Morality - Knowledge (XXG)

928:, or neurological lesion, has been shown to inhibit the ability of human subjects to take into account intent when forming a moral judgment. According to such investigations, TMS did not disrupt participants' ability to make any moral judgment. On the contrary, moral judgments of intentional harms and non-harms were unaffected by TMS to either the RTPJ or the control site; presumably, however, people typically make moral judgments of intentional harms by considering not only the action's harmful outcome but the agent's intentions and beliefs. So why were moral judgments of intentional harms not affected by TMS to the RTPJ? One possibility is that moral judgments typically reflect a weighted function of any morally relevant information that is available at the time. Based on this view, when information concerning the agent's belief is unavailable or degraded, the resulting moral judgment simply reflects a higher weighting of other morally relevant factors (e.g., outcome). Alternatively, following TMS to the RTPJ, moral judgments might be made via an abnormal processing route that does not take belief into account. On either account, when belief information is degraded or unavailable, moral judgments are shifted toward other morally relevant factors (e.g., outcome). For intentional harms and non-harms, however, the outcome suggests the same moral judgment as to the intention. Thus, the researchers suggest that TMS to the RTPJ disrupted the processing of negative beliefs for both intentional harms and attempted harms, but the current design allowed the investigators to detect this effect only in the case of attempted harms, in which the neutral outcomes did not afford harsh moral judgments on their own. 797:

misallocation of resources, underuse of social support, and social influence. To begin with, the authors demonstrate that people in no less than 60 nations hold the belief that morality is deteriorating continuously, and this conviction has been present for the last 70 years. Subsequently, they indicate that people ascribe this decay to the declining morality of individuals as they age and the succeeding generations. Thirdly, the authors demonstrate that people's evaluations of the morality of their peers have not decreased over time, indicating that the belief in moral decline is an illusion. Lastly, the authors explain a basic psychological mechanism that uses two well-established phenomena (distorted exposure to information and distorted memory of information) to cause the illusion of moral decline. The authors present studies that validate some of the predictions about the circumstances in which the perception of moral decline is attenuated, eliminated, or reversed (e.g., when participants are asked about the morality of people closest to them or people who lived before they were born).

1068:... if we adopt the principle of universality: if an action is right (or wrong) for others, it is right (or wrong) for us. Those who do not rise to the minimal moral level of applying to themselves the standards they apply to others—more stringent ones, in fact—plainly cannot be taken seriously when they speak of appropriateness of response; or of right and wrong, good and evil. In fact, one of them, maybe the most, elementary of moral principles is that of universality, that is, If something's right for me, it's right for you; if it's wrong for you, it's wrong for me. Any moral code that is even worth looking at has that at its core somehow. 1017:, in this regard. Haidt found that Americans who identified as liberals tended to value care and fairness higher than loyalty, respect and purity. Self-identified conservative Americans valued care and fairness less and the remaining three values more. Both groups gave care the highest over-all weighting, but conservatives valued fairness the lowest, whereas liberals valued purity the lowest. Haidt also hypothesizes that the origin of this division in the United States can be traced to geo-historical factors, with conservatism strongest in closely knit, ethnically homogeneous communities, in contrast to 873:

network pertaining to representing others' intentions (i.e., theory of mind) and the network pertaining to representing others' (vicariously experienced) emotional states (i.e., empathy). This supports the notion that moral reasoning is related to both seeing things from other persons' points of view and to grasping others' feelings. These results provide evidence that the neural network underlying moral decisions is probably domain-global (i.e., there might be no such things as a "moral module" in the human brain) and might be dissociable into cognitive and affective sub-systems.

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trend has seen homicide rates drop to historical lows" with the exceptions being the United States (with a high religiosity level) and "theistic" Portugal. In a response, Gary Jensen builds on and refines Paul's study. he concludes that a "complex relationship" exists between religiosity and homicide "with some dimensions of religiosity encouraging homicide and other dimensions discouraging it". In April 2012, the results of a study which tested their subjects'

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feeling. However, there are three ways humans can override their immediate intuitive response. The first way is conscious verbal reasoning (for example, examining costs and benefits). The second way is reframing a situation to see a new perspective or consequence, which triggers a different intuition. Finally, one can talk to other people which illuminates new arguments. In fact, interacting with other people is the cause of most moral change.

944: 599:(although to what degree this actually occurs is a controversial topic in evolutionary theory). Some sociobiologists contend that the set of behaviors that constitute morality evolved largely because they provided possible survival or reproductive benefits (i.e. increased evolutionary success). Humans consequently evolved "pro-social" emotions, such as feelings of empathy or guilt, in response to these moral behaviors. 539:

homosexuality, gambling, abortion, alcohol use, contraceptive use, and premarital sex. Each of the 40 countries in this study has a range of percentages according to what percentage of each country believes the common moral issues are acceptable, unacceptable, or not moral issues at all. Each percentage regarding the significance of the moral issue varies greatly on the culture in which the moral issue is presented.

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territorial morality is permissive, allowing the individual whatever behaviour does not interfere with the territory of another. By contrast, tribal morality is prescriptive, imposing the norms of the collective on the individual. These norms will be arbitrary, culturally dependent and 'flexible', whereas territorial morality aims at rules which are universal and absolute, such as

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towards the environment at the moment must be a factor for the result to be truly moral, as morality is subject to culture. Something can only be morally acceptable if the culture as a whole has accepted this to be true. Both practical reason and relevant emotional factors are acknowledged as significant in determining the morality of a decision.

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quick, affect-laden processes. Nonetheless, certain cognitive skills such as being able to attribute mental states—beliefs, intents, desires, emotions to oneself, and others is a common feature of a broad range of prototypical situations. In line with this, a meta-analysis found overlapping activity between

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The authors also state that "A few hundred years ago rates of homicide were astronomical in Christian Europe and the American colonies," and "the least theistic secular developing democracies such as Japan, France, and Scandinavia have been most successful in these regards." They argue for a positive

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Genetics play a role in influencing prosocial behaviors and moral decision-making. Genetics contribute to the development and expression of certain traits and behaviors, including those related to morality. However, it is important to note that while genetics play a role in shaping certain aspects of

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Critically, the specific cognitive processes that are involved depend on the prototypical situation that a person encounters. For instance, while situations that require an active decision on a moral dilemma may require active reasoning, an immediate reaction to a shocking moral violation may involve

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Still, others theorize that morality is not always absolute, contending that moral issues often differ along cultural lines. A 2014 PEW research study among several nations illuminates significant cultural differences among issues commonly related to morality, including divorce, extramarital affairs,

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believe this in-group/out-group discrimination has evolved because it enhances group survival. This belief has been confirmed by simple computational models of evolution. In simulations this discrimination can result in both unexpected cooperation towards the in-group and irrational hostility towards

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stated that, "In general, higher rates of belief in and worship of a creator correlate with higher rates of homicide, juvenile and early adult mortality, STD infection rates, teen pregnancy, and abortion in the prosperous democracies," and "In all secular developing democracies a centuries long-term

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Regarding the issues of morality in video games, some scholars believe that because players appear in video games as actors, they maintain a distance between their sense of self and the role of the game in terms of imagination. Therefore, the decision-making and moral behavior of players in the game

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Cognitive psychologists and neuroscientists investigate the inputs to these cognitive processes and their interactions, as well as how these contribute to moral behavior by running controlled experiments. In these experiments putatively moral versus nonmoral stimuli are compared to each other, while

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Marc Bekoff and Jessica Pierce (2009) have argued that morality is a suite of behavioral capacities likely shared by all mammals living in complex social groups (e.g., wolves, coyotes, elephants, dolphins, rats, chimpanzees). They define morality as "a suite of interrelated other-regarding behaviors

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or community. Various defined actions come to be called moral or immoral. Individuals who choose moral action are popularly held to possess "moral fiber", whereas those who indulge in immoral behavior may be labeled as socially degenerate. The continued existence of a group may depend on widespread

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The brain areas that are consistently involved when humans reason about moral issues have been investigated by multiple quantitative large-scale meta-analyses of the brain activity changes reported in the moral neuroscience literature. The neural network underlying moral decisions overlaps with the

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as guilt-shame avoidance. Theories of moral development therefore tend to regard it as positive moral development: the higher stages are morally higher, though this, naturally, involves a circular argument. The higher stages are better because they are higher, but the better higher because they are

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Advocates of a theory known as moral relativism subscribe to the notion that moral virtues are right or wrong only within the context of a certain standpoint (e.g., cultural community). In other words, what is morally acceptable in one culture may be taboo in another. They further contend that no

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Practical reason is necessary for the moral agency but it is not a sufficient condition for moral agency. Real life issues that need solutions do need both rationality and emotion to be sufficiently moral. One uses rationality as a pathway to the ultimate decision, but the environment and emotions

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awareness of going through any steps. Conversely, moral reasoning does involve conscious mental activity to reach a moral judgment. Moral reasoning is controlled and less affective than moral intuition. When making moral judgments, humans perform moral reasoning to support their initial intuitive

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Moral cognition refers to cognitive processes implicated in moral judgment and decision making, and moral action. It consists of several domain-general cognitive processes, ranging from perception of a morally salient stimulus to reasoning when faced with a moral dilemma. While it is important to

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Anthropologists from Oxford's Institute of Cognitive & Evolutionary Anthropology (part of the School of Anthropology & Museum Ethnography) analysed ethnographic accounts of ethics from 60 societies, comprising over 600,000 words from over 600 sources and discovered what they believe to be

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is unclear. A 2001 review of studies on this topic found "The existing evidence surrounding the effect of religion on crime is varied, contested, and inconclusive, and currently, no persuasive answer exists as to the empirical relationship between religion and crime." Phil Zuckerman's 2008 book,

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God apparently has "no problems with a slave-owning society", considers birth control a crime punishable by death, and "is keen on child abuse". Others interpret these passages differently, arguing for example that Jewish laws show the evolution of moral standards in society: that Jews actually

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In-group preference is also helpful at the individual level for the passing on of one's genes. For example, a mother who favors her own children more highly than the children of other people will give greater resources to her children than she will to strangers', thus heightening her children's

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in order to improve their evolutionary fitness. Human morality, although sophisticated and complex relative to the moralities of other animals, is essentially a natural phenomenon that evolved to restrict excessive individualism that could undermine a group's cohesion and thereby reducing the

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A new study analyses the common perception of a decline in morality in societies worldwide and throughout history. Adam M. Mastroianni and Daniel T. Gilbert present a series of studies indicating that the perception of moral decline is an illusion and easily produced, with implications for

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in nature is seen by evolutionary biologists as one way to begin to understand human morality. Its function is typically to ensure a reliable supply of essential resources, especially for animals living in a habitat where food quantity or quality fluctuates unpredictably. For example, some

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made a distinction between tribal and territorial morality. She characterizes the latter as predominantly negative and proscriptive: it defines a person's territory, including his or her property and dependents, which is not to be damaged or interfered with. Apart from these proscriptions,

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journal in which non-religious people had higher scores showing that they were more motivated by their own compassion to perform pro-social behaviors. Religious people were found to be less motivated by compassion to be charitable than by an inner sense of moral obligation.

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evolution was due to the increasing need to avoid disputes and injuries in moving to open savanna and developing stone weapons. Other theories are that increasing complexity was simply a correlate of increasing group size and brain size, and in particular the development of

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in this initial detection of moral content. The salience network responds to behaviorally salient events and may be critical to modulate downstream default and frontal control network interactions in the service of complex moral reasoning and decision-making processes.

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across cultures, even if we do not appeal to a supernatural or universalist understanding of principles – values including integrity, trustworthiness, benevolence, and fairness. These values can be resources for finding common ground between believers and nonbelievers.

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also suggests an inverse relationship between religion and crime, with some studies establishing this connection. A meta-analysis of 60 studies on religion and crime concluded, "religious behaviors and beliefs exert a moderate deterrent effect on individuals' criminal

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mention that there is not a single cognitive faculty dedicated exclusively to moral cognition, characterizing the contributions of domain-general processes to moral behavior is a critical scientific endeavor to understand how morality works and how it can be improved.

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Religions provide different ways of dealing with moral dilemmas. For example, Hinduism lacks any absolute prohibition on killing, recognizing that it "may be inevitable and indeed necessary" in certain circumstances. Monotheistic traditions view certain acts—such as

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thinks that the ability to recognize and vicariously experience what another individual is undergoing was a key step forward in the evolution of social behavior, and ultimately, morality. The inability to feel empathy is one of the defining characteristics of

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moral virtue can objectively be proven right or wrong Critics of moral relativism point to historical atrocities such as infanticide, slavery, or genocide as counter arguments, noting the difficulty in accepting these actions simply through cultural lenses.

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can be read as giving us a carte blanche for harsh attitudes to children, the mentally handicapped, animals, the environment, the divorced, unbelievers, people with various sexual habits, and elderly women", and notes morally-suspect themes in the Bible's

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can be seen as addressing the same question at the social level, though the political sphere raises additional problems and challenges. It is therefore unsurprising that evidence has been found of a relationship between attitudes in morality and politics.

984:, found that moral foundations have significant genetic bases. Another study, conducted by Smith and Hatemi, similarly found significant evidence in support of moral heritability by looking at and comparing the answers of moral dilemmas between twins. 654:

that cultivate and regulate complex interactions within social groups." This suite of behaviors includes empathy, reciprocity, altruism, cooperation, and a sense of fairness. In related work, it has been convincingly demonstrated that chimpanzees show

773:, see moral commitment as arising from the development of a self-identity that is defined by moral purposes: this moral self-identity leads to a sense of responsibility to pursue such purposes. Of historical interest in psychology are the theories of 506:

Peterson and Seligman approach the anthropological view looking across cultures, geo-cultural areas and across millennia. They conclude that certain virtues have prevailed in all cultures they examined. The major virtues they identified include

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Zuckerman identifies that Scandinavians have "relatively high rates of petty crime and burglary", but "their overall rates of violent crime—such as murder, aggravated assault, and rape—are among the lowest on earth" (Zuckerman 2008, pp.

1113:, religion and morality "are to be defined differently and have no definitional connections with each other. Conceptually and in principle, morality and a religious value system are two distinct kinds of value systems or action guides." 1537:

between the degree of public religiosity in a society and certain measures of dysfunction, an analysis published later in the same journal argues that a number of methodological problems undermine any findings or conclusions in the

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from a society that provides these codes of conduct in which it applies and is accepted by an individual. It does not connote objective claims of right or wrong, but only refers to that which is considered right or wrong.

373:, on the other hand, holds that moral statements either fail or do not even attempt to report objective moral facts. Instead, they hold that moral sentences are either categorically false claims of objective moral facts ( 1303:, "which are probably the least religious countries in the world, and possibly in the history of the world", enjoy "among the lowest violent crime rates in the world the lowest levels of corruption in the world". 3013: 1220:

and devotion; Hence it is justly regarded as unsafe to draw any inference in favor of a man's morals, from the fervor or strictness of his religious exercises, even though he himself believe them sincere."

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The maxim 'Treat others how you wish to be treated'. Various expressions of this fundamental moral rule are to be found in tenets of most religions and creeds through the ages, testifying to its universal

717:, morality is sometimes considered to change through personal development. Several psychologists have produced theories on the development of morals, usually going through stages of different morals. 1037:

conformity to codes of morality; an inability to adjust moral codes in response to new challenges is sometimes credited with the demise of a community (a positive example would be the function of

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from starvation. Since these animals live in close-knit groups over many years, an individual can count on other group members to return the favor on nights when it goes hungry (Wilkinson, 1984)

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showed the evolution of moral standards towards protecting the vulnerable, imposing a death penalty on those pursuing slavery and treating slaves as persons and not as property. Humanists like

6278: 1503: 1193:, "practically, right and wrong are decided according to the categories of social rank, kinship, and stages of life. For modern Westerners, who have been raised on ideals of universality and 833:

It has been recently found that moral judgment consists in concurrent evaluations of three different components that align with precepts from three dominant moral theories (virtue ethics,

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are forms of this in-group/out-group boundary. Jonathan Haidt has noted that experimental observation indicating an in-group criterion provides one moral foundation substantially used by

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Chard-Wierschem, D. (1998). In pursuit of the "true" relationship: A longitudinal study of the effects of religiosity on delinquency and substance abuse. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Dissertation.

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controlling for other variables such as content or working memory load. Often, the differential neural response to specifically moral statements or scenes, are examined using functional

469:" (the individual and those they believe to be of the same group) or an "out-group" (people not entitled to be treated according to the same rules). Some biologists, anthropologists and 826:

tasks, suggesting a shared neural network for both tasks. The results of this meta-analysis, however, also demonstrated that the processing of moral input is affected by task demands.

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are universalist forms of ethical subjectivism which claim that morality is derived from the edicts of a god or the hypothetical decrees of a perfectly rational being, respectively.

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Eres, Robert; Louis, Winnifred R.; Molenberghs, Pascal (27 July 2017). "Common and distinct neural networks involved in fMRI studies investigating morality: an ALE meta-analysis".

7769: 245:... and sometimes it is used more narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition, group, or individual." Likewise, certain types of ethical theories, especially 4539: 4752:

Johnson, B. R.; Larson, D. B.; DeLi, S.; Jang, S. J. (2000). "Escaping from the crime of inner cities:Church attendance and religious salience among disadvantaged youth".

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for each other in a wide variety of contexts. They also possess the ability to engage in deception, and a level of social politics prototypical of our own tendencies for

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As an alternative to viewing morality as an individual trait, some sociologists as well as social- and discursive psychologists have taken upon themselves to study the

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On this view, moral codes are ultimately founded on emotional instincts and intuitions that were selected for in the past because they aided survival and reproduction (

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is the class of theories which hold that there are true moral statements that report objective moral facts. For example, while they might concede that forces of social

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An essential, shared component of moral judgment involves the capacity to detect morally salient content within a given social context. Recent research implicated the

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seven universal moral rules: help your family, help your group, return favours, be brave, defer to superiors, divide resources fairly, and respect others' property.

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exerted toward this kind of self-interest, such that eventually, all parents wind up favoring their own children (the in-group) over other children (the out-group).

5138:. New York: The MacMillan Company; Reprinted 1975 by permission of Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc., and also reprinted by Peter Smith Publisher Inc, January 1990. 3049: 1554:

22:18 that has "helped to burn alive tens or hundreds of thousands of women in Europe and America": "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live," and notes that the

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movements, there has been some tendency to feel that a nation will not survive or prosper without acknowledging one common morality, regardless of its content.

1244:, and apologists for Islam defend or explain away its harsh penal code or its attitude to women and infidels". In regard to Christianity, he states that the " 6254: 1321: 1052:

Political morality is also relevant to the behavior internationally of national governments, and to the support they receive from their host population. The

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writes that "Although the morality of people and their ethics amounts to the same thing, there is a usage that restricts morality to systems such as that of

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threatened those who pursued forced slavery with the death penalty, held that slaves were persons instead of property, and protected them in several ways.

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Religion and morality are not synonymous. Morality does not depend upon religion although for some this is "an almost automatic assumption". According to

2965:"Bzdok, D. et al. Parsing the neural correlates of moral cognition: ALE meta-analysis on morality, theory of mind, and empathy. Brain Struct Funct, 2011" 4660:

Cochran, J. K.; Akers, R. L. (1989). "Beyond Hellfire:An explanation of the variable effects of religiosity on adolescent marijuana and alcohol use".

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Similarly, individuals with a lesion of the VMPC judge an action purely on its outcome and are unable to take into account the intent of that action.

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fail to feed on prey some nights while others manage to consume a surplus. Bats that did eat will then regurgitate part of their blood meal to save a

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Albrecht, S. I.; Chadwick, B. A.; Alcorn, D. S. (1977). "Religiosity and deviance:Application of an attitude-behavior contingent consistency model".

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Monin, Benoît; Pizarro, David A.; Beer, Jennifer S. (2007). "Deciding versus reacting: Conceptions of moral judgment and the reason-affect debate".

451:. Green relates the development of territorial morality to the rise of the concept of private property, and the ascendancy of contract over status. 6521: 6286: 4689:

Evans, T. D.; Cullen, F. T.; Burton, V. S. Jr.; Dunaway, R. G.; Payne, G. L.; Kethineni, S. R. (1996). "Religion, social bonds, and delinquency".

3754: 7280: 4887:"Cross-National Correlations of Quantifiable Societal Health with Popular Religiosity and Secularism in the Prosperous Democracies: A First Look" 4860:"Cross-National Correlations of Quantifiable Societal Health with Popular Religiosity and Secularism in the Prosperous Democracies: A First Look" 4833:"Cross-National Correlations of Quantifiable Societal Health with Popular Religiosity and Secularism in the Prosperous Democracies: A First Look" 4710:

Grasmick, H. G.; Bursik, R. J.; Cochran, J. K. (1991). "Render unto Caesar what is Caesar's": Religiosity and taxpayer's inclinations to cheat".

4325:"Cross-National Correlations of Quantifiable Societal Health with Popular Religiosity and Secularism in the Prosperous Democracies: A First Look" 897:, and psychopathy, Jean Decety argued that empathy and morality are neither systematically opposed to one another, nor inevitably complementary. 381:); or else do not attempt to describe the world at all but rather something else, like an expression of an emotion or the issuance of a command ( 4211: 1824: 5167: 5143: 5064: 5043: 5015: 4951: 4307: 4166: 4132: 4104: 4076: 4048: 4014: 3988: 3963: 3937: 3912: 3265: 2282: 1777: 1724: 1699: 28: 2110: 843:

distinguishes between two types of moral cognition: moral intuition and moral reasoning. Moral intuition involves the fast, automatic, and

4406: 2770:"Contextual and Perceptual Brain Processes Underlying Moral Cognition: A Quantitative Meta-Analysis of Moral Reasoning and Moral Emotions" 1865: 193:

is variously defined as an unawareness of, indifference toward, or disbelief in any particular set of moral standards and/or principles.

6302: 5256: 3487:"Disruption of the right temporoparietal junction with transcranial magnetic stimulation reduces the role of beliefs in moral judgments" 3012:

Boccia, M.; Dacquino, C.; Piccardi, L.; Cordellieri, P.; Guariglia, C.; Ferlazzo, F.; Ferracuti, S.; Giannini, A. M. (25 January 2016).

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Bzdok, Danilo; Schilbach, Leonhard; Vogeley, Kai; Schneider, Karla; Laird, Angela R; Langner, Robert; Eickhoff, Simon B (2012-01-24).

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Boehm, Christopher (1982). "The evolutionary development of morality as an effect of dominance behaviour and conflict interference".

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Several studies have been conducted on the empirics of morality in various countries, and the overall relationship between faith and

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Baier, C. J.; Wright, B. R. (2001). "If you love me, keep my commandments":A meta-analysis of the effect of religion on crime".

1678:. He posits that it "express the essence of a universal morality." The rationale for this distinction occupies much of his book 988:

moral behavior, morality itself is a multifaceted concept that encompasses cultural, societal, and personal influences as well.

6635: 980: 917:(VMPC), a region involved in valuation, while intuitive reactions to situations containing implicit moral issues activates the 4886: 4859: 4832: 4324: 606:. Biologists contend that all social animals, from ants to elephants, have modified their behaviors, by restraining immediate 595:, believe that morality is a product of evolutionary forces acting at an individual level and also at the group level through 401:

is a universalist form of non-cognitivism which claims that morality is derived from reasoning about implied imperatives, and

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Kerley, Kent R.; Matthews; Blanchard, Troy C. (2005). "Religiosity, Religious Participation, and Negative Prison Behaviors".

3597:"Testing heritability of moral foundations: Common pathway models support strong heritability for the five moral foundations" 914: 494:

chances of survival and her own gene's chances of being perpetuated. Due to this, within a population, there is substantial

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Some studies appear to show positive links in the relationship between religiosity and moral behavior Modern research in

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Within the wide range of moral traditions, religious value-systems co-exist with contemporary secular frameworks such as

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On this understanding, moralities are sets of self-perpetuating and biologically driven behaviors which encourage human

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Johnson, R. E.; Marcos, A. C.; Bahr, S. J. (1987). "The role of peers in the complex etiology of adolescent drug use".

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Some observers hold that individuals apply distinct sets of moral rules to people depending on their membership of an "

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Laura R. Saslow, Robb Willer, Matthew Feinberg, Paul K. Piff, Katharine Clark, Dacher Keltner and Sarina R. Saturn

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likewise holds that "the Bible contains both good and evil teachings", and it is "morally inconsistent". Christian

393:, while considered anti-realist in the robust sense used here, are considered realist in the sense synonymous with 263:: "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law." 1490:

still). The study notes that fewer atheists and agnostics enter into marriage relative to faith-based individuals.

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showing that membership of religious groups was positively correlated with membership of voluntary organisations

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Religious value-systems can be used to justify acts that are contrary to general contemporary morality, such as

8035: 7859: 7809: 7618: 6908: 6469: 5956: 5613: 5369: 5226:"Virtuous behaviors sanction later sins: people are quick to treat themselves after a good deed or healthy act" 1391: 1002: 918: 890: 398: 7939: 7603: 7250: 2638:

Young, Liane; Dungan, James (January 2012). "Where in the brain is morality? Everywhere and maybe nowhere".

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right or wrong, which may be independent of the values or mores held by any particular peoples or cultures.

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Christopher Boehm (1982) has hypothesized that the incremental development of moral complexity throughout

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which addresses questions of morality. The word "ethics" is "commonly used interchangeably with 'morality'

3014:"Neural foundation of human moral reasoning: an ALE meta-analysis about the role of personal perspective" 2206: 7944: 7934: 7829: 7355: 7310: 6813: 6326: 6318: 6246: 6202: 5564: 5559: 5454: 4147: 1991: 1254: 1186: 1088: 1082: 702: 663: 574: 406: 402: 287:, and generally avoiding the separation of 'moral' considerations from other practical considerations." 202: 4802:

Powell, K. (1997). "Correlates of violent and nonviolent behavior among vulnerable inner-city youths".

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Young, Liane; Bechara, Antoine; Tranel, Daniel; Damasio, Hanna; Hauser, Marc; Damasio, Antonio (2010).

1060:, analyzes the trajectory of moral progress in society via the framework of an expanding moral circle. 4493: 7949: 7749: 7548: 7335: 7270: 7210: 6443: 6107: 5583: 5573: 5554: 5532: 5494: 5432: 5344: 5307: 5129: 4156: 4152: 4038: 4034: 3500: 2887: 2781: 2524: 2211: 1671: 1644: 1487: 1197:, this relativity of values and obligations is the aspect of Hinduism most difficult to understand". 1042: 885:, and this would appear to lend support to Decety's view. Recently, drawing on empirical research in 588: 378: 246: 164: 4513: 4215: 2089: 2070:"When Morality Opposes Justice: Conservatives Have Moral Intuitions that Liberals may not Recognize" 7789: 7350: 7295: 7215: 7157: 7040: 6935: 6665: 6413: 6374: 6350: 6217: 6137: 6117: 6092: 6062: 5474: 5354: 5054: 4997: 3863: 1926: 1351: 1053: 894: 886: 863: 844: 578: 5225: 7909: 7568: 7533: 7443: 6970: 6803: 6754: 6584: 6408: 6403: 6238: 6177: 6047: 5635: 5542: 5527: 5479: 5427: 5285: 4769: 4677: 4645: 4616: 4578: 4373: 4280: 3807: 3781: 3735: 3679: 3624: 3485:

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Dozens of studies have been conducted on this topic since the twentieth century. A 2005 study by

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Moral intuitions may have genetic bases. A 2022 study conducted by scholars Michael Zakharin and

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stated that "the greatest crimes have been found, in many instances, to be compatible with a

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Gilligan and Kohlberg: "Implications for Moral Theory" Author(s): Lawrence A. Blum Source:

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points out a further disparity between the values of religious traditions, stating that in

72:

Allegory with a portrait of a Venetian senator (Allegory of the morality of earthly things)

7904: 7899: 7663: 7608: 7593: 7573: 7553: 7508: 7483: 7393: 7345: 7330: 7230: 7190: 7081: 7076: 6903: 6791: 6705: 6680: 6488: 6222: 5961: 5916: 5876: 5824: 5769: 5759: 5683: 5658: 5640: 5593: 5484: 5417: 5412: 5300: 5251: 5231: 5029: 4939: 4543: 4243: 4120: 4092: 4064: 3819: 2479: 2264: 2048: 2035: 1861: 1754: 1411: 1376: 1356: 1307: 1237: 996:

If morality is the answer to the question 'how ought we to live' at the individual level,

823: 770: 742: 733:; to these theorists morality forms in a series of constructive stages or domains. In the 596: 382: 300: 280: 268: 118: 98: 3714:"Intuitive ethics: how innately prepared intuitions generate culturally variable virtues" 1606: 3753:

Graham, J.; Haidt, J.; Koleva, S.; Motyl, M.; Iyer, R.; Wojcik, S.; Ditto, P.H. (2013).

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The explicit making of moral right and wrong judgments coincides with activation in the

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aspects of morality by examining how persons conduct themselves in social interaction.

762: 754: 750: 738: 734: 675: 647: 626:, where close proximity during early years reduces mutual sexual attraction, underpins 444: 106: 86: 43: 4186: 3643: 2392: 1295:, based on studies conducted during 14 months in Scandinavia in 2005–2006, notes that 943: 8019: 7964: 7673: 7658: 7648: 7633: 7583: 7538: 7498: 7433: 7428: 7398: 7265: 7205: 7147: 6871: 6685: 6530: 6142: 6082: 6032: 5871: 5809: 5794: 5693: 5608: 5537: 5489: 5397: 5379: 5280: 4815: 4773: 4681: 4582: 4522: 4478: 4284: 3683: 3628: 3453: 3245: 3230: 3155: 2828: 2751: 2624: 2232: 1976: 1555: 1475: 1401: 1381: 1250: 1240:

states that "apologists for Hinduism defend or explain away its involvement with the

1214: 1096: 867: 778: 774: 766: 726: 619: 554: 436: 343: 272: 256: 179:, which states: "One should treat others as one would like others to treat oneself." 36: 5267: 3181: 3103: 2860: 2667: 2340: 1486:

have lower divorce rates than faith groups on average (though some faith groups had

92: 7643: 7638: 7613: 7543: 7478: 7438: 7408: 7403: 7315: 7305: 7195: 6930: 6925: 6913: 6834: 6820: 6744: 6609: 6599: 6568: 6423: 6366: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6162: 6132: 5866: 5739: 5673: 5668: 5603: 5459: 5444: 4898: 4871: 4844: 4336: 4300:

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Philosophical theories on the nature and origins of morality (that is, theories of

229: 217: 156: 67: 4925: 4702: 3317: 3246:"The Neuroevolution of Empathy and Caring for Others: Why It Matters for Morality" 3087: 2698: 2432: 350:

significantly shape individuals' "moral" decisions, they deny that those cultural

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define morally right behavior. This may be the philosophical view propounded by

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area, a region that plays a key role in understanding intentions and beliefs.

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reform in reviving monasticism; a negative example would be the role of the

1021:-cities, where the cultural mix is greater, thus requiring more liberalism. 847:

processes that result in an evaluative feeling of good-bad or like-dislike,

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because it decreases the likelihood of genetically risky behaviour such as

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is the active opposition to morality (i.e. opposition to that which is

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Gary F. Jensen (2006) Department of Sociology, Vanderbilt University

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Robustness of ethnocentrism to changes in inter-personal interactions

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emphasize social and emotional development based on biology, such as

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is selected for because it improves the survival of offspring; the

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Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines

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is the branch of philosophy which studies morality in this sense.

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is the branch of philosophy which studies morality in this sense.

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The development of modern morality is a process closely tied to

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the out-group. Gary R. Johnson and V.S. Falger have argued that

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and colleagues, has been used to study the differences between

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in the subjugation of China to European interests). Within

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approach to practical reasoning, based on the notion of a

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Seeley, W. W.; Menon, V.; Schatzberg, A. F.; Keller, J.;

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argued that the Golden Rule is much more than simply an

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Jean Piaget § Education and development of morality

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within each respective faith. Other religions spanning

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Saroglou, Vassilis; Pichon; Dernelle, Rebecca (2005).

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Why is ethnocentrism more common than humanitarianism?

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sense, "morality" refers to whatever (if anything) is

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The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction

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Childress, James F.; Macquarrie, John, eds. (1986).

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and is often codified to regulate behavior within a

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Talk at work: Interaction in institutional settings

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In 1319:sentiments were published in the 926:transcranial magnetic stimulation 418:Morality with practical reasoning 8003: 7840:The Closing of the American Mind 7760:Civilization and Its Discontents 7740:A Vindication of Natural Society 6484: 6483: 4816:10.1097/00003727-199707000-00006 4523:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2005.00289.x 4479:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2005.00296.x 4298:Zuckerman, Phil (October 2008). 3905:The Elements of Moral Philosophy 3454:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.10.062 3156:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00389.x 2297:Bekoff, Marc and Jessica Pierce 1717:Bioethics: A Nursing Perspective 942: 4918:Journal of Religion and Society 4897:. Baltimore, MD. Archived from 4891:Journal of Religion and Society 4864:Journal of Religion and Society 4837:Journal of Religion and Society 4355:Journal of Religion and Society 4329:Journal of Religion and Society 3979:Miller, Barbara Stoler (2004). 3601:European Journal of Personality 2511:"The illusion of moral decline" 2135:Character Strengths and Virtues 2047:Kaznatcheev, A. (2010, March). 1312:Journal of Religion and Society 981:European Journal of Personality 109:into those that are proper, or 6271:The Theory of Moral Sentiments 5641:Value monism – Value pluralism 4003:Werner Menski, "Hinduism". In 3696:See Weber, Eric Thomas. 2011. 3405:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5587-06.2007 1715:Johnstone, Megan-Jane (2008). 1545: 1527: 1514: 1497: 1469: 915:ventromedial prefrontal cortex 1: 7730:Oration on the Dignity of Man 5263:Boston College's Morality Lab 4703:10.1080/01639625.1996.9968014 4563:Criminal Justice and Behavior 4405:. Barna Group. Archived from 4401:Barna Group (31 March 2008). 3952:Peggy Morgan, "Buddhism". In 3088:10.1080/17470919.2017.1357657 2699:10.1080/1068316X.2017.1414817 2433:10.1080/08351813.1998.9683594 2393:10.1016/s0140-1750(82)92069-3 1994:, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), 1990:Richardson, Henry S. (2018), 1635:, ed. (1979). "golden rule". 1273:believe that we can identify 709:'s model of moral development 509:wisdom / knowledge; courage; 7800:The Society of the Spectacle 6335:On the Genealogy of Morality 6295:Critique of Practical Reason 5114:Slater S.J., Thomas (1925). 3884:Chomsky, Noam (2002-07-02). 3564:10.1016/j.neuron.2010.03.003 3290:Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2969:Brain Structure and Function 2901:10.1371/journal.pone.0204631 2827:Bartel, Christopher (2015). 2795:10.1371/journal.pone.0087427 2732:Review of General Psychology 2652:10.1080/17470919.2011.569146 2617:10.1080/09515089.2012.736075 2463:Button, Graham, ed. (1991). 2358:. Harvard University Press. 2274:The Science of Good and Evil 1607:"The Definition of Morality" 1605:Stanford University (2011). 4804:Family and Community Health 4674:10.1177/0022427889026003002 4277:10.1177/0022427801038001001 3258:10.1007/978-3-319-02904-7_8 2687:Psychology, Crime & Law 924:Stimulation of the VMPC by 297:personal or cultural values 8052: 6263:A Treatise of Human Nature 5252:The Definition of Morality 5177:Yandell, Keith E. (1973). 5077:. London: Blandford Press. 5008:Princeton University Press 4998:Churchland, Patricia Smith 4712:The Sociological Quarterly 4428:Wicker, Christine (2000). 4250:5, Issue 2 (2008): 131–47. 3886:"Terror and Just Response" 3660:10.1007/s12110-020-09380-7 3302:10.1016/j.tics.2014.04.008 3018:Brain Imaging and Behavior 2538:10.1038/s41586-023-06137-x 2178:Trompenaars, Fons (2003). 2148:"Global Views on Morality" 1961:10.1108/ijoes-11-2018-0171 1830:Cambridge University Press 1637:A Dictionary of Philosophy 1474:Studies on divorce in the 1086: 1076: 861: 691: 685: 568: 471:evolutionary psychologists 458: 215: 200: 171:. An example of normative 135:understood to be universal 31:The Armando Iannucci Shows 18: 7978: 7870:Intellectuals and Society 7820:The Culture of Narcissism 6537: 6479: 4885:Paul, Gregory S. (2005). 4858:Paul, Gregory S. (2005). 4831:Paul, Gregory S. (2005). 4766:10.1080/07418820000096371 4450:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 4323:Paul, Gregory S. (2005). 4235:See Weber, Eric Thomas. " 3613:10.1177/08902070221103957 3030:10.1007/s11682-016-9505-x 2981:10.1007/s00429-012-0380-y 2845:10.1007/s10676-015-9383-8 2744:10.1037/1089-2680.11.2.99 2099:10.1007/s11211-007-0034-z 1933:(GB), 2004, 12(2): 179–83 1684:Stace, Walter T. (1937). 876:Cognitive neuroscientist 291:Descriptive and normative 7860:The Malaise of Modernity 7810:The History of Sexuality 6909:Catholic social teaching 5614:Universal prescriptivism 5117:"Book I: Morality" 5059:. New York: Free Press. 4575:10.1177/0093854806293485 3731:10.1162/0011526042365555 2605:Philosophical Psychology 1838:10.1017/CBO9781139057509 1768:Superson, Anita (2009). 1392:Index of ethics articles 1003:Moral foundations theory 919:temporoparietal junction 891:developmental psychology 737:approach established by 399:universal prescriptivism 331:Realism and anti-realism 51:Not to be confused with 7940:Philosophy of education 5403:Artificial intelligence 4248:Contemporary Pragmatism 3514:10.1073/pnas.0914826107 3393:Journal of Neuroscience 3214:10.1023/A:1020611606754 2947:10.1126/science.1137651 2589:10.5840/monist201295319 2496:10.1558/japl.v9i2.25734 2354:de Waal, Frans (1997). 2269:"Transcendent Morality" 2077:Social Justice Research 1876:Oxford University Press 978:, and published by the 589:evolutionary biologists 585:sociocultural evolution 551:Did the Pedestrian Die? 364:ethical non-naturalists 6879: 6833: 6819: 5241:, 2012, 21(4), 457–65. 3888:. ZNet. Archived from 1372:Emotional intelligence 1165:and as interpreted by 1070: 710: 611:individuals' fitness. 461:In-group and out-group 455:In-group and out-group 441:categorical imperative 427:Tribal and territorial 264: 261:categorical imperative 91: 79: 7945:Philosophy of history 7935:Philosophy of culture 7830:A Conflict of Visions 6327:The Methods of Ethics 5565:Divine command theory 5560:Ideal observer theory 5135:The Concept of Morals 5130:Stace, Walter Terence 4153:Hitchens, Christopher 4035:Hitchens, Christopher 2014:Green, Celia (2004). 1687:The Concept of Morals 1680:The Concept of Morals 1613:. Stanford University 1187:Barbara Stoler Miller 1089:Divine command theory 1083:Morality and religion 1066: 705: 664:reputation management 628:taboos against incest 575:Evolution of morality 486:, but far less so by 407:ideal observer theory 403:divine command theory 255: 203:Evolution of morality 70: 7950:Political philosophy 7750:Democracy in America 6444:Political philosophy 5277:"The Moral Instinct" 5268:Morality and Judaism 5191:"Religious Morality" 5162:. Oxford: Capstone. 5038:, Black Swan, 2007 ( 3702:(London: Continuum). 3055:on 23 September 2019 2212:Current Anthropology 1927:Chapouthier, Georges 1672:Walter Terence Stace 1643:in association with 747:Social psychologists 379:ethical subjectivism 247:deontological ethics 165:deontological ethics 7790:One-Dimensional Man 6575:Lesser of two evils 6414:Evolutionary ethics 6375:Reasons and Persons 6351:A Theory of Justice 5505:Uncertain sentience 5024:The Montreal Review 4745:10.1093/sf/55.4.952 4409:on 19 December 2014 4189:. Apologetics Press 3864:Sentience Institute 3505:2010PNAS..107.6753Y 3352:10.1093/scan/nsx035 3123:The Washington Post 3117:Vedantam, Shankar. 3076:Social Neuroscience 2892:2018PLoSO..1304631D 2786:2014PLoSO...987427S 2640:Social Neuroscience 2529:2023Natur.618..782M 2253:. 11 February 2019. 1645:The MacMillan Press 1352:Appeal to tradition 1293:Society without God 1141:religions, such as 1054:Sentience Institute 895:social neuroscience 887:evolutionary theory 864:Science of morality 765:theorists, such as 579:Evolutionary ethics 533:social intelligence 360:ethical naturalists 8031:Concepts in ethics 7910:Cultural pessimism 7905:Cultural criticism 6804:National character 6409:Ethics in religion 6404:Descriptive ethics 6239:Nicomachean Ethics 5286:The New York Times 5211:"God and the Good" 4969:"Moral Relativism" 4967:Westacott, Emrys. 4542:2007-10-08 at the 4242:2013-10-14 at the 4148:Elizabeth Anderson 2941:(5827): 998–1002. 2325:10.1007/BF02382862 2034:2012-03-27 at the 1422:Moral intelligence 1282:Empirical analyses 1255:Elizabeth Anderson 1079:Ethics in religion 954:. You can help by 711: 637:The phenomenon of 624:Westermarck effect 502:Comparing cultures 496:selection pressure 395:moral universalism 310:Descriptive ethics 265: 173:ethical philosophy 121:from a particular 80: 42:, and 7991: 7990: 7707: 7706: 6852:Spontaneous order 6842:Social alienation 6691:Cultural heritage 6652:Social philosophy 6618: 6617: 6497: 6496: 6464:Social philosophy 6449:Population ethics 6439:Philosophy of law 6419:History of ethics 5902:Political freedom 5579:Euthyphro dilemma 5370:Suffering-focused 5289:, 13 January 2008 5216:Religious Studies 5169:978-1-84112-436-0 5154:Trompenaars, Fons 5145:978-0-8446-2990-2 5066:978-1-4391-7121-9 5044:978-0-552-77429-1 5017:978-0-691-13703-2 5006:. Princeton, NJ: 4953:978-0-19-280442-6 4754:Justice Quarterly 4559:As is stated in: 4309:978-0-8147-9714-3 4168:978-0-306-81608-6 4134:978-0-19-280442-6 4106:978-0-19-280442-6 4078:978-0-19-280442-6 4050:978-0-306-81608-6 4016:978-0-7486-2330-3 3990:978-0-553-21365-2 3965:978-0-7486-2330-3 3939:978-0-664-20940-7 3914:978-0-078-03824-2 3267:978-3-319-02903-0 2523:(7966): 782–789. 2284:978-0-8050-7520-5 2055:. Butiz wintrades 1992:"Moral Reasoning" 1779:978-0-19-537662-3 1770:The Moral Skeptic 1726:978-0-7295-3873-2 1701:978-0-8446-2990-2 1442:Outline of ethics 1427:Moral outsourcing 1310:published in the 1167:religious leaders 1058:Jacy Reese Anthis 972: 971: 731:moral development 719:Lawrence Kohlberg 618:). Examples: the 616:inclusive fitness 449:graded absolutism 207:History of ethics 189:or right), while 8043: 8008: 8007: 8006: 7999: 7955:Social criticism 7875: 7865: 7855: 7845: 7835: 7825: 7815: 7805: 7795: 7785: 7775: 7765: 7755: 7745: 7735: 7725: 6961: 6943:Frankfurt School 6921:Communitarianism 6884: 6838: 6824: 6645: 6638: 6631: 6622: 6524: 6517: 6510: 6501: 6487: 6486: 6434:Moral psychology 6379: 6371: 6363: 6359:Practical Ethics 6355: 6347: 6343:Principia Ethica 6339: 6331: 6323: 6315: 6307: 6299: 6291: 6283: 6275: 6267: 6259: 6251: 6247:Ethics (Spinoza) 6243: 5882:Moral imperative 5340:Consequentialism 5317: 5310: 5303: 5294: 5186: 5184: 5173: 5149: 5125: 5119: 5110: 5099:(Jan–Feb 2013). 5075:The New Morality 5070: 5035:The God Delusion 5021: 4984: 4983: 4981: 4979: 4964: 4958: 4957: 4940:Blackburn, Simon 4936: 4930: 4929: 4909: 4903: 4902: 4882: 4876: 4875: 4855: 4849: 4848: 4828: 4822: 4819: 4798: 4777: 4748: 4727: 4706: 4691:Deviant Behavior 4685: 4653: 4624: 4593: 4587: 4586: 4557: 4551: 4533: 4527: 4526: 4516: 4498: 4489: 4483: 4482: 4462: 4456: 4455: 4449: 4441: 4439: 4437: 4425: 4419: 4418: 4416: 4414: 4398: 4392: 4386: 4380: 4371: 4365: 4347: 4341: 4340: 4320: 4314: 4313: 4295: 4289: 4288: 4260: 4251: 4233: 4227: 4226: 4224: 4223: 4208: 4199: 4198: 4196: 4194: 4182: 4173: 4172: 4145: 4139: 4138: 4121:Blackburn, Simon 4117: 4111: 4110: 4093:Blackburn, Simon 4089: 4083: 4082: 4065:Blackburn, Simon 4061: 4055: 4054: 4027: 4021: 4020: 4001: 3995: 3994: 3976: 3970: 3969: 3950: 3944: 3943: 3925: 3919: 3918: 3900: 3894: 3893: 3881: 3875: 3874: 3872: 3871: 3856: 3850: 3849: 3847: 3846: 3830: 3824: 3823: 3817: 3813: 3811: 3803: 3801: 3800: 3794: 3788:. 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Bates 967: 964: 946: 939: 907:salience network 715:moral psychology 688:Moral psychology 547:Fons Trompenaars 325:Normative ethics 301:codes of conduct 244: 169:consequentialism 161:normative ethics 145:Moral philosophy 105:, decisions and 74:, attributed to 64: 49: 8051: 8050: 8046: 8045: 8044: 8042: 8041: 8040: 8036:Social concepts 8016: 8015: 8014: 8004: 8002: 7994: 7992: 7987: 7974: 7900:Critical theory 7878: 7873: 7863: 7853: 7843: 7833: 7823: 7813: 7803: 7793: 7783: 7773: 7763: 7753: 7743: 7733: 7723: 7703: 7381: 7375: 7173: 7167: 7116: 7045: 6952: 6904:Budapest School 6892: 6681:Cosmopolitanism 6654: 6649: 6619: 6614: 6551: 6533: 6528: 6498: 6493: 6475: 6382: 6377: 6369: 6361: 6353: 6345: 6337: 6329: 6321: 6313: 6305: 6297: 6289: 6281: 6273: 6265: 6257: 6249: 6241: 6227: 6000: 5993: 5917:Self-discipline 5877:Moral hierarchy 5825:Problem of evil 5770:Double standard 5760:Culture of life 5718: 5647: 5594:Non-cognitivism 5509: 5384: 5326: 5321: 5248: 5232:Roberto Andorno 5176: 5170: 5152: 5146: 5128: 5113: 5095: 5067: 5049: 5030:Richard Dawkins 5018: 4996: 4993: 4991:Further reading 4988: 4987: 4977: 4975: 4966: 4965: 4961: 4954: 4938: 4937: 4933: 4911: 4910: 4906: 4884: 4883: 4879: 4857: 4856: 4852: 4830: 4829: 4825: 4801: 4780: 4751: 4730: 4709: 4688: 4659: 4642:10.2307/1384608 4627: 4613:10.2307/1385697 4598: 4594: 4590: 4560: 4558: 4554: 4544:Wayback Machine 4534: 4530: 4514:10.1.1.503.7559 4496: 4491: 4490: 4486: 4464: 4463: 4459: 4442: 4435: 4433: 4427: 4426: 4422: 4412: 4410: 4400: 4399: 4395: 4387: 4383: 4372: 4368: 4348: 4344: 4322: 4321: 4317: 4310: 4297: 4296: 4292: 4262: 4261: 4254: 4244:Wayback Machine 4234: 4230: 4221: 4219: 4210: 4209: 4202: 4192: 4190: 4185:Colley, Caleb. 4184: 4183: 4176: 4169: 4151: 4146: 4142: 4135: 4119: 4118: 4114: 4107: 4091: 4090: 4086: 4079: 4063: 4062: 4058: 4051: 4033: 4028: 4024: 4017: 4004: 4002: 3998: 3991: 3978: 3977: 3973: 3966: 3953: 3951: 3947: 3940: 3927: 3926: 3922: 3915: 3902: 3901: 3897: 3883: 3882: 3878: 3869: 3867: 3858: 3857: 3853: 3844: 3842: 3832: 3831: 3827: 3814: 3804: 3798: 3796: 3792: 3778: 3759: 3752: 3751: 3747: 3711: 3710: 3706: 3695: 3691: 3641: 3640: 3636: 3594: 3593: 3589: 3545: 3544: 3540: 3499:(15): 6753–58. 3484: 3483: 3479: 3435: 3434: 3430: 3382: 3381: 3377: 3333: 3332: 3325: 3285: 3280: 3279: 3275: 3268: 3243: 3242: 3238: 3194: 3193: 3189: 3141: 3140: 3136: 3127: 3125: 3116: 3115: 3111: 3073: 3072: 3068: 3058: 3056: 3052: 3011: 3010: 3006: 2962: 2961: 2954: 2932: 2931: 2927: 2873: 2872: 2868: 2826: 2825: 2821: 2767: 2766: 2759: 2729: 2728: 2724: 2680: 2679: 2675: 2637: 2636: 2632: 2602: 2601: 2597: 2569: 2568: 2564: 2508: 2507: 2503: 2477: 2476: 2472: 2462: 2460: 2456: 2446: 2444: 2440: 2427:(3/4): 279–74. 2418: 2417: 2413: 2404: 2400: 2378: 2377: 2373: 2366: 2353: 2352: 2348: 2310: 2309: 2305: 2296: 2292: 2285: 2263: 2262: 2258: 2245: 2244: 2240: 2204: 2203: 2199: 2192: 2177: 2176: 2172: 2163: 2159: 2152:PewResearch.org 2146: 2145: 2141: 2132: 2128: 2119: 2117: 2113: 2090:10.1.1.385.3650 2072: 2067: 2066: 2059: 2046: 2042: 2036:Wayback Machine 2026: 2022: 2013: 2009: 2001: 1999: 1989: 1988: 1984: 1942: 1941: 1937: 1931:European Review 1925: 1921: 1909: 1908: 1901: 1894: 1878:. p. 241. 1860: 1859: 1855: 1848: 1832:. p. 328. 1817: 1816: 1812: 1802: 1800: 1792: 1791: 1787: 1780: 1767: 1766: 1762: 1749: 1739: 1727: 1714: 1713: 1709: 1702: 1683: 1670: 1666: 1655: 1647:. p. 134. 1631: 1630: 1626: 1616: 1614: 1604: 1603: 1599: 1592: 1577: 1576: 1572: 1567: 1562: 1544: 1526: 1513: 1496: 1468: 1461: 1456: 1412:Moral character 1377:Ethical dilemma 1357:Buddhist ethics 1332: 1308:Gregory S. Paul 1284: 1238:Simon Blackburn 1236:. For example, 1119: 1107: 1085: 1077:Main articles: 1075: 1043:Dowager Empress 994: 968: 962: 959: 952:needs expansion 937: 903: 870: 858: 824:moral reasoning 803: 801:Moral cognition 771:Mordechai Nisan 743:interdependence 700: 690: 684: 597:group selection 593:sociobiologists 591:, particularly 581: 567: 504: 463: 457: 429: 420: 415: 397:. For example, 383:non-cognitivism 333: 293: 269:Simon Blackburn 259:introduced the 242: 232: 214: 209: 199: 119:code of conduct 97: 'manner, 65: 50: 19: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8049: 8047: 8039: 8038: 8033: 8028: 8018: 8017: 8013: 8012: 7989: 7988: 7986: 7985: 7979: 7976: 7975: 7973: 7972: 7967: 7962: 7960:Social science 7957: 7952: 7947: 7942: 7937: 7932: 7927: 7922: 7917: 7912: 7907: 7902: 7897: 7892: 7886: 7884: 7880: 7879: 7877: 7876: 7866: 7856: 7850:Gender Trouble 7846: 7836: 7826: 7816: 7806: 7796: 7786: 7780:The Second Sex 7776: 7766: 7756: 7746: 7736: 7726: 7715: 7713: 7709: 7708: 7705: 7704: 7702: 7701: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7681: 7676: 7671: 7666: 7661: 7656: 7651: 7646: 7641: 7636: 7631: 7626: 7621: 7616: 7611: 7606: 7601: 7596: 7591: 7586: 7581: 7576: 7571: 7566: 7561: 7556: 7551: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7486: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7446: 7441: 7436: 7431: 7426: 7421: 7416: 7411: 7406: 7401: 7396: 7391: 7385: 7383: 7377: 7376: 7374: 7373: 7368: 7363: 7358: 7353: 7348: 7343: 7338: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7293: 7288: 7283: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7263: 7258: 7253: 7248: 7243: 7238: 7233: 7228: 7223: 7218: 7213: 7208: 7203: 7198: 7193: 7188: 7183: 7177: 7175: 7169: 7168: 7166: 7165: 7160: 7155: 7150: 7145: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7124: 7122: 7118: 7117: 7115: 7114: 7109: 7104: 7099: 7094: 7089: 7084: 7079: 7074: 7069: 7064: 7059: 7053: 7051: 7047: 7046: 7044: 7043: 7038: 7033: 7028: 7023: 7018: 7013: 7008: 7003: 6998: 6993: 6988: 6983: 6978: 6973: 6967: 6965: 6958: 6954: 6953: 6951: 6950: 6945: 6940: 6939: 6938: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6917: 6916: 6906: 6900: 6898: 6894: 6893: 6891: 6890: 6885: 6876: 6875: 6874: 6864: 6859: 6854: 6849: 6844: 6839: 6830: 6825: 6816: 6811: 6806: 6801: 6796: 6795: 6794: 6784: 6779: 6774: 6772:Invisible hand 6769: 6764: 6759: 6758: 6757: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6732: 6727: 6726: 6725: 6715: 6714: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6693: 6688: 6683: 6678: 6673: 6668: 6662: 6660: 6656: 6655: 6650: 6648: 6647: 6640: 6633: 6625: 6616: 6615: 6613: 6612: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6582: 6580:Necessary evil 6577: 6572: 6565: 6559: 6557: 6553: 6552: 6550: 6549: 6544: 6538: 6535: 6534: 6529: 6527: 6526: 6519: 6512: 6504: 6495: 6494: 6492: 6491: 6480: 6477: 6476: 6474: 6473: 6466: 6461: 6459:Secular ethics 6456: 6454:Rehabilitation 6451: 6446: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6406: 6401: 6396: 6390: 6388: 6384: 6383: 6381: 6380: 6372: 6364: 6356: 6348: 6340: 6332: 6324: 6319:Utilitarianism 6316: 6308: 6300: 6292: 6284: 6276: 6268: 6260: 6252: 6244: 6235: 6233: 6229: 6228: 6226: 6225: 6220: 6215: 6210: 6205: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6165: 6160: 6155: 6150: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6120: 6115: 6110: 6105: 6100: 6095: 6090: 6085: 6080: 6075: 6070: 6065: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6030: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6010: 6004: 6002: 5995: 5994: 5992: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5971: 5970: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5899: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5879: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5859: 5854: 5849: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5829: 5828: 5827: 5822: 5817: 5807: 5802: 5797: 5792: 5787: 5782: 5777: 5772: 5767: 5762: 5757: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5732: 5726: 5724: 5720: 5719: 5717: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5679:Existentialist 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5655: 5653: 5649: 5648: 5646: 5645: 5644: 5643: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5617: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5574:Constructivism 5571: 5570: 5569: 5568: 5567: 5562: 5552: 5551: 5550: 5548:Non-naturalism 5545: 5530: 5525: 5519: 5517: 5511: 5510: 5508: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5441: 5440: 5430: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5394: 5392: 5386: 5385: 5383: 5382: 5377: 5375:Utilitarianism 5372: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5336: 5334: 5328: 5327: 5322: 5320: 5319: 5312: 5305: 5297: 5291: 5290: 5274: 5265: 5260: 5247: 5246:External links 5244: 5243: 5242: 5229: 5228:March 4, 2012. 5224:Ashley Welch, 5222: 5221: 5220: 5208: 5198: 5185:. McGraw-Hill. 5174: 5168: 5150: 5144: 5126: 5111: 5106:Philosophy Now 5093: 5078: 5071: 5065: 5047: 5027: 5016: 4992: 4989: 4986: 4985: 4959: 4952: 4931: 4928:on 2011-10-28. 4904: 4901:on 2011-12-14. 4877: 4874:on 2011-12-14. 4850: 4847:on 2011-12-14. 4823: 4821: 4820: 4799: 4778: 4749: 4728: 4707: 4686: 4668:(3): 198–225. 4657: 4654: 4625: 4588: 4552: 4528: 4484: 4457: 4420: 4393: 4381: 4366: 4342: 4339:on 2011-12-14. 4315: 4308: 4290: 4252: 4228: 4200: 4174: 4167: 4155:, ed. (2007). 4140: 4133: 4112: 4105: 4084: 4077: 4056: 4049: 4037:, ed. (2007). 4022: 4015: 3996: 3989: 3971: 3964: 3945: 3938: 3920: 3913: 3895: 3892:on 2013-01-13. 3876: 3851: 3839:The New Yorker 3825: 3816:|journal= 3777:978-0124072367 3776: 3745: 3704: 3689: 3654:(4): 406–420. 3634: 3607:(4): 485–497. 3587: 3538: 3477: 3448:(3): 2707–16. 3428: 3399:(9): 2349–56. 3375: 3346:(7): 1118–27. 3323: 3296:(7): 337–339. 3273: 3266: 3236: 3187: 3134: 3109: 3066: 3004: 2952: 2925: 2866: 2839:(4): 285–293. 2819: 2757: 2722: 2673: 2630: 2595: 2562: 2501: 2470: 2454: 2438: 2411: 2398: 2371: 2365:978-0674356610 2364: 2346: 2319:(3): 397–410. 2303: 2290: 2283: 2256: 2238: 2225:10.1086/701478 2197: 2191:978-1841124360 2190: 2170: 2157: 2139: 2126: 2057: 2040: 2020: 2007: 1982: 1955:(2): 205–216. 1935: 1919: 1899: 1892: 1853: 1846: 1810: 1798:Dictionary.com 1785: 1778: 1760: 1751:|journal= 1725: 1707: 1700: 1664: 1660:applicability. 1654:978-0333262047 1653: 1624: 1597: 1591:978-0521275569 1590: 1569: 1568: 1566: 1563: 1561: 1560: 1539: 1521: 1508: 1491: 1462: 1460: 1457: 1455: 1454: 1449: 1444: 1439: 1434: 1429: 1424: 1419: 1414: 1409: 1404: 1399: 1397:Islamic ethics 1394: 1389: 1384: 1379: 1374: 1369: 1364: 1359: 1354: 1349: 1347:Applied ethics 1344: 1339: 1333: 1331: 1328: 1283: 1280: 1195:egalitarianism 1159:Zoroastrianism 1135:utilitarianism 1118: 1115: 1101:Secular ethics 1074: 1071: 1007:Jonathan Haidt 1005:, authored by 993: 990: 970: 969: 949: 947: 936: 933: 902: 899: 857: 854: 841:Jonathan Haidt 802: 799: 775:psychoanalysts 763:Moral identity 755:Jonathan Haidt 751:Martin Hoffman 739:Carol Gilligan 735:Ethics of care 686:Main article: 683: 680: 676:theory of mind 566: 563: 555:moral dilemmas 503: 500: 459:Main article: 456: 453: 428: 425: 419: 416: 414: 411: 387: 386: 367: 332: 329: 292: 289: 213: 210: 198: 195: 45:The Immoralist 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8048: 8037: 8034: 8032: 8029: 8027: 8024: 8023: 8021: 8011: 8001: 7997: 7984: 7981: 7980: 7977: 7971: 7968: 7966: 7965:Social theory 7963: 7961: 7958: 7956: 7953: 7951: 7948: 7946: 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6632: 6627: 6626: 6623: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6570: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6560: 6558: 6554: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6539: 6536: 6532: 6531:Good and evil 6525: 6520: 6518: 6513: 6511: 6506: 6505: 6502: 6490: 6482: 6481: 6478: 6472: 6471: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6391: 6389: 6385: 6376: 6373: 6368: 6365: 6360: 6357: 6352: 6349: 6344: 6341: 6336: 6333: 6328: 6325: 6320: 6317: 6312: 6309: 6304: 6301: 6296: 6293: 6288: 6285: 6280: 6277: 6272: 6269: 6264: 6261: 6256: 6253: 6248: 6245: 6240: 6237: 6236: 6234: 6230: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6206: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6161: 6159: 6156: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6146: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6124: 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5318: 5313: 5311: 5306: 5304: 5299: 5298: 5295: 5288: 5287: 5282: 5281:Steven Pinker 5278: 5275: 5273: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5258: 5253: 5250: 5249: 5245: 5240: 5237: 5233: 5230: 5227: 5223: 5218: 5217: 5212: 5209: 5206: 5202: 5199: 5196: 5192: 5189: 5188: 5183: 5182: 5175: 5171: 5165: 5161: 5160: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5141: 5137: 5136: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5118: 5112: 5108: 5107: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5080:John Newton, 5079: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5062: 5058: 5057: 5052: 5048: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5036: 5031: 5028: 5025: 5022:(Reviewed in 5019: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5004: 4999: 4995: 4994: 4990: 4974: 4970: 4963: 4960: 4955: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4935: 4932: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4908: 4905: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4881: 4878: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4854: 4851: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4827: 4824: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4789:(2): 323–40. 4788: 4784: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4760:(2): 377–91. 4759: 4755: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4739:(4): 952–58. 4738: 4734: 4733:Social Forces 4729: 4725: 4721: 4718:(2): 251–66. 4717: 4713: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4658: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4636:(4): 455–62. 4635: 4631: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4607:(3): 263–74. 4606: 4602: 4597: 4596: 4595:For example: 4592: 4589: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4569:(5): 661–79. 4568: 4564: 4556: 4553: 4549: 4548:Robert Putnam 4545: 4541: 4538: 4532: 4529: 4524: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4507:(3): 323–48. 4506: 4502: 4495: 4488: 4485: 4480: 4476: 4473:(4): 443–57. 4472: 4468: 4461: 4458: 4453: 4447: 4431: 4424: 4421: 4408: 4404: 4397: 4394: 4391: 4385: 4382: 4379: 4378:Science Daily 4375: 4370: 4367: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4346: 4343: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4319: 4316: 4311: 4305: 4301: 4294: 4291: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4259: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4238: 4232: 4229: 4218:on 2018-10-05 4217: 4213: 4207: 4205: 4201: 4188: 4181: 4179: 4175: 4170: 4164: 4160: 4159: 4154: 4149: 4144: 4141: 4136: 4130: 4126: 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Macmillan. 2276: 2275: 2270: 2266: 2260: 2257: 2252: 2248: 2242: 2239: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2213: 2208: 2201: 2198: 2193: 2187: 2183: 2182: 2174: 2171: 2167: 2161: 2158: 2153: 2149: 2143: 2140: 2136: 2130: 2127: 2116:on 2014-08-30 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2091: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2071: 2064: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2044: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2030: 2024: 2021: 2017: 2011: 2008: 1997: 1993: 1986: 1983: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1939: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1923: 1920: 1915: 1914: 1906: 1904: 1900: 1895: 1893:9780199541430 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1872: 1867: 1863: 1857: 1854: 1849: 1847:9781139057509 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1826: 1821: 1814: 1811: 1799: 1795: 1789: 1786: 1781: 1775: 1771: 1764: 1761: 1756: 1744: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1722: 1718: 1711: 1708: 1703: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1688: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1668: 1665: 1661: 1656: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1628: 1625: 1612: 1608: 1601: 1598: 1593: 1587: 1583: 1582: 1574: 1571: 1564: 1557: 1556:Old Testament 1553: 1548: 1547: 1543: 1540: 1536: 1530: 1529: 1525: 1522: 1517: 1516: 1512: 1509: 1505: 1500: 1499: 1495: 1492: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1476:United States 1472: 1471: 1467: 1464: 1463: 1458: 1453: 1450: 1448: 1445: 1443: 1440: 1438: 1435: 1433: 1430: 1428: 1425: 1423: 1420: 1418: 1415: 1413: 1410: 1408: 1405: 1403: 1402:Jewish ethics 1400: 1398: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1385: 1383: 1382:Good and evil 1380: 1378: 1375: 1373: 1370: 1368: 1365: 1363: 1360: 1358: 1355: 1353: 1350: 1348: 1345: 1343: 1340: 1338: 1335: 1334: 1329: 1327: 1324: 1323: 1318: 1313: 1309: 1304: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1289: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1251:New Testament 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1222: 1219: 1216: 1215:superstitious 1212: 1208: 1204: 1198: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1116: 1114: 1112: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1097:Religious law 1094: 1090: 1084: 1080: 1072: 1069: 1065: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1050: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1022: 1020: 1016: 1015:conservatives 1012: 1008: 1004: 999: 991: 989: 985: 983: 982: 977: 966: 957: 953: 950:This section 948: 945: 941: 940: 934: 932: 929: 927: 922: 920: 916: 911: 908: 900: 898: 896: 892: 888: 884: 879: 874: 869: 868:Neuromorality 865: 860: 855: 853: 850: 846: 842: 838: 836: 831: 827: 825: 821: 820:moral emotion 815: 814:experiments. 813: 807: 800: 798: 794: 792: 787: 784: 780: 779:Sigmund Freud 776: 772: 768: 767:William Damon 764: 760: 756: 752: 748: 744: 740: 736: 732: 728: 727:Elliot Turiel 724: 720: 716: 708: 704: 699: 695: 689: 681: 679: 677: 672: 667: 665: 661: 657: 651: 649: 645: 640: 635: 633: 629: 625: 621: 620:maternal bond 617: 612: 609: 605: 600: 598: 594: 590: 586: 580: 576: 572: 564: 562: 558: 556: 552: 548: 544: 540: 536: 534: 530: 529: 524: 523: 518: 514: 512: 501: 499: 497: 491: 489: 485: 484:conservatives 481: 477: 472: 468: 462: 454: 452: 450: 446: 442: 438: 433: 426: 424: 417: 412: 410: 408: 404: 400: 396: 392: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 365: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 344:Moral realism 342: 341: 340: 338: 330: 328: 326: 322: 318: 313: 311: 306: 302: 298: 290: 288: 286: 282: 278: 274: 273:Immanuel Kant 270: 262: 258: 257:Immanuel Kant 254: 250: 248: 240: 236: 231: 227: 223: 219: 211: 208: 204: 196: 194: 192: 188: 184: 180: 178: 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 108: 104: 100: 96: 95: 94: 88: 84: 77: 73: 69: 62: 58: 54: 47: 46: 41: 39: 34: 32: 26: 24: 7868: 7858: 7848: 7838: 7828: 7818: 7808: 7798: 7788: 7778: 7768: 7758: 7748: 7738: 7728: 7718: 7138:Guicciardini 7121:Early modern 6957:Philosophers 6931:Conservatism 6926:Confucianism 6914:Distributism 6847:Social norms 6835:Sittlichkeit 6821:Ressentiment 6786: 6767:Institutions 6745:Human nature 6610:Radical evil 6600:Value theory 6594: 6569:Summum bonum 6567: 6563:Greater good 6468: 6424:Human rights 6367:After Virtue 6093:Schopenhauer 5886: 5867:Moral agency 5740:Common sense 5636:Universalism 5604:Expressivism 5584:Intuitionism 5555:Subjectivism 5500:Terraforming 5475:Professional 5284: 5255: 5238: 5214: 5204: 5194: 5180: 5158: 5134: 5121: 5104: 5097:Prinz, Jesse 5081: 5074: 5055: 5033: 5002: 4976:. 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London: 1565:References 1507:behavior". 1317:pro-social 1271:Paul Kurtz 1259:apologists 1211:David Hume 1163:scriptures 1093:Divine law 1087:See also: 1039:Cistercian 862:See also: 835:deontology 713:In modern 692:See also: 682:Psychology 632:inbreeding 569:See also: 480:patriotism 348:conformity 303:or social 277:principles 239:philosophy 216:See also: 201:See also: 183:Immorality 155:and moral 123:philosophy 103:intentions 85:(from 76:Tintoretto 29:Morality ( 7970:Sociology 7920:Historism 7629:Santayana 7599:Oakeshott 7569:MacIntyre 7554:Kropotkin 7529:Heidegger 7382:centuries 7296:Nietzsche 7261:Jefferson 7246:Helvétius 7211:Condorcet 7174:centuries 7158:Montaigne 6981:Confucius 6971:Augustine 6888:Worldview 6782:Modernity 6755:Formation 6399:Casuistry 6311:Either/Or 6218:Korsgaard 6213:Azurmendi 6178:MacIntyre 6118:Nietzsche 6048:Augustine 6043:Confucius 6023:Aristotle 5999:Ethicists 5957:Intrinsic 5922:Suffering 5832:Happiness 5805:Free will 5785:Etiquette 5730:Authority 5674:Epicurean 5669:Confucian 5664:Christian 5599:Emotivism 5423:Discourse 5360:Pragmatic 5332:Normative 4774:144816590 4697:: 43–70. 4682:145479350 4583:145491534 4509:CiteSeerX 4363:1522-5658 4285:145779667 3818:ignored ( 3808:cite book 3684:231202698 3668:1045-6767 3629:249115484 3621:0890-2070 3231:195293070 2853:1388-1957 2752:144286153 2625:143876741 2333:0032-8332 2233:150324056 2184:. 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