Molten-salt reactor

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circulation of the salt, from top to bottom, is broken up into 16 groups of pumps and heat exchangers located around the core. The fuel salt takes approximately 3 to 4 seconds to complete a full cycle. At any given time during operation, half of the total fuel salt volume is in the core and the rest is in the external fuel circuit (salt collectors, salt-bubble separators, fuel heat exchangers, pumps, salt injectors and pipes). MSFRs contain an emergency draining system that is triggered and achieved by redundant and reliable devices such as detection and opening technology. During operation, the fuel salt circulation speed can be adjusted by controlling the power of the pumps in each sector. The intermediate fluid circulation speed can be adjusted by controlling the power of the intermediate circuit pumps. The temperature of the intermediate fluid in the intermediate exchangers can be managed through the use of a double bypass. This allows the temperature of the intermediate fluid at the conversion exchanger inlet to be held constant while its temperature is increased in a controlled way at the inlet of the intermediate exchangers. The temperature of the core can be adjusted by varying the proportion of bubbles injected in the core since it reduces the salt density. As a result, it reduces the mean temperature of the fuel salt. Usually the fuel salt temperature can be brought down by 100 °C using a 3% proportion of bubbles. MSFRs have two draining modes, controlled routine draining and emergency draining. During controlled routine draining, fuel salt is transferred to actively cooled storage tanks. The fuel temperature can be lowered before draining, this may slow down the process. This type of draining could be done every 1 to 5 years when the sectors are replaced. Emergency draining is done when an irregularity occurs during operation. The fuel salt can be drained directly into the emergency draining tank either by active devices or by passive means. The draining must be fast to limit the fuel salt heating in a loss of heat removal event.

1069:. MSFRs run on liquid fuel with no solid matter inside the core. This leads to the possibility of reaching specific power that is much higher than reactors using solid fuel. The heat produced goes directly into the heat transfer fluid. In the MSFR, a small amount of molten salt is set aside to be processed for fission product removal and then returned to the reactor. This gives MSFRs the capability of reprocessing the fuel without stopping the reactor. This is very different compared to solid-fueled reactors because they have separate facilities to produce the solid fuel and process spent nuclear fuel. The MSFR can operate using a large variety of fuel compositions due to its on-line fuel control and flexible fuel processing. 1945: 855: 1552:(SMR). Their design currently undergoing licensing is 400MW thermal (190MW electrical). With high operating temperatures, the IMSR has applications in industrial heat markets as well as traditional power markets. The main design features include neutron moderation from graphite, fueling with low-enriched uranium and a compact and replaceable Core-unit. Decay heat is removed passively using nitrogen (with air as an emergency alternative). The latter feature permits the operational simplicity necessary for industrial deployment. 1630:) moderator version is also being researched. The reactor utilizes the thorium fuel cycle using separated plutonium from spent nuclear fuel as the initial fissile load for the first generation of reactors, eventually transitioning to a thorium breeder. Copenhagen Atomics is actively developing and testing valves, pumps, heat exchangers, measurement systems, salt chemistry and purification systems, and control systems and software for molten salt applications. 33: 197:. For designs with the fuel in the salt, the salt thermally expands immediately with power excursions. In conventional reactors the negative reactivity is delayed since the heat from the fuel must be transferred to the moderator. An additional method is to place a separate, passively cooled container below the reactor. Fuel drains into the container during malfunctions or maintenance, which stops the reaction. 1931: 1096:" fuel dispersed in graphite. Early AHTR research focused on graphite in the form of graphite rods that would be inserted in hexagonal moderating graphite blocks, but current studies focus primarily on pebble-type fuel. The LS-VHTR can work at very high temperatures (the boiling point of most molten salt candidates is >1400 °C); low-pressure cooling that can be used to match 1994:"Fission products (except Xe and Kr) and nuclear materials are highly soluble in the salt and will remain in the salt under both operating and expected accident conditions. The fission products that are not soluble (e.g. Xe, Kr) are continuously removed from the molten fuel salt, solidified, packaged, and placed in passively cooled storage vaults".—Dr. Charles W. Forsberg. 1917: 815:, an attractive bomb-making material. More modern designs propose to use a lower specific power or a separate thorium breeding blanket. This dilutes the protactinium to such an extent that few protactinium atoms absorb a second neutron or, via a (n, 2n) reaction (in which an incident neutron is not absorbed but instead knocks a neutron out of the nucleus), generate 1303: 1201: 489: 1512:. It included theoretical and experimental studies, particularly the investigation of mechanical, corrosion and radiation properties of the molten salt container materials. The main findings supported the conclusion that no physical nor technological obstacles prevented the practical implementation of MSRs. 4825: 1892:. The fuel is enriched to 19.75%. Loss-of-power cooling is passive. In February 2024 DOE and Kairos Power signed a $ 303M Technology Investment Agreement to support the design, construction, and commissioning of the reactor. The company is to receive fixed payments upon completing project milestones. 1448:

Other goals of the DMSR were to minimize research and development and to maximize feasibility. The Generation IV international Forum (GIF) includes "salt processing" as a technology gap for molten-salt reactors. The DMSR design theoretically requires minimal chemical processing because it is a burner

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scenario present in water-cooled reactors because the fuel mixture is kept in a molten state. The fuel mixture is designed to drain without pumping from the core to a containment vessel in emergency scenarios, where the fuel solidifies, quenching the reaction. In addition, hydrogen evolution does not

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Serp, Jérôme; Allibert, Michel; Beneš, Ondřej; Delpech, Sylvie; Feynberg, Olga; Ghetta, Véronique; Heuer, Daniel; Holcomb, David; Ignatiev, Victor; Kloosterman, Jan Leen; Luzzi, Lelio; Merle-Lucotte, Elsa; Uhlíř, Jan; Yoshioka, Ritsuo; Zhimin, Dai (1 November 2014). "The molten salt reactor (MSR) in

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The He, Xe, and Kr gas mixture then flows from the Can through two hold-up tanks and a charcoal delay line in the secondary heat exchanger cell. The gas flow continues to a cryogenic gas processing system to separate the gasses, storing stable Xe and radioactive Kr-85 in gas bottles and returning He

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and is believed to be a long-term substitute to solid-fueled fast reactors. They have been studied for almost a decade, mainly by calculations and determination of basic physical and chemical properties in the European Union and Russian Federation. A MSFR is regarded sustainable because there are no

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fluorides boil at high temperatures, though many pentafluorides and hexafluorides boil at low temperatures. They must be very hot before they break down into their constituent elements. Such molten salts are "chemically stable" when maintained well below their boiling points. Fluoride salts dissolve

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Neutron damage to solid moderator materials can limit the core lifetime. For example, MSRE was designed so that its graphite moderator had loose tolerances, so neutron damage could change them without consequences. "Two fluid" MSR designs do not use graphite piping because graphite changes size when

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and their decay products circulate through the reactor. Static designs benefit from modularising the problem: the fuel salt is contained within fuel pins whose regular replacement, primarily due to neutron irradiation, is normalized; while the coolant salt has a simpler chemical composition and does

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Engel et al. 1980 said the project "examine[ the conceptual feasibility of a molten-salt power reactor fueled with denatured uranium-235 (i.e. with low-enriched uranium) and operated with a minimum of chemical processing." The main design priority was proliferation resistance. Although the DMSR can

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The stable salt reactor is a relatively recent concept which holds the molten salt fuel statically in traditional LWR fuel pins. Pumping of the fuel salt, and all the corrosion/deposition/maintenance/containment issues arising from circulating a highly radioactive, hot and chemically complex fluid,

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Techniques for preparing and handling molten salt were first developed at ORNL. The purpose of salt purification is to eliminate oxides, sulfur and metal impurities. Oxides could result in the deposition of solid particles in reactor operation. Sulfur must be removed because of its corrosive attack

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To date, most research has focused on FLiBe, because lithium and beryllium are reasonably effective moderators and form a eutectic salt mixture with a lower melting point than each of the constituent salts. Beryllium also performs neutron doubling, improving the neutron economy. This process occurs

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project EVOL (Evaluation and viability of liquid fuel fast reactor system) project, with the objective of proposing a design of the molten salt fast reactor (MSFR), released its final report in 2014. Various MSR projects like FHR, MOSART, MSFR, and TMSR have common research and development themes.

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In 2021, China stated that Wuwei prototype operation could start power generation from thorium in September, with a prototype providing energy for around 1,000 homes. It is the world's first nuclear molten-salt reactor after the Oak Ridge project. The 100 MW successor was expected to be 3 meters

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Moltex Energy Canada, a subsidiary of UK-based Moltex Energy Ltd, has obtained support from New Brunswick Power for the development of a pilot plant in Point Lepreau, Canada, and financial backing from IDOM (an international engineering firm) and is currently engaged in the Canadian Vendor Design

1640:. The CMSR design is modular, and uses proprietary NaOH moderator. The reactor core is estimated to be replaced every 12 years. During operation, the fuel will not be replaced and will burn for the entire 12-year reactor lifetime. The first version of the Seaborg core is planned to produce 250 MW 1495:

Despite their different designs, ORNL and AERE maintained contact during this period with information exchange and expert visits. Theoretical work on the concept was conducted between 1964 and 1966, while experimental work was ongoing between 1968 and 1973. The program received annual government

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Aircraft Company (PWAC). This was called Pratt and Whitney Aircraft Reactor-1 (PWAR-1). The experiment was run for a few weeks and at essentially zero power, although it reached criticality. The operating temperature was held constant at approximately 675 °C (1,250 °F). The PWAR-1 used

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Passive decay heat removal is achieved in MSRs. In some designs, the fuel and the coolant are a single fluid, so a loss of coolant carries the fuel with it. Fluoride salts dissolve poorly in water, and do not form burnable hydrogen. The molten salt coolant is not damaged by neutron bombardment,

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MSRE Legend: 1) Reactor vessel; 2) Heat exchanger; 3) Molten salt fuel pump; 4) Freeze flange; 5) Thermal shield; 6) Coolant salt pump; 7) Radiator; 8) Coolant salt drain tank; 9) Fans; 10) Fuel salt drain tanks; 11) Flush tank; 12) Vessel; 13) Fuel salt freeze valve. —ORNL-LR-DWG

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additions to lower the redox potential and nearly eliminate corrosion. However, since beryllium is extremely toxic, special precautions must be engineered into the design to prevent its release into the environment. Many other salts can cause plumbing corrosion, especially if the reactor is hot

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The MSR program was in competition with the fast breeder program at the time, which got an early start and had copious government development funds with contracts that benefited many parts of the country. When the MSR development program had progressed far enough to justify an expanded program

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is a Danish molten salt technology company developing mass manufacturable molten salt reactors. The Copenhagen Atomics Waste Burner is a single-fluid, heavy water moderated, fluoride-based, thermal spectrum and autonomously controlled molten-salt reactor. This is designed to fit inside of a

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The standard MSFR would be a 3000 MWth reactor that has a total fuel salt volume of 18 m with a mean fuel temperature of 750 °C. The core's shape is a compact cylinder with a height to diameter ratio of 1 where liquid fluoride fuel salt flows from the bottom to the top. The return

1905:(ACU) has applied to the NRC for a construction licence for a 1MWt molten-salt research reactor (MSRR), to be built on its campus in Abilene, Texas, as part of the Nuclear Energy eXperimental Testing (NEXT) laboratory. ACU plans for the MSRR to achieve criticality by December 2025. 1676:

as a concept for a fast breeder lead-cooled MSR. The original MSR concept used the fluid salt to provide the fission materials and also to remove the heat. Thus it had problems with the needed flow speed. Using 2 different fluids in separate circles is thought to solve the problem.

1058:. They operate without a moderator in the core such as graphite, so graphite life-span is no longer a problem. This results in a breeder reactor with a fast neutron spectrum that operates in the Thorium fuel cycle. MSFRs contain relatively small initial inventories of 1026:, waste products) and coolants (fluoride, chloride, lithium, beryllium, mixed). Fuel cycle can be either closed or once-through. They can be monolithic or modular, large or small. The reactor can adopt a loop, modular or integral configuration. Variations include: 4829: 772:

The possibility of online processing can be an MSR advantage. Continuous processing would reduce the inventory of fission products, control corrosion and improve neutron economy by removing fission products with high neutron absorption cross-section, especially

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Contains scanned versions of many of the U.S. government engineering reports, over ten thousand pages of construction and operation experience. This repository is the main reference for the aircraft reactor experiment and molten-salt fueled reactor's technical

1085:(FHR), also called advanced high temperature reactor (AHTR), is also a proposed Generation IV molten-salt reactor variant regarded promising for the long-term future. The FHR/AHTR reactor uses a solid-fuel system along with a molten fluoride salt as coolant. 1735:

LFTR, using technology similar to the Oak Ridge project. A consortium including members from Japan, the U.S. and Russia are developing the project. The project would likely take 20 years to develop a full size reactor, but the project seems to lack funding.

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Molten-salt-cooled solid-fuel reactors are variously called "molten-salt reactor system" in the Generation IV proposal, molten-salt converter reactors (MSCR), advanced high-temperature reactors (AHTRs), or fluoride high-temperature reactors (FHR, preferred

456:. Experiments show that Hastelloy-N and similar alloys are suited to these tasks at operating temperatures up to about 700 °C. However, operating experience is limited. Still higher operating temperatures are desirable—at 850 °C (1,560 °F) 1844:. In 2011, Sorensen founded Flibe Energy, a company aimed at developing 20–50 MW LFTR reactor designs to power military bases. (It is easier to approve novel military designs than civilian power station designs in the US nuclear regulatory environment). 421:

FHRs cannot reprocess fuel easily and have fuel rods that need to be fabricated and validated, requiring up to twenty years from project inception. FHR retains the safety and cost advantages of a low-pressure, high-temperature coolant, also shared by

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not pose a corrosion risk either to the fuel pins or to the reactor vessel. MSRs developed at ORNL in the 1960s were safe to operate only for a few years, and operated at only about 650 °C (1,202 °F). Corrosion risks include dissolution of

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technology, was planned to be ready by 2024. A 10 MW pilot and a larger demonstrator of the liquid fuel (TMSR-LF) variant were targeted for 2024 and 2035, respectively. China then accelerated its program to build two 12 MW reactors underground at

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by liquid fluoride thorium salts at greater than 700 °C (1,292 °F), hence endangering stainless steel components. Neutron radiation can transmute common alloying agents such as Co and Ni, shortening lifespan. Lithium salts such as

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The necessary fuel salt reprocessing technology has been demonstrated, but only at laboratory scale. A prerequisite to full-scale commercial reactor design is the R&D to engineer an economically competitive fuel salt cleaning system.

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Further work on commercial reactors was announced with the target completion date of 2030. Chinese government plans to realize similar reactors in deserts and plains of western China as well as up to 30 in countries involved in China's

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leak-tight, 40-foot, stainless steel shipping container. The heavy water moderator is thermally insulated from the salt and continuously drained and cooled to below 50 °C (122 °F). A molten lithium-7 deuteroxide (

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Molten-salt reactors are considered to be relatively safe because the fuel is already dissolved in liquid and they operate at lower pressures than do conventional nuclear reactors, which reduces the risk of explosive

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emitters, it makes the isotopic mix of uranium less attractive for bomb-making. This benefit would come with the added expense of a larger fissile inventory or a 2-fluid design with a large quantity of blanket salt.

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A low-pressure MSR does not require an expensive, steel core containment vessel, piping, and safety equipment. However, most MSR designs place radioactive fluid in direct contact with pumps and heat exchangers.

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than to a conventional light water cooled reactor. MSR designs are often breeding reactors with a closed fuel cycle—as opposed to the once-through fuel currently used in conventional nuclear power generators.

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The project included experiments, including high temperature and engine tests collectively called the Heat Transfer Reactor Experiments: HTRE-1, HTRE-2 and HTRE-3 at the National Reactor Test Station (now

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Traditionally, these reactors were known as molten salt breeder reactors (MSBRs) or thorium molten-salt reactors (TMSRs), but the name LFTR was promoted as a rebrand in the early 2000s by Kirk Sorensen.

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A systematic literature review from 2020 concludes that there is very limited information on economics and finance of MSRs, with low quality of the information and that cost estimations are uncertain.

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The EVOL project will be continued by the EU-funded Safety Assessment of the Molten Salt Fast Reactor (SAMOFAR) project, in which several European research institutes and universities collaborate.

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Novikov, Vladimir M. (15 September 1995). "The results of the investigations of Russian Research Center—'Kurchatov Institute' on molten salt applications to problems of nuclear energy systems".

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China initiated a thorium research project in January 2011, and spent about 3 billion yuan (US$ 500 million) on it by 2021. A 100 MW demonstrator of the solid fuel version (TMSR-SF), based on

4625: 1888:(NCR) in 2023. The design is expected to operate at 45% efficiency. The outlet temperature is 650 °C (1,202 °F). The main steam pressure is 19 MPa. The reactor structure is 316 1022:. Thermal reactors typically employ a moderator (usually graphite) to slow the neutrons down and moderate temperature. They can accept a variety of fuels (low-enriched uranium, thorium, 743:

A water content reduction purification stage using HF and helium sweep gas was specified to run at 400 °C. Oxide and sulfur contamination in the salt mixtures were removed using

1092:(VHTR) under study was the liquid-salt very-high-temperature reactor (LS-VHTR). It uses liquid salt as a coolant in the primary loop, rather than a single helium loop. It relies on " 3017:

Scott, D; Alwang, G W; Demski, E F; Fader, W J; Sandin, E V; Malenfant, R E (14 August 1958). A Zero Power Reflector-Moderated Reactor Experiment at Elevated Temperature (Report).

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The political and technical support for the program in the United States was too thin geographically. Within the United States the technology was well understood only in Oak Ridge.

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mixtures to reduce their melting point. A low melting point simplifies melting the salt at startup and reduces the risk of the salt freezing as it is cooled in the heat exchanger.

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Furukawa, Kazuo; Kato, Yoshio; Chigrinov, Sergey E. (1995). "Plutonium (TRU) transmutation and 233U production by single-fluid type accelerator molten-salt breeder (AMSB)".

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is developing the core for a compact molten-salt reactor (CMSR). The CMSR is a high temperature, single salt, thermal MSR designed to go critical on commercially available

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and the U.S. Department of Energy announced plans to build the Molten Chloride Reactor Experiment, the first fast-spectrum salt reactor at the Idaho National Laboratory.

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Heuer, D.; Merle-Lucotte, E.; Allibert, M.; Brovchenko, M.; Ghetta, V.; Rubiolo, P. (1 February 2014). "Towards the thorium fuel cycle with molten salt fast reactors".

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In 2022, Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics (SINAP) was given approval by the Ministry of Ecology and Environment to commission an experimental thorium-powered MSR.

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In circulating-fuel-salt designs, radionuclides dissolved in fuel contact equipment such as pumps and heat exchangers, potentially requiring fully remote maintenance.

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is a British non-profit organization founded in 2011, dedicated to raising awareness about the potential of thorium energy and LFTR. It was formally launched at the

150:). MSR operating temperatures are around 700 °C (1,292 °F), significantly higher than traditional LWRs at around 300 °C (572 °F). This increases 2419: 881:(SSR) where the radioactive fuel is contained as a molten salt within fuel pins and the primary circuit is not radioactive, operating costs are likely to be lower. 4165: 2466: 1686: 1267:

An MSR was operated at the Critical Experiments Facility of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in 1957. It was part of the circulating-fuel reactor program of the

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mixture, with the salt heated to 600 °C. Structural metal contamination in the salt mixtures were removed using hydrogen gas sparging, at 700 °C. Solid

3973:"European Commission : CORDIS: Projects & Results Service: Periodic Report Summary – EVOL (Evaluation and viability of liquid fuel fast reactor system)" 2007:

operates at a pressure of 3 atmospheres and temperatures of 550 to 700 °C. In this design, the gaseous fission byproducts Xe and Kr are separated by helium

1884:-fueled, low-pressure fluoride salt-cooled 140 MWe test reactor to be built in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. A construction permit for the project was issued by the US 3525: 2726: 518:), and does not easily become radioactive under neutron bombardment. Compared to chlorine and other halides, fluorine also absorbs fewer neutrons and slows (" 4070:

Vijayan, P. K.; Basak, A.; Dulera, I. V.; Vaze, K. K.; Basu, S.; Sinha, R. K. (1 September 2015). "Conceptual design of Indian molten salt breeder reactor".

3758: 3344: 1126:. Private companies from Japan, Russia, Australia and the United States, and the Chinese government, have expressed interest in developing this technology. 3619: 2940: 1313:(ORNL) took the lead in researching MSRs through the 1960s. Much of their work culminated with the Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE). MSRE was a 7.4 MW 181:

MSRs, especially those with fuel in the molten salt, offer lower operating pressures, and higher temperatures. In this respect an MSR is more similar to a

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in 2017, which provided a regulatory opinion that the design features are generally safe enough to eventually obtain a license to construct the reactor.

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Molten salts can be highly corrosive and corrosivity increases with temperature. For the primary cooling loop, a material is needed that can withstand

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Allibert, M.; Aufiero, M.; Brovchenko, M.; Delpech, S.; Ghetta, V.; Heuer, D.; Laureau, A.; Merle-Lucotte, E. (1 January 2016), Pioro, Igor L. (ed.),

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was to be 705 °C (1,301 °F). It would follow a 4-year replacement schedule. The MSR program closed down in the early 1970s in favor of the

130:) have little solubility in the fuel salt, and can be safely captured as they bubble out of the fuel, rather than increasing the pressure inside the 2394: 1445:

theoretically be fueled partially by thorium or plutonium, fueling solely with low enriched uranium (LEU) helps maximize proliferation resistance.

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designs renewed interest in the 21st century with multiple nations starting projects. As of May 2023, China had not announced the ignition of its

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require temperatures in excess of 750 °C); better electric conversion efficiency than a helium-cooled VHTR operating in similar conditions;

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design was selected as the most suitable of six MSR designs for UK implementation in a 2015 study commissioned by the UK's innovation agency,

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Reprocessing refers to the chemical separation of fissionable uranium and plutonium from spent fuel. Such recovery could increase the risk of

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on nickel-based alloys at operational temperature. Structural metal such as chromium, nickel, and iron must be removed for corrosion control.

4697: 3430: 3267: 3169: 2764: 1410:(LMFBR), after which research stagnated in the United States. As of 2011, ARE and MSRE remained the only molten-salt reactors ever operated. 190: 4205: 1038:(MSFR) is a proposed design with the fuel dissolved in a fluoride salt coolant. The MSFR is one of the two variants of MSRs selected by the 4886: 4717: 1496:

funding of around £100,000–£200,000 (equivalent to £2m–£3m in 2005). This funding came to an end in 1974, partly due to the success of the

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Molten-salt reactors can run at high temperatures, yielding high thermal efficiency. This reduces size, expense, and environmental impacts.

1362:). It reached temperatures as high as 650 °C (1,202 °F) and achieved the equivalent of about 1.5 years of full power operation. 223:, because they can operate with slow neutrons. Closed fuel cycles can reduce environmental impacts: chemical separation turns long-lived 3574: 2036: 1709: 4472: 3721: 4555: 3185: 2576: 1858: 1556: 415: 3299: 1648:

power. As a power plant, the CMSR will be able to deliver electricity, clean water and heating/cooling to around 200,000 households.

231:. This can reduce the needed containment to 300 years versus the tens of thousands of years needed by light-water reactor spent fuel. 4798:

Google TechTalks – "Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor: What Fusion Wanted To Be" by Dr. Joe Bonometti NASA / Naval Postgraduate School

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when the beryllium nucleus emits two neutrons after absorbing a single neutron. For the fuel carrying salts, generally 1% or 2% (by

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approaching weapons-grade. These levels would be illegal in most modern power plant regulatory regimes. Most modern designs employ

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Greenblatt, Jeffery B.; Brown, Nicholas R.; Slaybaugh, Rachel; Wilks, Theresa; Stewart, Emma; McCoy, Sean T. (17 October 2017).

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to be constructed. Much less research has been done on reactor designs using chloride salts. Chlorine, unlike fluorine, must be

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are no longer required. The fuel pins are immersed in a separate, non-fissionable fluoride salt which acts as primary coolant.

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The temperatures of some designs are high enough to produce process heat, which led them to be included on the GEN-IV roadmap.

3972: 138:) while conventional reactors shut down for refueling (notable exceptions include pressure tube heavy water reactors like the 4712: 3926: 1297: 987: 938: 72: 4383: 4113: 2481: 2451:

Greene, Sherrel (May 2011). "Fluoride Salt-cooled High Temperature Reactors – Technology Status and Development Strategy".

4891: 3627: 1885: 1781: 1310: 1205: 434:). Since it can operate at high temperatures, the conversion of the heat to electricity can use an efficient, lightweight 2426: 2890:

Workshop Announcement and Call for Participation, September 2010, at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge Tennessee

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The experiment had a peak temperature of 860 °C. It produced 100 MWh over nine days in 1954. This experiment used

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test reactor simulating the neutronic "kernel" of a type of epithermal thorium molten salt breeder reactor called the

1213: 1195: 423: 182: 147: 68: 3704:"Research clarifies origin of superior properties of new materials for next-generation molten salt reactors - ANSTO" 1712:

announced its renewal of interest on MSR reactor research on 29 March 2022 and planned to study and develop MSR for

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In 2015, Indian researchers published a MSR design, as an alternative path to thorium-based reactors, according to

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From 1970 to 1976 ORNL researched during the 1970–1976 a molten salt breeder reactor (MSBR) design. Fuel was to be

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The use of molten salt as fuel and as coolant are independent design choices – the original circulating-fuel-salt

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While many design variants have been proposed, there are three main categories regarding the role of molten salt:

4418: 3777: 3678: 3600: 2379: 1922: 1815: 1232: 431: 2937: 2375: 1492:, a fuel considered to be 'free' by the program's research scientists, because of the UK's plutonium stockpile. 1725: 1235:) as well as an experimental high-temperature molten-salt reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory – the ARE. 1035: 682:

is used, salts containing lithium cause significant tritium production, comparable with heavy water reactors.

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Thermal MSRs have lower breeding ratios than fast-neutron breeders, though their doubling time may be shorter.

1321:(LFTR). The large (expensive) breeding blanket of thorium salt was omitted in favor of neutron measurements. 1129:

Advocates estimate that five hundred metric tons of thorium could supply U.S. energy needs for one year. The

4600:"U.S. Department of Energy and Kairos Power Execute Novel Performance-Based, Fixed-Price Milestone Contract" 4422: 3990: 3556: 1015: 274: 119: 53: 49: 3557:"Karios, Moltex, See Progress in Funding; First Canadian SMR, an HTGR, Submits License Application to CNSC" 2267: 1528:

programs and increasing demand for energy sources that would incur minimal greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

1105: 427: 369: 361: 3740: 2752: 1796: 4683: 3259: 2982: 1964: 1862: 1549: 1466: 1403: 1051:. When steady state is achieved in a MSFR, there is no longer a need for uranium enrichment facilities. 863: 781:. Online fuel processing can introduce risks of fuel processing accidents, which can trigger release of 723: 317: 166: 91: 4727: 2884: 2846:

Heuer, D.; Merle-Lucotte, E.; Allibert, M.; Brovchenko, M.; Ghetta, V.; Rubiolo, P. (1 February 2014).

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In the USSR, a molten-salt reactor research program was started in the second half of the 1970s at the

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Reactors containing molten thorium salt, called liquid fluoride thorium reactors (LFTR), would tap the

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to manage corrosion risks. This is particularly challenging for circulating designs, in which a mix of

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into holding tanks, where their radioactivity has decayed, after about a week. The helium is recycled.

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pursued what it termed a waste-annihilating molten-salt reactor (WAMSR), intended to consume existing

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Some MSR designs rely on expensive nickel alloys to contain the molten salt. Such alloys are prone to

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bombarded with neutrons. MSRs using fast neutrons cannot use graphite, because it moderates neutrons.

365: 248: 194: 135: 111: 4384:"MoltexFLEX launches flexibly-operated molten salt reactor : New Nuclear - World Nuclear News" 4166:"BRIN Gunakan Teknologi Molten Salt Reactors untuk PLTN yang Diklaim Aman dan Ekonomis Halaman all" 2906: 1818:

designed a molten-salt-cooled, molten-salt-fuelled reactor with a prospective output of 1000

1592:/Shanghai Institute Of Applied Physics announced the creation of a NiMo-SiC alloy for use in MSRs. 1564: 1509: 1441:

The denatured molten-salt reactor (DMSR) was an Oak Ridge theoretical design that was never built.

1158: 1019: 991: 964: 878: 761: 523: 115: 76: 3853:"China's 2 Megawatt Molten-salt Thorium Nuclear Reactor Has Start up Approval | NextBigFuture.com" 4579:"NRC Permit for Kairos Power Molten Salt Nuclear Reactor to be Built by 2027 | NextBigFuture.com" 4496: 4202: 4095: 3904: 3469: 3408: 3133: 2974: 2825: 2460: 2259: 2095: 1851: 1837: 1762: 1673: 1615: 1576: 1541: 1470: 1329: 1173: 1123: 995: 778: 579: 294: 238:

to separate fission products from fuels. This may have advantages over conventional reprocessing.

220: 151: 134:, as happens in conventional reactors. MSRs can be refueled while operating (essentially online- 80: 3703: 2321:

Engel, J.R.; Bauman, H.F.; Dearing, J.F.; Grimes, W.R.; McCoy, H.E.; Rhoades, W.A. (July 1980).

1268: 310:

Some MSRs require onsite chemical processing to manage core mixture and remove fission products.

4293:"London: Weinberg Foundation to heat up campaign for safe, green,... – The Weinberg Foundation" 2125: 4693: 3426: 3263: 3253: 3165: 3151: 3028: 2867: 2817: 2760: 2707: 2522: 2336: 2323:

Conceptual design characteristics of a denatured molten-salt reactor with once-through fueling

2251: 2087: 1847: 1789: 1413:

The MSBR project received funding from 1968 to 1976 of (in 2023 dollars) $ 77.6 million.

748: 519: 4515: 2704:

The Molten Salt Reactor option for beneficial use of fissile material from dismantled weapons

2305: 1697: 866:. In the United States the regulatory regime has varied dramatically across administrations. 4846: 4087: 4025: 4017: 3459: 3390: 3155: 3123: 3087: 3018: 2966: 2859: 2807: 2706:. Annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science: earth science. 2684: 2664: 2654: 2512: 2326: 2322: 2243: 2211: 2079: 2062: 1969: 1866: 1804: 1212:

MSR research started with the U.S. Aircraft Reactor Experiment (ARE) in support of the U.S.

1047:

fuel shortages. Operation of a MSFR does in theory not generate or require large amounts of

1023: 391: 387: 102: 4815:

Kun Chen from Chinese Academy of Sciences on China Thorium Molten Salt Reactor TMSR Program

4359: 3193: 2587: 2508: 557:), as well as a slow-decaying isotope between them which facilitates neutron absorption by 4724:"Molten Salt Chemistry Plays a Prominent Role in Accelerator-Driven Transmutation Systems" 4479: 4299: 4209: 3464: 3447: 2944: 1889: 1766: 1254: 1055: 702: 691: 575: 380: 328: 281: 84: 2306:

An Account of Oak Ridge National Laboratory's Thirteen Nuclear Reactors, ORNL/TM-2009/181

290:

MSRs can offer a high "specific power", (high power at low mass), as demonstrated by ARE.

4083: 3386: 3083: 2803: 2290:

Energy From Thorium's Document Repository "The Use of Thorium in Nuclear Power Reactors"

2207: 2075: 3873: 3221: 3064: 2354: 1950: 1785: 1751: 1224: 1042:(GIF) for further development, the other being the FHR or AHTR. The MSFR is based on a 918: 464:

becomes possible. Materials for this temperature range have not been validated, though

442: 368:

to help address these issues, while other structural steels may be acceptable, such as

235: 4735:

Material Considerations for Molten Salt Accelerator-based Plutonium Conversion Systems

3806:"China is gearing up to activate the world's first 'clean' commercial nuclear reactor" 2550: 4880: 4099: 3473: 3137: 2829: 2099: 2057: 1974: 1936: 1601: 1525: 1391: 1348: 1250: 435: 139: 64: 4786: 4334:"MSR Review – Feasibility of Developing a Pilot Scale Molten Salt Reactor in the UK" 2263: 1461:(AERE) was developing an alternative MSR design across its National Laboratories at 293:

Potential neutron economy suggests that MSR may be able to exploit the neutron-poor

17: 4858: 4552:"Energy Department Announces New Investments in Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors..." 3976: 3810: 1581: 1521: 789: 782: 321: 280:

An MSR can react to load changes in under 60 seconds (unlike LWRs that suffer from

170: 155: 131: 32: 4850: 4687: 4021: 2863: 2727:"Global race for transformative molten salt nuclear includes Bill Gates and China" 2659: 2638: 1588:

prototype. The project sought to test new corrosion-resistant materials. In 2017,

1500:

which was considered a priority for funding as it went critical in the same year.

2376:"Commercial alloy qualified for new use, expanding nuclear operating temperature" 1563:

Review process. The plant will employ the waste-burning version of the company's

3486: 3216: 2986: 2509:

Preparation and Handling of Salt Mixtures for the Molten Salt Reactor Experiment

1800: 1672:

The German Institute for Solid State Nuclear Physics in Berlin has proposed the

803: 719: 71:(ARE) was primarily motivated by the technology's compact size, while the 1960s 57: 4797: 4764: 4537: 2759:, Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy, Woodhead Publishing, pp. 157–188, 2083: 1283:

as the primary fuel and coolant. It was one of three critical MSRs ever built.

4814: 4775: 4091: 3898: 3128: 2685:"Ian Scott discusses the development of the waste-burning stable salt reactor" 1912: 1896: 1854:, from 2011 until ceasing operation in 2018 and open-sourcing their research. 1134: 1108:

systems and better retention of fission products in the event of an accident.

620: 477: 469: 227:

into reactor fuel. Discharged wastes are mostly fission products with shorter

2871: 2821: 2169: 3762: 3411:, along with a general stagnation of nuclear power and the nuclear industry. 1930: 1755: 1489: 1325: 838: 710: 453: 449: 228: 224: 162: 2957:

Hargraves, Robert; Moir, Ralph (2010). "Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactors".

2616: 2482:"Fluoride-Salt-Cooled High-Temperature Reactors for Power and Process Heat" 2091: 499:

The salt mixtures are chosen to make the reactor safer and more practical.

4222: 1302: 1200: 4675: 3759:"Why China is developing a game-changing thorium-fuelled nuclear reactor" 3620:"China eyes thorium MSRs for industrial heat, hydrogen; revises timeline" 2669: 2543:

Critical issues of nuclear energy systems employing molten salt fluorides

1701: 1585: 1482: 1474: 1097: 752: 571: 461: 337: 332: 241: 142:

or the Atucha-class PHWRs, and British-built gas-cooled reactors such as

95: 4859:"Rock Logic YouTube channel (discusses everything about MSRs and LFTRs)" 4765:

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory – Molten Salt Reactor Fundamentals

4251:[Molten salt reactor at MCC is planned to be launched in 2031]. 4192:(26 Jan 2022) Empresarios Agrupados contracted for first ThorCon reactor 4030: 3526:(23 Apr 2023) Fourth Generation Nuclear Reactors Take A Big Step Forward 3003:

Thorium deposits of the United States – Energy resources for the future?

2978: 2970: 2289: 1596:

tall and 2.5 meters wide, capable of providing energy to 100,000 homes.

802:

would be removed from the reactor and allowed to decay into highly pure

165:

of hot salts and the changing chemical composition of the salt as it is

4651:(19 Aug 2022) Application submitted for US molten salt research reactor 4223:"Росатом запустил проект ядерного реактора-"сжигателя" опасных веществ" 3741:"China adding finishing touches to world-first thorium nuclear reactor" 3091: 2922: 1520:

MSR interest resumed in the new millennium due to continuing delays in

1261: 1138: 668: 642: 473: 373: 357: 127: 3653:"China Hopes Cold War Nuclear Energy Tech Will Power Warships, Drones" 3033: 2788:"Why the molten salt fast reactor (MSFR) is the "best" Gen IV reactor" 2711: 2526: 2340: 1555:

Terrestrial completed the first phase of a prelicensing review by the

705:

of the fused salt system can be changed. Fluorine-lithium-beryllium ("

2355:"Finnish research network for generation four nuclear energy systems" 2255: 1481:-cooled 2.5 GWe Molten Salt Fast Reactor (MSFR) concept using a 465: 143: 3394: 3023: 2812: 2787: 2517: 2331: 2215: 1428:(AEC) could not justify the diversion of substantial funds from the 4626:"INL is targeted site for world's first fast-spectrum salt reactor" 2247: 2143: 1544:, a Canadian-based company, is developing a DMSR design called the 4689:

The First Nuclear Era: The Life and Times of a Technological Fixer

3157:

The First Nuclear Era: The Life and Times of a Technological Fixer

3001: 1881: 1803:. UK government support has been weak, but the company's UK arm, 1788:

on 8 September 2011. It is named after American nuclear physicist

1748: 1589: 1429: 1352: 1301: 1199: 1142: 1093: 999: 974: 853: 774: 706: 698: 493: 487: 441:

Much of the current research on FHRs is focused on small, compact

430:), and no large, expensive steel pressure vessel (as required for 410:

MSRs can be cooled in various ways, including using molten salts.

342: 123: 106:

occur. This eliminates the risk of hydrogen explosions (as in the

31: 4791: 4748: 3528:

completed Phase 2 of the pre-licensing Vendor Design Review (VDR)

1324:

MSRE's piping, core vat and structural components were made from

327:

Corrosion risk. Molten salts require careful management of their

313:

Regulatory changes to accommodate non-traditional design features

247:

Some designs are compatible with fast neutrons, which can "burn"

114:, rather than the 75–150 times atmospheric pressure of a typical 4658:(30 Aug 2022) Texas Applies to Build Molten Salt Nuclear by 2025 4473:"New Huntsville company to build thorium-based nuclear reactors" 1829: 1759: 1657: 1478: 1332:. It went critical in 1965 and ran for four years. Its fuel was 1217: 488: 208:

MSRs offer many potential advantages over light water reactors:

2848:"Towards the thorium fuel cycle with molten salt fast reactors" 1873:(MCFR), a type of MSR developed earlier by British scientists. 731:

is added. Thorium and plutonium fluorides have also been used.

1819: 1729: 426:. Notably, steam is not created in the core (as is present in 4249:"Жидкосолевой реактор на ГХК планируют запустить к 2031 году" 2233:

A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems

788:

In some thorium breeding scenarios, the intermediate product

777:. This makes the MSR particularly suited to the neutron-poor 3345:"Conceptual Design and Assessment of a Helium-cooled 2500 ME 1351:. The graphite core moderated it. Its secondary coolant was 98:

thorium unit following its scheduled date of February 2023.

4808: 4438: 4316:"New NGO to fuel interest in safe thorium nuclear reactors" 3874:"Advances in Small Modular Reactor Technology Developments" 1807:, launched its FLEX small modular design in October 2022. 1584:

research facilities by 2020, beginning with the 2 megawatt

1133:

estimates that the largest-known U.S. thorium deposit, the

4140:"Empresarios Agrupados Tapped as A/E for Thorcon TMSR-500" 3947: 3826:"China unveils design for first waterless nuclear reactor" 3601:"China enters race to develop nuclear energy from thorium" 2586:. Pittsburgh, PA: American Nuclear Society. Archived from 4771:

International Thorium Energy Organisation – www.IThEO.org

2904:

China blazes trail for 'clean' nuclear power from thorium

2577:"Safety and Licensing Aspects of the Molten Salt Reactor" 1394:

with graphite moderator. The secondary coolant was to be

1145:

border, contains thorium reserves of 64,000 metric tons.

360:

generation (tritium can permeate stainless steels, cause

4787:

Idaho National Laboratory Molten Salt Reactor Fact Sheet

4770: 4332:

Griffiths, Trevor; Tomlinson, Jasper; O'Sullivan, Rory.

2058:"China prepares to test thorium-fuelled nuclear reactor" 858:

Changes in the composition of a MSR fast neutron (kg/GW)

837:

has a short half-life and its decay chain contains hard

4456:"Live chat: nuclear thorium technologist Kirk Sorensen" 3722:"Molten salt reactor research develops class of alloys" 3407:

A reduction in activity occurred after 1986 due to the

764:

was proposed as a safer alternative for oxide removal.

4225:[Rosatom launches project of burner reactor], 4114:"Indian Molten Salt Breeder Reactor (IMSBR) Initiated" 3354:. United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority Reactor Group 3349:

Molten Salt Reactor With Integrated Gas Turbine Plant"

3324:. United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority Reactor Group 3290: 3288: 3286: 2702:

Gat, U.; Engel, J. R.; Dodds, H. L. (1 January 1991).

2637:

Mignacca, Benito; Locatelli, Giorgio (November 2020).

1895:

Also in 2021, Southern Company, in collaboration with

934: 445:

that reduce molten salt volumes and associated costs.

2343:. ORNL/TM–7207 – via University of North Texas. 1223:

nuclear reactor experiment designed to attain a high

4045: 2933: 2931: 2420:"Transatomic Power White Paper, v1.0.1, section 1.2" 906: 527:

poorly in water, and do not form burnable hydrogen.

4660:

Teledyne Brown Engineering is the prime contractor.

2051: 2049: 2047: 1548:(IMSR). The IMSR is designed to be deployable as a 364:, and escape into the environment). ORNL developed 4709:Nuclear Power, Thorium, Molten Salt reactors, etc. 3800: 3798: 3296:"The UK's Forgotten Molten Salt Reactor Programme" 3116:"Nuclear goes retro — with a much greener outlook" 2617:"Nuclear Fuel Processing: U.S. Policy Development" 2529:. ORNL-4616 – via University of North Texas. 1869:will use the funding to develop a molten chloride 1227:for use as an engine in a nuclear-powered bomber. 193:and a large allowable temperature rise to prevent 3900:Copenhagen Atomics - Thomas Jam Pedersen @ TEAC10 3679:"Molten salt and traveling wave nuclear reactors" 3006:, vol. Circular 1336, U.S. Geological Survey 2938:Kirk Sorensen has Started a Thorium Power Company 1744:In 2020, Rosatom announced plans to build a 10 MW 27:Type of nuclear reactor cooled by molten material 4741:Nuclear goes retro – with a much greener outlook 4417:(Fact Sheet). Vol. 08-GA50044-17-R1 R6-11. 3000:Van Gosen, B. S.; Armbrustmacher, T. J. (2009), 1485:. They also researched helium gas as a coolant. 998:uses salt as fuel but metal as coolant; and the 4811:LFTR in 5 Minutes and other LFTR Documentaries. 3298:. The Alvin Weinberg Foundation. Archived from 3215:Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). 1704:molten-salt reactor for the Indonesian market. 1416:Officially, the program was cancelled because: 3539:"Moltex partners in New Brunswick SMR project" 2898: 2896: 1264:600 alloy for the metal structure and piping. 1257:(BeO). Liquid sodium was a secondary coolant. 1208:(ORNL). It was later retrofitted for the MSRE. 4713:Generation IV International Forum MSR website 3575:"Current pre-licensing vendor design reviews" 2886:Fluoride Salt-Cooled High-Temperature Reactor 2641:Economics and finance of Molten Salt Reactors 2316: 2314: 1083:fluoride salt-cooled high-temperature reactor 1077:Fluoride salt-cooled high-temperature reactor 1010:MSRs can be burners or breeders. They can be 8: 4804:Pebble Bed Advanced High Temperature Reactor 4707:Bruce Hoglund's Eclectic Interests Home Page 2584:2004 American Nuclear Society Annual Meeting 2502: 2500: 2498: 2179:. 22 June 2020. §2.2 Reactor core and fuel. 1832:scientist and chief nuclear technologist at 1204:Aircraft Reactor Experiment building at the 244:fabrication is replaced with salt synthesis. 4753:. Addison-Wesley & US AEC. p. 972. 4008:generation IV: Overview and perspectives". 3879:. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 3646: 3644: 2395:""Superfuel" Thorium a Proliferation Risk?" 2284: 2282: 2280: 1687:India's three-stage nuclear power programme 667:effectively captures neutrons and produces 3452:Annual Review of Environment and Resources 3109: 3107: 3105: 3103: 3101: 3058: 3056: 3054: 2917: 2915: 2902:Evans-Pritchard, Ambrose (6 January 2013) 2757:Handbook of Generation IV Nuclear Reactors 2610: 2608: 2549:. Lisbon, Portugal: ACSEPT. Archived from 2465:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2124:Forsberg, Charles W. (26 September 2002). 2032: 2030: 2028: 1532:Commercial/national/international projects 994:use salt as fuel and salt as coolant; the 891: 383:to produce weapons-grade nuclear material. 118:(LWR). This reduces the need and cost for 4692:. Springer Science & Business Media. 4676:Energy from Thorium's Document Repository 4276:"Thorium advocates launch pressure group" 4029: 3463: 3127: 3114:Waldrop, M. Mitchell (22 February 2019). 3032: 3022: 2811: 2668: 2658: 2516: 2330: 2227: 2225: 1176:is the lead-cooled, salt-fueled reactor. 714:enough to make highly reactive hydrogen. 4820:Review of Molten Salt Reactor Technology 3677:Tennenbaum, Jonathan (4 February 2020). 3252:Cohen, Linda R.; Noll, Roger G. (1991). 2177:IAEA Advanced Reactor Information System 1861:announced a $ 80m award fund to develop 1710:Research Organization for Nuclear Energy 1397: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1358: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1279: 1275: 1245: 1241: 755: 726: 4497:"New nuke could power world until 2083" 3423:Advanced Reactors with Innovative Fuels 3186:"Chapter 6: Responding To Social Needs" 2425:. Transatomic Power Inc. Archived from 2024: 1987: 1865:designs. One of the two beneficiaries, 1706:National Research and Innovation Agency 1488:The UK MSFR would have been fuelled by 1424:leading to commercial development, the 582:to isolate the heavier stable isotope, 161:Relevant design challenges include the 36:Example of a molten-salt reactor scheme 3991:"EVOL (Project n°249696) Final Report" 3778:"China's Molten Salt Nuclear Reactors" 3448:"The Future of Low-Carbon Electricity" 2458: 2300: 2298: 1792:, who pioneered thorium MSR research. 1769:. It is expected to launch in 2031 at 1426:United States Atomic Energy Commission 507:Fluorine has only one stable isotope ( 379:Some MSR designs can be turned into a 4212:. nextbigfuture.com. 19 December 2007 3907:from the original on 12 December 2021 3465:10.1146/annurev-environ-102016-061138 3421:Agency, Nuclear Energy; OECD (1999). 2841: 2839: 2489:Massachusetts Institute of Technology 2056:Smriti Mallapaty (9 September 2021). 1100:production facility conditions (most 990:and the more recent static-fuel-salt 701:window" of fused fluoride salts, the 191:temperature coefficient of reactivity 7: 3927:"Seaborg Making nuclear sustainable" 3500:"Pre-Licensing Vendor Design Review" 1459:Atomic Energy Research Establishment 1366:Theoretical designs at Oak Ridge, US 1002:has solid fuel but salt as coolant. 4624:REGISTER, POST (18 November 2021). 4164:Prihatini, Zintan (29 March 2022). 3065:"The Molten Salt Reactor Adventure" 2480:Forsberg, Charles (November 2011). 1880:(TVA) and Kairos Power announced a 690:Reactor salts are usually close to 67:in the mid-20th century. The 1950s 4777:The Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment 4274:Clark, Duncan (9 September 2011). 4229:(in Russian), Moscow, 11 June 2020 3599:Clark, Duncan (16 February 2011). 3579:Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission 3504:Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission 3319:Molten Chloride Salt Fast Reactor" 2947:at NextBigFuture blog, 23 May 2011 2615:Andrews, Anthony (27 March 2008), 2575:C. Forsberg, Charles (June 2004). 1859:United States Department of Energy 1557:Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission 1498:Prototype Fast Reactor at Dounreay 926: 535:Chlorine has two stable isotopes ( 63:Two research MSRs operated in the 25: 4514:Transatomic (25 September 2018). 3651:Chen, Stephen (5 December 2017). 2540:Ignatiev, Victor (1 April 2010). 2393:McKenna, Phil (5 December 2012). 1836:, is a long-time promoter of the 1408:liquid metal fast-breeder reactor 1040:Generation IV International Forum 452:at high temperatures and intense 152:electricity-generation efficiency 4577:Wang, Brian (21 December 2023). 2792:Energy Science & Engineering 1943: 1929: 1915: 645:must be in the form of purified 476:, and refractory metal based or 122:. The gaseous fission products ( 56:and/or the fuel is a mixture of 4247:Ганжур, Ольга (12 April 2020). 4138:Yurman, Dan (28 January 2022). 3343:May, W C; Simmons, W E (eds.). 3313:Smith, J; Simmons, W E (eds.). 3236:Gross Domestic Product deflator 3072:Nuclear Science and Engineering 2753:"7 - Molten salt fast reactors" 2005:liquid fluoride thorium reactor 1842:liquid fluoride thorium reactor 1714:thorium-fueled nuclear reactors 1319:liquid fluoride thorium reactor 1190:Aircraft Reactor Experiment, US 1168:Dual-fluid molten-salt reactors 1118:Liquid fluoride thorium reactor 1112:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor 234:The fuel's liquid phase can be 110:). They operate at or close to 3851:Wang, Brian (24 August 2022). 2725:Wang, Brian (26 August 2018). 2507:Shaffer, J.H. (January 1971). 2133:File: GenIV.MSR.ANES.2002.rev1 1298:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment 1238:ARE used molten fluoride salt 950: 903:Molten salt fuel – circulating 593:, thus reducing production of 75:(MSRE) aimed to demonstrate a 73:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment 1: 4851:10.1016/j.anucene.2013.08.002 4339:. Energy Process Developments 4022:10.1016/j.pnucene.2014.02.014 3948:"Seaborg: Rethinking Nuclear" 3903:. YouTube. 17 November 2019. 3739:Lavars, Nick (20 July 2021). 3628:The Alvin Weinberg Foundation 3217:"What Was the U.S. GDP Then?" 2921:Barton, Charles (March 2008) 2864:10.1016/j.anucene.2013.08.002 2660:10.1016/j.pnucene.2020.103503 2126:"Molten Salt Reactors (MSRs)" 1886:Nuclear Regulatory Commission 1782:The Alvin Weinberg Foundation 1437:Denatured molten-salt reactor 1311:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 1206:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 1090:Very-high-temperature reactor 885:Types of molten-salt reactors 213:though the reactor vessel is. 3487:Integral Molten Salt Reactor 2909:, UK. Accessed 18 March 2013 2378:. U.S. Department of Energy 2266:. GIF–001–00. Archived from 1903:Abilene Christian University 1546:Integral Molten Salt Reactor 1172:A prototypical example of a 946: 914: 910: 877:In the specific case of the 608:absorbs a neutron to become 424:liquid metal cooled reactors 4887:Graphite moderated reactors 3315:"An Assessment of a 2500 ME 2925:at Energy From Thorium blog 1960:Aqueous homogeneous reactor 1771:Mining and Chemical Combine 1754:MSR. It would be fueled by 1477:. AERE opted to focus on a 1371:Molten salt breeder reactor 1214:Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion 1196:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 930: 922: 219:MSRs enable cheaper closed 183:liquid metal cooled reactor 69:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 4908: 4364:. The Nuclear Institute UK 4358:Ian Scott (20 June 2017). 4010:Progress in Nuclear Energy 3375:AIP Conference Proceedings 3255:The Technology pork barrel 3063:MacPherson, H. G. (1985). 2786:Siemer, Darryl D. (2015). 2647:Progress in Nuclear Energy 2196:AIP Conference Proceedings 2084:10.1038/d41586-021-02459-w 1878:Tennessee Valley Authority 1834:Teledyne Brown Engineering 1295: 1193: 1156: 1115: 1049:transuranic (TRU) elements 978: 954: 432:pressurized water reactors 108:Fukushima nuclear disaster 4649:World nuclear news (wnn) 4419:Idaho National Laboratory 4411:Molten Salt Reactor (MSR) 4092:10.1007/s12043-015-1070-0 3129:10.1146/knowable-022219-2 2923:Interview with Ralph Moir 2380:Idaho National Laboratory 1923:Nuclear technology portal 1816:Idaho National Laboratory 1233:Idaho National Laboratory 961:Molten salt fuel – static 458:thermochemical production 60:with a fissile material. 4839:Annals of Nuclear Energy 4718:INL MSR workshop summary 4203:Fuji Molten salt reactor 3830:South China Morning Post 3657:South China Morning Post 3190:ORNL: The First 50 Years 2852:Annals of Nuclear Energy 2288:Section 5.3, WASH 1097. 2182:for reuse as a sweep gas 1726:Fuji Molten-Salt Reactor 1253:) as fuel, moderated by 1036:molten-salt fast reactor 1030:Molten salt fast reactor 971:Molten salt coolant only 522:") neutrons better. Low- 189:MSRs exploit a negative 120:reactor pressure vessels 90:Increased research into 4747:Lane, James. A (1958). 4556:US Department of Energy 4298:30 October 2011 at the 4208:5 February 2010 at the 3489:. terrestrialenergy.com 2943:26 October 2011 at the 2624:CRS Report for Congress 2240:US Department of Energy 2170:"Status Report to IAEA" 1449:rather than a breeder. 1432:to a competing program. 1216:program. ARE was a 2.5 735:Fused salt purification 275:reactor grade plutonium 54:nuclear reactor coolant 50:nuclear fission reactor 4484:huntsvillenewswire.com 4408:Ehresman, Teri (ed.). 4388:world-nuclear-news.org 3726:world-nuclear-news.org 2242:(Report). March 2003. 2041:. WNA, update May 2021 1828:Kirk Sorensen, former 1307: 1209: 1131:U.S. Geological Survey 859: 762:ammonium hydrofluoride 496: 428:boiling water reactors 37: 4826:"MSFR – Bibliography" 3728:. World Nuclear News. 3624:Weinberg Next Nuclear 3260:Brookings Institution 2689:The Chemical Engineer 2273:on 22 September 2006. 1965:Integral fast reactor 1863:Generation IV reactor 1857:In January 2016, the 1550:small modular reactor 1404:operating temperature 1305: 1292:MSRE at Oak Ridge, US 1203: 1102:thermochemical cycles 1044:fast neutron spectrum 864:nuclear proliferation 857: 768:Fused salt processing 491: 388:high enriched uranium 195:criticality accidents 92:Generation IV reactor 52:in which the primary 35: 4892:Molten salt reactors 4832:on 16 November 2015. 4730:on 21 February 2013. 4653:ACU is part of NEXT 4540:. 25 September 2018. 4478:6 April 2012 at the 4372:– via YouTube. 4361:Molten Salt Reactors 4118:Thorium Energy World 3765:. 12 September 2021. 2455:. San Francisco, CA. 2038:Molten Salt Reactors 1638:low enriched uranium 1634:Seaborg Technologies 1516:Twenty-first century 709:") can be used with 595:sulfur tetrachloride 484:Fused salt selection 392:lower-enriched fuels 249:transuranic elements 136:nuclear reprocessing 112:atmospheric pressure 18:Molten salt reactors 4792:Energy from Thorium 4750:Fluid Fuel Reactors 4743:M. Mitchell Waldrop 4516:"Transatomic Power" 4462:. 7 September 2011. 4190:World Nuclear News 4084:2015Prama..85..539V 3387:1995AIPC..346..138N 3238:figures follow the 3084:1985NSE....90..374M 2971:10.1511/2010.85.304 2907:The Daily Telegraph 2804:2015EneSE...3...83S 2208:1995AIPC..346..745F 2076:2021Natur.597..311M 1840:, coining the term 1797:stable-salt reactor 1565:stable salt reactor 1510:Kurchatov Institute 1269:Pratt & Whitney 1159:Stable salt reactor 1153:Stable salt reactor 1088:One version of the 977: • 953: • 949: • 945: • 941: • 937: • 933: • 929: • 925: • 921: • 917: • 913: • 909: • 879:stable salt reactor 870:Costs and economics 619:, then degrades by 480:might be feasible. 472:alloys (e.g. TZM), 345:warrant the use of 221:nuclear fuel cycles 116:light-water reactor 101:MSRs eliminate the 77:nuclear power plant 42:molten-salt reactor 4684:Weinberg, Alvin M. 3543:World Nuclear News 3409:Chernobyl accident 3092:10.13182/NSE90-374 2959:American Scientist 2593:on 13 January 2010 2304:Rosenthal, Murry. 2144:"Safety – ThorCon" 1852:spent nuclear fuel 1838:thorium fuel cycle 1763:spent nuclear fuel 1700:is developing the 1674:dual fluid reactor 1616:Copenhagen Atomics 1542:Terrestrial Energy 1330:pyrolytic graphite 1308: 1306:MSRE plant diagram 1210: 1174:dual fluid reactor 1124:thorium fuel cycle 860: 779:thorium fuel cycle 497: 386:MSRE and ARE used 295:thorium fuel cycle 81:thorium fuel cycle 38: 4737:J.H. Devan et al. 4699:978-1-56396-358-2 4428:on 18 April 2013. 4320:businessgreen.com 3979:on 13 April 2016. 3581:, 3 February 2014 3506:. 3 February 2014 3432:978-92-64-17117-6 3269:978-0-8157-1508-5 3171:978-1-56396-358-2 3120:Knowable Magazine 2766:978-0-08-100149-3 2731:NextBigFuture.com 2399:Popular Mechanics 2070:(7876): 311–312. 1848:Transatomic Power 1790:Alvin M. Weinberg 1765:and fluorides of 1758:from reprocessed 1328:-N, moderated by 984: 983: 850:Fuel reprocessing 697:Due to the high " 597:that occurs when 16:(Redirected from 4899: 4873: 4871: 4869: 4854: 4833: 4828:. Archived from 4778: 4754: 4731: 4726:. Archived from 4703: 4663: 4647: 4641: 4640: 4638: 4636: 4621: 4615: 4614: 4612: 4610: 4596: 4590: 4589: 4587: 4585: 4574: 4568: 4567: 4565: 4563: 4548: 4542: 4541: 4534: 4528: 4527: 4525: 4523: 4511: 4505: 4504: 4503:. 14 March 2013. 4493: 4487: 4470: 4464: 4463: 4452: 4446: 4443:flibe-energy.com 4436: 4430: 4429: 4427: 4421:. 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Archived from 3182: 3176: 3175: 3148: 3142: 3141: 3131: 3111: 3096: 3095: 3069: 3060: 3049: 3045: 3039: 3038: 3036: 3026: 3014: 3008: 3007: 2997: 2991: 2990: 2954: 2948: 2935: 2926: 2919: 2910: 2900: 2891: 2882: 2876: 2875: 2843: 2834: 2833: 2815: 2783: 2777: 2776: 2775: 2773: 2748: 2742: 2741: 2739: 2737: 2722: 2716: 2715: 2699: 2693: 2692: 2681: 2675: 2674: 2672: 2662: 2634: 2628: 2627: 2621: 2612: 2603: 2602: 2600: 2598: 2592: 2581: 2572: 2566: 2565: 2563: 2561: 2556:on 13 April 2016 2555: 2548: 2537: 2531: 2530: 2520: 2504: 2493: 2492: 2486: 2477: 2471: 2470: 2464: 2456: 2448: 2442: 2441: 2439: 2437: 2431: 2424: 2416: 2410: 2409: 2407: 2405: 2390: 2384: 2383: 2382:. 28 April 2020. 2372: 2366: 2365: 2359: 2351: 2345: 2344: 2334: 2318: 2309: 2302: 2293: 2286: 2275: 2274: 2272: 2237: 2229: 2220: 2219: 2191: 2185: 2184: 2174: 2166: 2160: 2159: 2157: 2155: 2140: 2134: 2132: 2130: 2121: 2115: 2114: 2108: 2106: 2053: 2042: 2034: 2012: 2003:The TMSR-500, a 2001: 1995: 1992: 1970:Nuclear aircraft 1953: 1948: 1947: 1939: 1934: 1933: 1925: 1920: 1919: 1918: 1867:Southern Company 1795:Moltex Energy's 1728:is a 100 to 200 1644:power and 100 MW 1629: 1627: 1626: 1401: 1389: 1361: 1346: 1282: 1248: 1137:district on the 1068: 1066: 1065: 1056:breeder reactors 1024:depleted uranium 892: 836: 834: 833: 825: 823: 822: 813: 811: 810: 801: 799: 798: 758: 729: 681: 679: 678: 666: 664: 663: 655: 653: 652: 633: 631: 630: 618: 616: 615: 607: 605: 604: 592: 590: 589: 576:breeder reactors 567: 565: 564: 556: 554: 553: 545: 543: 542: 517: 515: 514: 355: 353: 352: 272: 270: 269: 261: 259: 258: 103:nuclear meltdown 48:) is a class of 21: 4907: 4906: 4902: 4901: 4900: 4898: 4897: 4896: 4877: 4876: 4867: 4865: 4863:www.youtube.com 4857: 4836: 4824: 4776: 4761: 4746: 4722: 4700: 4682: 4672: 4670:Further reading 4667: 4666: 4648: 4644: 4634: 4632: 4623: 4622: 4618: 4608: 4606: 4598: 4597: 4593: 4583: 4581: 4576: 4575: 4571: 4561: 4559: 4550: 4549: 4545: 4536: 4535: 4531: 4521: 4519: 4513: 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Even if pure 662: 660: 659: 658: 657: 651: 649: 648: 647: 646: 640: 629: 627: 626: 625: 624: 614: 612: 611: 610: 609: 603: 601: 600: 599: 598: 588: 586: 585: 584: 583: 563: 561: 560: 559: 558: 552: 550: 549: 548: 547: 541: 539: 538: 537: 536: 533: 513: 511: 510: 509: 508: 505: 486: 443:heat exchangers 408: 381:breeder reactor 351: 349: 348: 347: 346: 329:oxidation state 304: 282:xenon poisoning 268: 266: 265: 264: 263: 257: 255: 254: 253: 252: 206: 179: 158:opportunities. 85:breeder reactor 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4905: 4903: 4895: 4894: 4889: 4879: 4878: 4875: 4874: 4855: 4834: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4806: 4801: 4795: 4794:Blog / Website 4789: 4784: 4773: 4768: 4760: 4759:External links 4757: 4756: 4755: 4744: 4738: 4732: 4720: 4715: 4710: 4704: 4698: 4680: 4671: 4668: 4665: 4664: 4662: 4661: 4642: 4616: 4591: 4569: 4543: 4529: 4506: 4488: 4465: 4447: 4439:"Flibe Energy" 4431: 4400: 4375: 4350: 4324: 4308: 4285: 4266: 4253:Страна РОСАТОМ 4239: 4214: 4195: 4183: 4156: 4130: 4105: 4078:(3): 539–554. 4062: 4046:"SAMOFAR home" 4037: 3999: 3982: 3964: 3939: 3918: 3890: 3865: 3843: 3832:. 19 July 2021 3817: 3794: 3768: 3750: 3731: 3713: 3695: 3669: 3640: 3618:Halper, Mark. 3610: 3591: 3566: 3563:, 6 April 2019 3548: 3545:, 16 July 2018 3530: 3524:Robert Rapier 3517: 3491: 3479: 3458:(1): 289–316. 3438: 3431: 3413: 3400: 3381:(1): 138–147. 3365: 3346: 3335: 3316: 3305: 3282: 3268: 3244: 3240:MeasuringWorth 3234:United States 3222:MeasuringWorth 3207: 3177: 3170: 3143: 3097: 3078:(4): 374–380. 3050: 3040: 3009: 2992: 2965:(4): 304–313. 2949: 2927: 2911: 2892: 2877: 2835: 2778: 2765: 2743: 2717: 2694: 2676: 2629: 2604: 2567: 2532: 2494: 2472: 2443: 2432:on 5 July 2015 2411: 2385: 2367: 2346: 2310: 2294: 2276: 2248:10.2172/859105 2221: 2202:(1): 745–751. 2186: 2161: 2135: 2116: 2043: 2023: 2022: 2020: 2017: 2014: 2013: 1996: 1986: 1985: 1983: 1980: 1978: 1977: 1972: 1967: 1962: 1956: 1955: 1954: 1951:Physics portal 1940: 1926: 1910: 1907: 1821: 1812: 1809: 1786:House of Lords 1778: 1777:United Kingdom 1775: 1745: 1741: 1738: 1731: 1721: 1718: 1708:, through its 1694: 1691: 1682: 1679: 1669: 1666: 1653: 1650: 1645: 1641: 1624: 1612: 1609: 1604:" initiative. 1572: 1569: 1538: 1535: 1533: 1530: 1517: 1514: 1505: 1502: 1454: 1453:United Kingdom 1451: 1438: 1435: 1434: 1433: 1421: 1372: 1369: 1367: 1364: 1314: 1296:Main article: 1293: 1290: 1288: 1285: 1249:(53-41-6 1225:energy density 1219: 1194:Main article: 1191: 1188: 1186: 1183: 1181: 1178: 1169: 1166: 1157:Main article: 1154: 1151: 1116:Main article: 1113: 1110: 1106:passive safety 1078: 1075: 1063: 1031: 1028: 1007: 1004: 982: 981: 972: 968: 967: 962: 958: 957: 904: 900: 899: 896: 886: 883: 871: 868: 851: 848: 831: 820: 808: 796: 783:radio isotopes 769: 766: 736: 733: 687: 684: 676: 661: 650: 639: 636: 628: 613: 602: 587: 562: 551: 540: 532: 529: 512: 504: 501: 485: 482: 418:designation). 407: 404: 403: 402: 399: 395: 384: 377: 350: 325: 314: 311: 308: 303: 300: 299: 298: 291: 288: 285: 278: 267: 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