41:
1080:
375:
357:
2091:
444:
color. Similarly, when indium is inserted into a flame, the flame becomes blue. These definite characteristics allow elements to be identified by their atomic emission spectrum. Not all emitted lights are perceptible to the naked eye, as the spectrum also includes ultraviolet rays and infrared radiation. An emission spectrum is formed when an excited gas is viewed directly through a spectroscope.
448:
371:. If only a single atom of hydrogen were present, then only a single wavelength would be observed at a given instant. Several of the possible emissions are observed because the sample contains many hydrogen atoms that are in different initial energy states and reach different final energy states. These different combinations lead to simultaneous emissions at different wavelengths.
2103:
424:
originates from an atom in elemental form. Each element has a different atomic spectrum. The production of line spectra by the atoms of an element indicate that an atom can radiate only a certain amount of energy. This leads to the conclusion that bound electrons cannot have just any amount of energy but only a certain amount of energy.
443:
by analysing the received light. The emission spectrum characteristics of some elements are plainly visible to the naked eye when these elements are heated. For example, when platinum wire is dipped into a sodium nitrate solution and then inserted into a flame, the sodium atoms emit an amber yellow
423:
gives us a discontinuous spectrum. A spectroscope or a spectrometer is an instrument which is used for separating the components of light, which have different wavelengths. The spectrum appears in a series of lines called the line spectrum. This line spectrum is called an atomic spectrum when it
418:
Light consists of electromagnetic radiation of different wavelengths. Therefore, when the elements or their compounds are heated either on a flame or by an electric arc they emit energy in the form of light. Analysis of this light, with the help of a
96:
is equal to the energy difference between the two states. There are many possible electron transitions for each atom, and each transition has a specific energy difference. This collection of different transitions, leading to different radiated
1126:
Report of the Fifth
Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science; Held at Dublin in 1835. Notices and Abstracts of Communications to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at the Dublin Meeting, August
477:, and by observing these wavelengths the elemental composition of the sample can be determined. Emission spectroscopy developed in the late 19th century and efforts in theoretical explanation of atomic emission spectra eventually led to
637:(lines in the solar spectrum) coincide with characteristic emission lines identified in the spectra of heated elements. It was correctly deduced that dark lines in the solar spectrum are caused by absorption by chemical elements in the
352:
The frequencies of light that an atom can emit are dependent on states the electrons can be in. When excited, an electron moves to a higher energy level or orbital. When the electron falls back to its ground level the light is emitted.
128:
Since energy must be conserved, the energy difference between the two states equals the energy carried off by the photon. The energy states of the transitions can lead to emissions over a very large range of frequencies. For example,
511:
Although the emission lines are caused by a transition between quantized energy states and may at first look very sharp, they do have a finite width, i.e. they are composed of more than one wavelength of light. This
33:
187:, and light is treated as an oscillating electric field that can drive a transition if it is in resonance with the system's natural frequency. The quantum mechanics problem is treated using time-dependent
222:
The fact that only certain colors appear in an element's atomic emission spectrum means that only certain frequencies of light are emitted. Each of these frequencies are related to energy by the formula:
1568:
649:
The solution containing the relevant substance to be analysed is drawn into the burner and dispersed into the flame as a fine spray. The solvent evaporates first, leaving finely divided
602:
presented observations and theories about gas spectra. Ångström postulated that an incandescent gas emits luminous rays of the same wavelength as those it can absorb. At the same time
1922:
260:
594:
and emission lines at the same wavelength are both due to the same material, with the difference between the two originating from the temperature of the light source. In 1853, the
219:. The wavelength (or equivalently, frequency) of the photon is determined by the difference in energy between the two states. These emitted photons form the element's spectrum.
287:
1595:
500:. The simplest method is to heat the sample to a high temperature, after which the excitations are produced by collisions between the sample atoms. This method is used in
307:
743:
a charged particle emits radiation under incident light. The particle may be an ordinary atomic electron, so emission coefficients have practical applications.
331:
105:
can be used to identify elements in matter of unknown composition. Similarly, the emission spectra of molecules can be used in chemical analysis of substances.
1813:
1746:
1691:
1660:
552:
1655:
2028:
1846:
1708:
215:
pushes the electrons to higher energy orbitals. When the electrons fall back down and leave the excited state, energy is re-emitted in the form of a
117:, emission is the process by which a higher energy quantum mechanical state of a particle becomes converted to a lower one through the emission of a
1977:
1796:
1640:
183:
Emission of radiation is typically described using semi-classical quantum mechanics: the particle's energy levels and spacings are determined from
1917:
1719:
1620:
1863:
1841:
1588:
591:
1929:
1851:
1534:
1104:
1681:
1786:
1731:
493:
1094:
2139:
1363:"On certain physical properties of light, produced by the combustion of different metals, in the electric spark, refracted by a prism"
2013:
1765:
1581:
607:
402:(combined vibrational and electronic) transitions. These energy transitions often lead to closely spaced groups of many different
2018:
1836:
2033:
2003:
1934:
1868:
489:
226:
40:
2134:
1962:
1753:
1650:
603:
484:
There are many ways in which atoms can be brought to an excited state. Interaction with electromagnetic radiation is used in
341:
with specific energies are emitted by the atom. The principle of the atomic emission spectrum explains the varied colors in
156:
of an object quantifies how much light is emitted by it. This may be related to other properties of the object through the
2149:
1760:
1665:
1563:
818:
from incident flux, the density of the charged particles and their
Thomson differential cross section (area/solid angle).
2144:
1894:
1741:
1630:
866:
583:
527:
69:
2050:
1889:
1858:
1791:
665:
are excited as described above, and the spontaneously emit photon to decay to lower energy states. It is common for a
501:
599:
505:
2040:
1982:
1831:
1703:
85:
1380:"On certain physical properties of the light of the electric spark, within certain gases, as seen through a prism"
2066:
2045:
1808:
1686:
1482:"Ueber das Verhältniss zwischen dem Emissionsvermögen und dem Absorptionsvermögen der Körper für Wärme und Licht"
708:
610:
were discussing similar postulates. Ångström also measured the emission spectrum from hydrogen later labeled the
485:
436:
77:
834:
emission coefficient relating to its temperature and total power radiation. This is sometimes called the second
157:
2159:
513:
368:
2107:
1379:
1235:
1201:
988:"Neue Modifikation des Lichtes durch gegenseitige Einwirkung und Beugung der Strahlen, und Gesetze derselben"
427:
The emission spectrum can be used to determine the composition of a material, since it is different for each
2129:
1939:
1635:
1362:
1003:"Kurzer Bericht von den Resultaten neuerer Versuche ĂĽber die Gesetze des Lichtes, und die Theorie derselben"
851:
538:
196:
1079:
1726:
724:
473:
to a lower energy state. Each element emits a characteristic set of discrete wavelengths according to its
395:
192:
2095:
1967:
1698:
1612:
990:(New modification of light by the mutual influence and the diffraction of rays, and the laws thereof),
564:
391:
177:
1218:
618:
published observations on the spectra of metals and gases, including an independent observation of the
582:
reported that different metals could be distinguished by bright lines in the emission spectra of their
265:
133:
is emitted by the coupling of electronic states in atoms and molecules (then the phenomenon is called
1493:
1454:
1330:
1280:
887:
861:
835:
474:
452:
961:
390:
As well as the electronic transitions discussed above, the energy of a molecule can also change via
2154:
2023:
1736:
1645:
1156:
915:
856:
720:
572:
568:
560:
548:
399:
188:
1418:
199:, although the semi-classical version continues to be more useful in most practical computations.
2071:
2008:
1987:
1803:
1781:
1714:
1625:
1173:
1121:
1074:
871:
815:
740:
579:
497:
987:
1005:(Short account of the results of new experiments on the laws of light, and the theory thereof)
567:
solidified this significant experimental leap of replacing a prism as the source of wavelength
1972:
1899:
1873:
1530:
1526:
1407:
1100:
1056:
839:
556:
478:
184:
169:
65:
1501:
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1338:
1288:
1247:
1046:
1038:
892:
638:
634:
626:
587:
544:
428:
61:
1558:
912:
equation includes the emission coefficient (which is not related to the one discussed here)
1002:
903:
898:
728:
334:
292:
138:
1497:
1458:
1334:
1284:
1051:
1026:
882:
877:
432:
407:
403:
316:
176:. Precise measurements at many wavelengths allow the identification of a substance via
173:
153:
101:, make up an emission spectrum. Each element's emission spectrum is unique. Therefore,
2123:
831:
666:
630:
470:
130:
89:
374:
1604:
619:
611:
543:
In 1756 Thomas
Melvill observed the emission of distinct patterns of colour when
462:
420:
356:
165:
134:
102:
966:
Essays and
Observations, Physical and Literary. Read Before a Society in Edinburgh
17:
792:
615:
161:
146:
125:. The frequency of light emitted is a function of the energy of the transition.
98:
73:
1412:
Monatsbericht der Königlichen
Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin
1414:(Monthly report of the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin), 662–665.
1251:
716:
677:
346:
142:
1506:
1466:
1073:
OpenStax
Astronomy, "Spectroscopy in Astronomy". OpenStax CNX. Sep 29, 2016
685:
676:
and samples of metal salts. This method of qualitative analysis is called a
672:
On a simple level, flame emission spectroscopy can be observed using just a
662:
447:
342:
310:
208:
1060:
1042:
508:
when he discovered the phenomenon of discrete emission lines in the 1850s.
1425:(Proceedings of the Natural History / Medical Association in Heidelberg),
936:
555:
discovered the principles of diffraction grating and
American astronomer
1343:
1318:
693:
361:
81:
1293:
1268:
712:
114:
52:(right) emission sodium D lines using a wick with salt water in a flame
1161:
Société Philomatique de Paris. Extraits des Procès-Verbaux de Séances.
653:
particles which move to the hottest region of the flame where gaseous
1423:
Verhandlungen des naturhistorisch-medizinischen
Vereins zu Heidelberg
1392:
Alter's observations of hydrogen's optical spectrum appear on p. 213.
827:
689:
681:
595:
586:, thereby introducing an alternative to flame spectroscopy. In 1849,
466:
338:
216:
212:
211:
in the atom are excited, for example by being heated, the additional
141:). On the other hand, nuclear shell transitions can emit high energy
118:
93:
1481:
1442:
992:
Denkschriften der Königlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu MĂĽnchen
684:
salts placed in the flame will glow yellow from sodium ions, while
909:
719:
of the light. It has unit mâ‹…sâ‹…sr. It is also used as a measure of
692:
wire will create a blue colored flame, however in the presence of
673:
654:
650:
446:
373:
355:
122:
39:
31:
1564:
Color
Simulation of Element Emission Spectrum Based on NIST data
658:
440:
379:
1577:
1573:
1553:
1075:
http://cnx.org/contents/1f92a120-370a-4547-b14e-a3df3ce6f083@3
469:
emitted by atoms or molecules during their transition from an
410:. Unresolved band spectra may appear as a spectral continuum.
160:. For most substances, the amount of emission varies with the
32:
575:
and allowing for the dispersed wavelengths to be quantified.
27:
Frequencies of light emitted by atoms or chemical compounds
1559:
NIST Physical Reference Data—Atomic Spectroscopy Databases
707:
is a coefficient in the power output per unit time of an
661:
are produced through the dissociation of molecules. Here
523:
because of the light nature of what is being emitted.
88:
from a high energy state to a lower energy state. The
1269:"Early Spectroscopy and the Balmer Lines of Hydrogen"
994:(Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Science in Munich),
645:
Experimental technique in flame emission spectroscopy
319:
295:
268:
229:
1307:(Ångström, 1852), p. 352; (Ångström, 1855b), p. 337.
1122:"On the prismatic decomposition of electrical light"
715:. The emission coefficient of a gas varies with the
2059:
1996:
1955:
1948:
1910:
1882:
1824:
1774:
1674:
1611:
874:, Table of emission spectra of gas discharge lamps
325:
301:
281:
254:
145:, while nuclear spin transitions emit low energy
36:Emission spectrum of a ceramic metal halide lamp.
1129:. London, England: John Murray. pp. 11–12.
696:gives green (molecular contribution by CuCl).
519:Emission spectroscopy is often referred to as
1589:
8:
1661:Vibrational spectroscopy of linear molecules
764:is the energy scattered by a volume element
465:technique which examines the wavelengths of
168:of the object, leading to the appearance of
1027:"A geological history of reflecting optics"
1952:
1656:Nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy
1596:
1582:
1574:
1206:Kongliga Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar
1178:L'Institut, Journal Universel des Sciences
1138:
1136:
367:The above picture shows the visible light
2029:Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy
1709:Resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization
1505:
1342:
1292:
1050:
688:(used in road flares) ions color it red.
318:
294:
273:
267:
234:
228:
195:. The description has been superseded by
191:and leads to the general result known as
1797:Extended X-ray absorption fine structure
1384:The American Journal of Science and Arts
1367:The American Journal of Science and Arts
669:to be used to allow for easy detection.
488:, protons or other heavier particles in
255:{\displaystyle E_{\text{photon}}=h\nu ,}
1099:(2nd ed.). IET. pp. 207–208.
1031:Journal of the Royal Society, Interface
927:
1523:An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics
1554:Emission spectra of atmospheric gases
1096:Sir Charles Wheatstone FRS: 1802-1875
504:, and it was also the method used by
7:
2102:
494:energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
1443:"Ueber die Fraunhofer'schen Linien"
1408:"Ueber die Fraunhofer'schen Linien"
962:"Observations on light and colours"
1221:[Optical investigations].
1204:[Optical investigations].
492:and electrons or X-ray photons in
25:
2014:Deep-level transient spectroscopy
1766:Saturated absorption spectroscopy
590:experimentally demonstrated that
439:: identifying the composition of
282:{\displaystyle E_{\text{photon}}}
121:, resulting in the production of
2101:
2090:
2089:
2019:Dual-polarization interferometry
1172:Foucault, L. (7 February 1849).
1078:
791:per unit time then the emission
723:emissions (by mass) per MWâ‹…h of
2034:Scanning tunneling spectroscopy
2009:Circular dichroism spectroscopy
2004:Acoustic resonance spectroscopy
1319:"Spectrum Analysis Discoverer?"
490:particle-induced X-ray emission
44:A demonstration of the 589 nm D
1963:Fourier-transform spectroscopy
1651:Vibrational circular dichroism
711:source, a calculated value in
369:emission spectrum for hydrogen
1:
1761:Cavity ring-down spectroscopy
1666:Thermal infrared spectroscopy
1323:Journal of Chemical Education
1273:Journal of Chemical Education
1223:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
814:in Thomson scattering can be
521:optical emission spectroscopy
289:is the energy of the photon,
1895:Inelastic neutron scattering
1521:Carroll, Bradley W. (2007).
867:Electromagnetic spectroscopy
528:Atomic emission spectroscopy
1956:Data collection, processing
1832:Photoelectron/photoemission
937:"Spectroscopy Oil Analysis"
516:has many different causes.
502:flame emission spectroscopy
349:results (described below).
337:. This concludes that only
2176:
2041:Photoacoustic spectroscopy
1983:Time-resolved spectroscopy
1569:Hydrogen emission spectrum
1419:"Ueber das Sonnenspektrum"
1176:[Electric light].
1159:[Electric light].
838:, and can be deduced from
559:made the first engineered
536:
525:
2140:Electromagnetic radiation
2085:
2067:Astronomical spectroscopy
2046:Photothermal spectroscopy
1421:(On the sun's spectrum),
1410:(On Fraunhofer's lines),
1317:Retcofsky, H. L. (2003).
1252:10.1080/14786445508641880
1219:"Optische Untersuchungen"
840:quantum mechanical theory
486:fluorescence spectroscopy
437:astronomical spectroscopy
166:spectroscopic composition
78:electromagnetic radiation
1507:10.1002/andp.18601850205
1467:10.1002/andp.18601850115
1417:Gustav Kirchhoff (1859)
1406:Gustav Kirchhoff (1859)
1234:Ångström, A.J. (1855b).
1217:Ångström, A.J. (1855a).
1202:"Optiska undersökningar"
1025:Parker AR (March 2005).
1001:Fraunhofer, Jos. (1823)
960:Melvill, Thomas (1756).
608:William Thomson (Kelvin)
514:spectral line broadening
386:Radiation from molecules
2051:Pump–probe spectroscopy
1940:Ferromagnetic resonance
1732:Laser-induced breakdown
1200:Ångström, A.J. (1852).
986:Frauhofer. Jos. (1821)
935:Incorporated, SynLube.
852:Absorption spectroscopy
539:History of spectroscopy
197:quantum electrodynamics
1747:Glow-discharge optical
1727:Raman optical activity
1641:Rotational–vibrational
1267:Wagner, H. J. (2005).
1240:Philosophical Magazine
1043:10.1098/rsif.2004.0026
974: ; see pp. 33–36.
455:
382:
364:
345:, as well as chemical
327:
303:
283:
256:
53:
37:
2135:Emission spectroscopy
1968:Hyperspectral imaging
1480:G. Kirchhoff (1860).
1441:G. Kirchhoff (1860).
1361:Alter, David (1854).
1155:Foucault, L. (1849).
1093:Brian Bowers (2001).
826:A warm body emitting
725:electricity generated
633:noticed that several
600:Anders Jonas Ångström
565:Joseph von Fraunhofer
537:Further information:
526:Further information:
506:Anders Jonas Ångström
459:Emission spectroscopy
451:Schematic diagram of
450:
414:Emission spectroscopy
378:Emission spectrum of
377:
360:Emission spectrum of
359:
328:
304:
284:
257:
178:emission spectroscopy
43:
35:
2150:Analytical chemistry
1720:Coherent anti-Stokes
1675:UV–Vis–NIR "Optical"
1429:(7) : 251–255.
1344:10.1021/ed080p1003.1
1236:"Optical researches"
1174:"Lumière électrique"
1157:"Lumière électrique"
888:Luminous coefficient
862:Atomic spectral line
836:Einstein coefficient
822:Spontaneous emission
777:between wavelengths
705:Emission coefficient
700:Emission coefficient
614:. In 1854 and 1855,
475:electronic structure
453:spontaneous emission
317:
302:{\displaystyle \nu }
293:
266:
227:
158:Stefan–Boltzmann law
2145:Physical quantities
2024:Hadron spectroscopy
1814:Conversion electron
1775:X-ray and Gamma ray
1682:Ultraviolet–visible
1498:1860AnP...185..275K
1459:1860AnP...185..148K
1335:2003JChEd..80.1003R
1294:10.1021/ed082p380.1
1285:2005JChEd..82..380W
1120:Wheatstone (1836).
916:Thermionic emission
857:Absorption spectrum
735:Scattering of light
573:spectral resolution
561:diffraction grating
193:Fermi's golden rule
189:perturbation theory
48:(left) and 590 nm D
2072:Force spectroscopy
1997:Measured phenomena
1988:Video spectroscopy
1692:Cold vapour atomic
1486:Annalen der Physik
1447:Annalen der Physik
1378:Alter, D. (1855).
1007:Annalen der Physik
872:Gas-discharge lamp
741:Thomson scattering
580:Charles Wheatstone
498:X-ray fluorescence
456:
383:
365:
323:
299:
279:
252:
54:
38:
2117:
2116:
2081:
2080:
1973:Spectrophotometry
1900:Neutron spin echo
1874:Beta spectroscopy
1787:Energy-dispersive
1536:978-0-8053-0402-2
1527:Pearson Education
1106:978-0-85296-103-2
770:into solid angle
588:J. B. L. Foucault
557:David Rittenhouse
551:flames. By 1785
479:quantum mechanics
435:. One example is
326:{\displaystyle h}
276:
237:
185:quantum mechanics
170:color temperature
66:chemical compound
58:emission spectrum
18:Molecular spectra
16:(Redirected from
2167:
2105:
2104:
2093:
2092:
1953:
1864:phenomenological
1613:Vibrational (IR)
1598:
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1142:Brand, pp. 60–62
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948:
947:
932:
813:
802:
790:
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776:
769:
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639:solar atmosphere
635:Fraunhofer lines
627:Gustav Kirchhoff
332:
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62:chemical element
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2160:Nuclear physics
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2119:
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2055:
1992:
1944:
1906:
1878:
1820:
1770:
1670:
1631:Resonance Raman
1607:
1602:
1550:
1545:
1544:
1537:
1529:. p. 256.
1520:
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1023:
1019:
982:
978:
959:
958:
954:
945:
943:
941:www.synlube.com
934:
933:
929:
924:
904:Spectral theory
899:Rydberg formula
848:
824:
807:
796:
782:
778:
771:
765:
747:
737:
729:Emission factor
709:electromagnetic
702:
680:. For example,
647:
541:
535:
530:
416:
388:
335:Planck constant
315:
314:
291:
290:
269:
264:
263:
230:
225:
224:
205:
139:phosphorescence
111:
92:of the emitted
80:emitted due to
51:
47:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2173:
2171:
2163:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2130:Atomic physics
2122:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2111:
2099:
2086:
2083:
2082:
2079:
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2016:
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1548:External links
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2074:(a misnomer)
2060:Applications
1978:Time-stretch
1869:paramagnetic
1687:Fluorescence
1605:Spectroscopy
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624:
620:Balmer lines
612:Balmer lines
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421:spectroscope
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366:
351:
221:
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135:fluorescence
127:
112:
103:spectroscopy
57:
55:
29:
1646:Vibrational
1525:. CA, USA:
1329:(9): 1003.
1246:: 327–342.
1037:(2): 1–17.
793:coefficient
616:David Alter
406:, known as
396:vibrational
162:temperature
147:radio waves
99:wavelengths
74:frequencies
2155:Scattering
2124:Categories
1852:Two-photon
1754:absorption
1636:Rotational
1390:: 213–214.
1279:(3): 380.
1229:: 141–165.
1212:: 333–360.
946:2017-02-24
922:References
717:wavelength
678:flame test
598:physicist
592:absorption
569:dispersion
563:. In 1821
392:rotational
347:flame test
343:neon signs
143:gamma rays
86:transition
1930:Terahertz
1911:Radiowave
1809:Mössbauer
816:predicted
686:strontium
663:electrons
625:By 1859,
578:In 1835,
311:frequency
297:ν
247:ν
209:electrons
207:When the
154:emittance
84:making a
82:electrons
2096:Category
1825:Electron
1792:Emission
1742:emission
1699:Vibronic
1373:: 55–57.
1167:: 16–20.
1061:16849159
972:: 12–90.
846:See also
694:chloride
400:vibronic
362:hydrogen
164:and the
109:Emission
70:spectrum
2108:Commons
1935:ESR/EPR
1883:Nucleon
1711:(REMPI)
1494:Bibcode
1455:Bibcode
1331:Bibcode
1281:Bibcode
1052:1578258
998:: 3–76.
895:physics
828:photons
727:, see:
713:physics
596:Swedish
549:alcohol
533:History
467:photons
431:of the
429:element
339:photons
333:is the
309:is its
203:Origins
115:physics
94:photons
68:is the
1949:Others
1737:Atomic
1533:
1103:
1059:
1049:
983:See:
893:Plasma
830:has a
690:Copper
682:sodium
584:sparks
398:, and
313:, and
275:photon
262:where
236:photon
217:photon
213:energy
119:photon
1890:Alpha
1859:Auger
1837:X-ray
1804:Gamma
1782:X-ray
1715:Raman
1626:Raman
1621:FT-IR
1403:See:
1357:See:
1196:See:
1151:See:
910:Diode
674:flame
655:atoms
651:solid
545:salts
461:is a
441:stars
123:light
60:of a
1531:ISBN
1127:1835
1101:ISBN
1057:PMID
908:The
781:and
659:ions
657:and
629:and
606:and
380:iron
172:and
152:The
56:The
1918:NMR
1502:doi
1490:185
1463:doi
1451:185
1339:doi
1289:doi
1248:doi
1047:PMC
1039:doi
795:is
746:If
739:In
496:or
137:or
113:In
76:of
72:of
64:or
2126::
1923:2D
1842:UV
1500:.
1488:.
1484:.
1461:.
1449:.
1445:.
1388:19
1382:.
1371:18
1365:.
1337:.
1327:80
1325:.
1321:.
1287:.
1277:82
1275:.
1271:.
1238:.
1227:94
1210:40
1182:17
1165:13
1135:^
1124:.
1055:.
1045:.
1033:.
1029:.
1011:74
1009:,
968:.
964:.
939:.
842:.
803:.
788:dλ
786:+
767:dV
761:dλ
759:Ω
754:dV
731:.
641:.
481:.
394:,
180:.
149:.
1597:e
1590:t
1583:v
1539:.
1510:.
1504::
1496::
1469:.
1465::
1457::
1427:1
1347:.
1341::
1333::
1297:.
1291::
1283::
1254:.
1250::
1244:9
1109:.
1063:.
1041::
1035:2
996:8
970:2
949:.
810:X
799:X
784:λ
779:λ
775:Ω
773:d
757:d
750:X
321:h
271:E
250:,
244:h
241:=
232:E
50:1
46:2
20:)
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