements, and tremors. Blocking
2076:
134:. The presence of neurotransmitters (though not necessarily the location) can be observed in enzyme-linked immunocytochemistry or
929:
902:
855:(40-42 amino acid residues) in the brain is integral in the incidence of Alzheimer's disease. Accumulation is purported to block
127:
17:
792:(associated with stress responses) that was not found in suicide victims. This is an example of experience-dependent plasticity.
674:
or not). Even at axon terminals, calcium ion channel types can vary, as is the case with P-type calcium channels located at the
2214:
254:
1408:
Tsankova, Nadia; Renthal, William; Kumar, Arvind; Nestler, Eric J. (2007). "Epigenetic
Regulation in Psychiatric Disorders".
1917:
284:
2071:
1892:
623:. Neurotransmitters are released from an axon terminal and bind to postsynaptic dendrites in the following procession:
200:
2111:
478:
can result in the activation of intracellualar enzymes and cascades involving second messengers, as is the case with
662:
Neurotransmitter release is dependent on an external supply of Ca ions which enter axon terminals via voltage-gated
1638:
1561:
847:
in the elderly. The disorder is characterized by progressive loss of memory and various cognitive functions. It is
503:
499:
479:
243:
171:
2106:
2081:
1950:
928:. As with the GABAergic mechanisms observed in relation to Parkinson's disease, a GABA agonist injected into the
487:
328:
276:
because there were no known high-affinity ligands for potassium channels (such as TEA) at the time of discovery.
2045:
2020:
1945:
1852:
1757:
1653:
1268:
Jazin, E.; Cahill, L. (January 2010). "Sex differences in molecular neuroscience: from fruit flies to humans".
339:
is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and glutamate is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter.
205:
81:, communication between neurons typically occurs by chemical transmission across gaps between the cells called
2192:
1882:
1593:
1588:
913:
877:
is the second most common neurodegenerative disease after
Alzheimer's disease. It is a hypokinetic movement
789:
733:
710:
546:
hydrolyzes the α-subunit so that is bound to GDP and the α-subunit returns to the G protein complex inactive
271:
69:. As with molecular biology, molecular neuroscience is a relatively new field that is considerably dynamic.
530:
The α-subunit of the G protein complex is bound to GTP and separates to bind with a target protein such as
1877:
1867:
1777:
1613:
874:
859:
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741:
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637:
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475:
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364:
332:
246:
of a neuron to lead to a graded potential or action potential, depending on the degree of depolarization.
179:
118:
905:, causes inhibition of upper motor neurons similar to the inhibition that occurs in Parkinson's disease.
2180:
1940:
1935:
1742:
1633:
1554:
520:
482:. Various metabotropic receptors can include certain glutamate receptors, muscarinic ACh receptors, GABA
292:
262:
222:
536:
The binding to the target protein either increases or decreases the rate of second messenger (such as
2161:
1912:
1752:
1723:
1618:
1507:
1219:
1000:
921:
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324:
94:
2055:
1955:
1832:
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925:
886:
576:
448:
413:
221:, a sodium channel blocker, was used to isolate the sodium channel protein by binding it using the
123:
46:
788:
Environmental factors such as child abuse appears to cause the expression of an epigenetic tag on
2131:
2025:
1965:
1688:
1668:
1476:
1433:
1293:
1163:
753:
702:
587:
in diameter, and large dense-core vesicles (LDCVs), electron-dense vesicles approximately 120-200
266:
175:
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of an organism. Examples of how epigenetic changes can affect the human brain are as follows:
2050:
1985:
1960:
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1285:
1247:
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of the human brain. The inhibitory outflow of the basal ganglia is thus not decreased, and so
737:
667:
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531:
425:
305:
230:
189:
147:
106:
86:
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66:
34:
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1970:
1907:
1822:
1782:
1767:
1718:
1708:
1663:
1496:"Cellular prion protein mediates impairment of synaptic plasticity by amyloid-β oligomers"
1451:
Lau, A.; M. Tymianski (2010). "Glutamate receptors, neurotoxicity and neurodegeneration".
1378:
771:
767:
698:
612:
372:
131:
62:
38:
1051:"The dual effect of membrane potential on sodium conductance in the giant axon of Loligo"
287:
are important for certain cell-signaling cascades as well as neurotransmitter release at
1511:
1223:
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2015:
1990:
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878:
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of a particular gene only resulted in anxiety-like effects in males. With studies on
721:
596:
564:
452:
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421:
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1437:
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2126:
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2005:
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555:
385:
234:
218:
210:
102:
42:
30:
1494:
Laren, Juha; David A. Gimbel; Haakon B. Nygaard; John W. Gilbert (February 2009).
583:. Two types of vesicles are small synaptic vessicles (SSVs), which are about 40-60
1995:
1842:
856:
779:
759:
368:
143:
139:
58:
1356:
1023:
2156:
1857:
1464:
644:
537:
393:
381:
258:
226:
214:
203:
were the first voltage-gated ion channels to be isolated in 1984 from the eel
163:
2101:
1792:
843:
is the most common neurodegenerative disease and is the most common form of
829:
825:
817:
600:
592:
588:
584:
568:
563:
Neurotransmitters are released in discrete packets known as quanta from the
514:
98:
1537:
1472:
1429:
1374:
1289:
1263:
1261:
1232:
1084:
1251:
1159:
261:
cells, and typically tend to stabilize the cell membrane at the potassium
105:. This can give rise to formaldehyde-induced fluorescence when exposed to
2010:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1117:(5th ed.). Massachusetts, USA: Sinauer Associates, Inc. p. 80.
966:
964:
890:
862:. It is also possible that a receptor for amyloid-β oligomers could be a
844:
821:
377:
238:
Sodium channels allow an influx of Na ions into a neuron, resulting in a
114:
110:
82:
54:
1519:
962:
960:
958:
956:
954:
952:
950:
948:
946:
944:
320:
Prototypical depiction of ionotropic receptor in the case of Ca ion flow
130:
with radioactive labeling in order to identify the neurotransmitter by
763:
608:
572:
559:
Structure of a synapse where neurotransmitter release and uptake occurs
463:
429:
41:
of animals. The scope of this subject covers topics such as molecular
1336:
Fagiolini, Michela; Catherin L. Jensen; Frances A. Champagne (2009).
543:
184:
1421:
1281:
158:
1733:
863:
157:
135:
1314:. Genetics Science and Learning Center at The University of Utah
604:
336:
1550:
1546:
650:
Uptake of neurotransmitters in receptors of a postsynaptic cell
316:
138:
in which substrate-binding in the enzymatic assays can induce
16:"Molecular neurobiology" redirects here. For the journal, see
182:
in the 1950s upon studying the giant axon of the squid genus
1338:"Epigenetic Influences on brain development and plasticity"
881:
disease caused by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the
1108:
1106:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1094:
920:
disease caused by lack of normal inhibitory inputs from
513:
The receptor undergoes a conformational change to allow
762:
regulation. Examples of epigenetic mechanisms include
643:
Fusion of primed vesicle with presynaptic membrane and
1208:"Voltage-dependent calcium channel in the squid axon"
701:. Sex hormonal releases have a significant effect on
61:
on neuronal development, and the molecular basis for
633:
Docking of vesicle (binding) to presynaptic membrane
355:
receptors are known to be ionotropic, while the GABA
2064:
1926:
1866:
1741:
1602:
697:Differences in sex determination are controlled by
363:receptors mediate fast inhibitory responses in the
1206:Dipolo, R.; C. Caputo; F. Bezanilla (March 1983).
804:Molecular mechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases
627:Mobilization/recruitment of synaptic vesicle from
1028:. New York: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
257:come in a variety of forms, are present in most
778:Higher methylation levels in rRNA genes in the
1185:. Oxford, UK: BIOS Scientific Publishers Ltd.
527:upon G protein complex binding to the receptor
1562:
658:Neurotransmitter release is calcium-dependent
8:
2097:Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring
1049:Hodgkin, Allan L.; Andrew F. Huxley (1952).
615:and houses larger neurotransmitters such as
335:regulated by ligand-gated ion channel flow.
467:G-protein-linked receptor signaling cascade
1569:
1555:
1547:
1181:Davies, R. Wayne; Brian J. Morris (1997).
971:Longstaff, Alan; Revest, Patricia (1998).
136:enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA)
1527:
1364:
1241:
1231:
1074:
506:cause a signaling cascade is as follows:
170:Excitable cells in living organisms have
113:, a catecholamine, was identified in the
591:in diameter. The former is derived from
554:
462:
315:
229:sequence of the protein was analyzed by
940:
575:. These quanta have been identified by
225:technique for chemical separation. The
809:Excitotoxicity and glutamate receptors
510:Neurotransmitter binds to the receptor
85:. The transmitted chemicals, known as
595:and houses neurotransmitters such as
7:
2187:
166:voltage-gated potassium ion channels
688:Computational neurogenetic modeling
438:excitatory postsynaptic potentials
14:
2077:Development of the nervous system
1312:"Epigenetics and the Human Brain"
611:. The latter is derived from the
2186:
2175:
2174:
1732:
930:substantia nigra pars reticulata
367:(CNS) and are found on neurons,
128:primary and secondary antibodies
18:Molecular Neurobiology (journal)
1345:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
1183:Molecular Biology of the Neuron
832:during the period of ischemia.
708:Animal models such as rodents,
1067:10.1113/jphysiol.1952.sp004719
647:of the housed neurotransmitter
359:receptor is metabotropic. GABA
1:
1918:Social cognitive neuroscience
997:"What are Neurotransmitters?"
233:and then used to construct a
1893:Molecular cellular cognition
1152:10.1016/0092-8674(87)90494-6
2112:Neurodevelopmental disorder
2087:Neural network (biological)
2082:Neural network (artificial)
1410:Nature Reviews Neuroscience
1270:Nature Reviews Neuroscience
916:is a hyperkinetic movement
380:(marketed as Valium) is an
2231:
1639:Computational neuroscience
1357:10.1016/j.conb.2009.05.009
751:
685:
504:G protein-linked receptors
494:G protein-linked receptors
480:G protein-linked receptors
244:resting membrane potential
172:voltage-gated ion channels
154:Voltage-gated ion channels
73:Locating neurotransmitters
67:neurodegenerative diseases
33:that observes concepts in
15:
2170:
2107:Neurodegenerative disease
1951:Evolutionary neuroscience
1730:
1584:
1465:10.1007/s00424-010-0809-1
1055:The Journal of Physiology
621:peptide neurotransmitters
488:receptor tyrosine kinases
329:ligand-gated ion channels
122:by using this technique.
2072:Brain–computer interface
2021:Neuromorphic engineering
1946:Educational neuroscience
1853:Nutritional neuroscience
1758:Clinical neurophysiology
1654:Integrative neuroscience
1212:Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
790:glucocorticoid receptors
748:Epigenetics of the brain
682:Neuronal gene expression
551:Neurotransmitter release
267:tetraethylammonium (TEA)
206:Electrophorus electricus
1883:Behavioral neuroscience
1022:Riddle, Donald (1998).
908:
869:
851:that the deposition of
835:
711:Drosophila melanogaster
444:Nicotinic ACh receptors
272:Drosophila melanogaster
2215:Molecular neuroscience
1878:Affective neuroscience
1659:Molecular neuroscience
1614:Behavioral epigenetics
1233:10.1073/pnas.80.6.1743
973:Molecular Neuroscience
860:long-term potentiation
717:Caenorhabditis elegans
676:neuromuscular junction
640:(relatively slow step)
636:Priming of vesicle by
560:
476:metabotropic receptors
472:Metabotropic receptors
468:
459:Metabotropic receptors
365:central nervous system
333:cell surface receptors
321:
293:sarcoplasmic reticulum
250:Potassium ion channels
167:
27:Molecular neuroscience
23:Branch of neuroscience
1941:Cultural neuroscience
1936:Consumer neuroscience
1778:Neurogastroenterology
1634:Cellular neuroscience
1113:Purves, Dale (2012).
567:of one neuron to the
558:
466:
327:, otherwise known as
319:
263:equilibrium potential
223:column chromatography
161:
1913:Sensory neuroscience
1753:Behavioral neurology
1724:Systems neuroscience
1003:on 25 September 2019
922:medium spiny neurons
914:Huntington's disease
909:Huntington's disease
899:medium spiny neurons
734:Huntington's disease
571:of another across a
432:neurotransmitter or
325:Ionotropic receptors
312:Ionotropic receptors
280:Calcium ion channels
2056:Social neuroscience
1956:Global neurosurgery
1833:Neurorehabilitation
1803:Neuro-ophthalmology
1788:Neurointensive care
1619:Behavioral genetics
1520:10.1038/nature07761
1512:2009Natur.457.1128L
1506:(7233): 1128–1132.
1224:1983PNAS...80.1743D
975:. Garland Science.
926:upper motor neurons
887:upper motor neurons
875:Parkinson's disease
870:Parkinson's disease
841:Alzheimer's disease
836:Alzheimer's disease
742:Alzheimer's disease
577:electron microscopy
449:Nicotinic receptors
414:glutamate receptors
408:Glutamate receptors
196:Sodium ion channels
124:Immunocytochemistry
47:molecular signaling
2132:Neuroimmune system
2026:Neurophenomenology
1966:Neural engineering
1689:Neuroendocrinology
1669:Neural engineering
889:, mediated by the
766:modifications and
754:Epigenetic priming
703:sexual dimorphisms
561:
523:is exchanged with
469:
322:
306:signaling cascades
255:Potassium channels
219:tetrodotoxin (TTX)
168:
2202:
2201:
2051:Paleoneurobiology
1986:Neuroepistemology
1961:Neuroanthropology
1927:Interdisciplinary
1813:Neuropharmacology
1773:Neuroepidemiology
1124:978-0-87893-695-3
853:amyloid-β peptide
738:cerebral ischemia
668:action potentials
581:synaptic vesicles
532:adenylate cyclase
426:kainate receptors
295:of muscle cells.
231:Edman degradation
190:action potentials
148:chemiluminescence
107:ultraviolet light
87:neurotransmitters
79:molecular biology
53:, the effects of
35:molecular biology
2222:
2190:
2189:
2178:
2177:
2092:Detection theory
1976:Neurocriminology
1903:Neurolinguistics
1818:Neuroprosthetics
1736:
1699:Neuroinformatics
1649:Imaging genetics
1571:
1564:
1557:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1531:
1491:
1485:
1484:
1448:
1442:
1441:
1405:
1394:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1383:
1377:. Archived from
1368:
1342:
1333:
1324:
1323:
1321:
1319:
1308:
1302:
1301:
1265:
1256:
1255:
1245:
1235:
1218:(6): 1743–1745.
1203:
1197:
1196:
1178:
1172:
1171:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1110:
1089:
1088:
1078:
1046:
1040:
1039:
1019:
1013:
1012:
1010:
1008:
999:. Archived from
993:
987:
986:
968:
903:reticulata cells
883:substantia nigra
726:D. menlanogaster
664:calcium channels
500:G protein-linked
285:Calcium channels
45:, mechanisms of
2230:
2229:
2225:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2220:
2219:
2205:
2204:
2203:
2198:
2166:
2152:Neurotechnology
2147:Neuroplasticity
2142:Neuromodulation
2137:Neuromanagement
2060:
2031:Neurophilosophy
1928:
1922:
1908:Neuropsychology
1869:
1862:
1823:Neuropsychiatry
1783:Neuroimmunology
1768:Neurocardiology
1744:
1737:
1728:
1719:Neurophysiology
1709:Neuromorphology
1664:Neural decoding
1605:
1598:
1580:
1575:
1545:
1493:
1492:
1488:
1450:
1449:
1445:
1422:10.1038/nrn2132
1407:
1406:
1397:
1387:
1385:
1384:on 22 June 2010
1381:
1340:
1335:
1334:
1327:
1317:
1315:
1310:
1309:
1305:
1282:10.1038/nrn2754
1267:
1266:
1259:
1205:
1204:
1200:
1193:
1180:
1179:
1175:
1137:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1112:
1111:
1092:
1048:
1047:
1043:
1036:
1021:
1020:
1016:
1006:
1004:
995:
994:
990:
983:
970:
969:
942:
938:
911:
872:
838:
811:
806:
772:critical period
768:DNA methylation
756:
750:
699:sex chromosomes
695:
693:Sex differences
690:
684:
660:
613:Golgi apparatus
553:
517:complex binding
496:
486:receptors, and
485:
461:
446:
410:
403:
399:
373:adrenal medulla
362:
358:
354:
350:
345:
314:
301:
282:
252:
201:Sodium channels
198:
156:
132:autoradiography
99:tissue sections
75:
63:neuroplasticity
39:nervous systems
37:applied to the
29:is a branch of
24:
21:
12:
11:
5:
2228:
2226:
2218:
2217:
2207:
2206:
2200:
2199:
2197:
2196:
2184:
2171:
2168:
2167:
2165:
2164:
2162:Self-awareness
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2117:Neurodiversity
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2068:
2066:
2062:
2061:
2059:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2016:Neuromarketing
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1991:Neuroesthetics
1988:
1983:
1981:Neuroeconomics
1978:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1932:
1930:
1924:
1923:
1921:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1874:
1872:
1864:
1863:
1861:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1828:Neuroradiology
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1808:Neuropathology
1805:
1800:
1798:Neuro-oncology
1795:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1755:
1749:
1747:
1739:
1738:
1731:
1729:
1727:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1684:Neurochemistry
1681:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1641:
1636:
1631:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1610:
1608:
1600:
1599:
1597:
1596:
1591:
1585:
1582:
1581:
1576:
1574:
1573:
1566:
1559:
1551:
1544:
1543:
1486:
1459:(2): 525–542.
1443:
1416:(5): 355–367.
1395:
1325:
1303:
1257:
1198:
1192:978-1859962404
1191:
1173:
1146:(3): 405–413.
1130:
1123:
1090:
1061:(4): 497–506.
1041:
1035:978-0879695323
1034:
1014:
988:
982:978-1859962503
981:
939:
937:
934:
910:
907:
871:
868:
837:
834:
814:Excitotoxicity
810:
807:
805:
802:
801:
800:
797:spatial memory
793:
786:
783:
749:
746:
694:
691:
683:
680:
659:
656:
655:
654:
651:
648:
641:
634:
631:
617:catecholamines
552:
549:
548:
547:
541:
534:
528:
518:
511:
495:
492:
483:
460:
457:
445:
442:
409:
406:
401:
397:
390:anticonvulsant
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
343:GABA receptors
341:
313:
310:
300:
297:
289:axon terminals
281:
278:
251:
248:
240:depolarization
197:
194:
155:
152:
91:catecholamines
74:
71:
51:nervous system
22:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2227:
2216:
2213:
2212:
2210:
2195:
2194:
2185:
2183:
2182:
2173:
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2169:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
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2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2067:
2063:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2046:Neurotheology
2044:
2042:
2041:Neurorobotics
2039:
2037:
2036:Neuropolitics
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
2001:Neuroethology
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1933:
1931:
1925:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1898:Motor control
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1888:Chronobiology
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1865:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1848:Neurovirology
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
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1801:
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1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1694:Neurogenetics
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
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1667:
1665:
1662:
1660:
1657:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
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1642:
1640:
1637:
1635:
1632:
1630:
1629:Brain-reading
1627:
1625:
1624:Brain mapping
1622:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1611:
1609:
1607:
1601:
1595:
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1521:
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1497:
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1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1453:Pflügers Arch
1447:
1444:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1396:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1358:
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1313:
1307:
1304:
1299:
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1264:
1262:
1258:
1253:
1249:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1202:
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1194:
1188:
1184:
1177:
1174:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1134:
1131:
1126:
1120:
1116:
1109:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1045:
1042:
1037:
1031:
1027:
1026:
1025:C. Elegans II
1018:
1015:
1002:
998:
992:
989:
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959:
957:
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953:
951:
949:
947:
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941:
935:
933:
931:
927:
923:
919:
918:basal ganglia
915:
906:
904:
900:
896:
895:GABA receptor
892:
888:
884:
880:
879:basal ganglia
876:
867:
865:
861:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
833:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
808:
803:
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776:
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761:
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743:
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718:
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712:
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669:
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652:
649:
646:
642:
639:
635:
632:
630:
626:
625:
624:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
597:acetylcholine
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
565:axon terminal
557:
550:
545:
542:
539:
535:
533:
529:
526:
522:
519:
516:
512:
509:
508:
507:
505:
501:
493:
491:
489:
481:
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473:
465:
458:
456:
454:
453:acetylcholine
450:
443:
441:
439:
435:
434:phencyclidine
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427:
423:
419:
415:
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395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
374:
370:
366:
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309:
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245:
241:
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228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
207:
202:
195:
193:
191:
187:
186:
181:
177:
173:
165:
162:Structure of
160:
153:
151:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
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2191:
2179:
2127:Neuroimaging
2122:Neurogenesis
2006:Neurohistory
1971:Neurobiotics
1870:neuroscience
1838:Neurosurgery
1763:Epileptology
1745:neuroscience
1714:Neurophysics
1704:Neurometrics
1679:Neurobiology
1674:Neuroanatomy
1658:
1644:Connectomics
1578:Neuroscience
1503:
1499:
1489:
1456:
1452:
1446:
1413:
1409:
1386:. Retrieved
1379:the original
1348:
1344:
1316:. Retrieved
1306:
1273:
1269:
1215:
1211:
1201:
1182:
1176:
1143:
1139:
1133:
1115:Neuroscience
1114:
1058:
1054:
1044:
1024:
1017:
1005:. Retrieved
1001:the original
991:
972:
912:
873:
849:hypothesized
839:
812:
757:
730:
725:
715:
709:
707:
696:
661:
629:cytoskeleton
562:
540:) production
497:
470:
447:
416:can include
411:
386:tranquilizer
346:
323:
302:
283:
270:
253:
235:cDNA library
211:Shosaku Numa
204:
199:
183:
176:A.L. Hodgkin
169:
144:fluorophores
140:precipitates
117:
103:formaldehyde
76:
43:neuroanatomy
31:neuroscience
26:
25:
1996:Neuroethics
1843:Neurotology
1388:14 November
1318:10 November
1276:(1): 9–17.
897:input from
857:hippocampal
780:hippocampus
412:Ionotropic
369:glial cells
180:A.F. Huxley
59:epigenetics
2157:Neurotoxin
1858:Psychiatry
1351:(2): 1–6.
1007:1 November
936:References
760:epigenetic
752:See also:
686:See also:
645:exocytosis
619:and other
538:cyclic AMP
394:picrotoxin
382:allosteric
259:eukaryotic
227:amino acid
215:pufferfish
164:eukaryotic
119:C. elegans
2102:Neurochip
1868:Cognitive
1793:Neurology
866:protein.
830:aspartate
826:glutamate
818:glutamate
601:glutamate
593:endosomes
569:dendrites
515:G-protein
451:bind the
376:compound
299:Receptors
242:from the
2209:Category
2181:Category
2065:Concepts
2011:Neurolaw
1743:Clinical
1538:19242475
1481:12421120
1473:20229265
1438:34125955
1430:17453016
1375:19545993
1290:20019686
1168:31247228
1085:14946715
891:thalamus
845:dementia
822:ischemia
722:knockout
378:diazepam
351:and GABA
115:nematode
111:Dopamine
83:synapses
55:genetics
2193:Commons
1606:science
1594:History
1589:Outline
1529:2748841
1508:Bibcode
1366:2745597
1298:2545405
1252:6300873
1220:Bibcode
1160:2440582
1076:1392212
764:histone
609:glycine
573:synapse
430:glycine
97:neural
49:in the
1929:fields
1536:
1526:
1500:Nature
1479:
1471:
1436:
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740:, and
714:, and
672:neural
607:, and
544:GTPase
424:, and
400:, GABA
371:, and
217:toxin
213:. The
185:Loligo
95:fixing
1604:Basic
1477:S2CID
1434:S2CID
1382:(PDF)
1341:(PDF)
1294:S2CID
1164:S2CID
864:prion
146:, or
101:with
1534:PMID
1469:PMID
1426:PMID
1390:2013
1371:PMID
1320:2013
1286:PMID
1248:PMID
1187:ISBN
1156:PMID
1140:Cell
1119:ISBN
1081:PMID
1030:ISBN
1009:2013
977:ISBN
828:and
605:GABA
498:The
422:AMPA
418:NMDA
347:GABA
337:GABA
178:and
65:and
57:and
1524:PMC
1516:doi
1504:457
1461:doi
1457:460
1418:doi
1361:PMC
1353:doi
1278:doi
1238:PMC
1228:doi
1148:doi
1071:PMC
1063:doi
1059:116
901:to
638:ATP
579:as
525:GTP
521:GDP
388:or
209:by
93:by
77:In
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484:B
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353:C
349:A
20:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
