334:, are estimated to have required up to 24,000 man-days of work; smaller ones required perhaps as little as 1,000. Contemporary accounts talk of some mottes being built in a matter of days, although these low figures have led to suggestions by historians that either these figures were an underestimate, or that they refer to the construction of a smaller design than that later seen on the sites concerned. Taking into account estimates of the likely available manpower during the period, historians estimate that the larger mottes might have taken between four and nine months to build. This contrasted favourably with stone keeps of the period, which typically took up to ten years to build. Very little skilled labour was required to build motte and bailey castles, which made them very attractive propositions if forced peasant labour was available, as was the case after the Norman invasion of England. Where the local workforce had to be paid – such as at
782:, with the occupation of southern and eastern Ireland by a number of Anglo-Norman barons. The rapid Norman success depended on key economic and military advantages; their cavalry enabled Norman successes in battles, and castles enabled them to control the newly conquered territories. The new lords rapidly built castles to protect their possessions; most of these were motte-and-bailey constructions, many of them strongly defended. Unlike Wales, the indigenous Irish lords do not appear to have constructed their own castles in any significant number during the period. Between 350 and 450 motte-and-bailey castles are believed to remain today, although the identification of these earthwork remains can be contentious.
373:, would be used alternatively to build in strength to the design. Layers of turf could also be added to stabilise the motte as it was built up, or a core of stones placed as the heart of the structure to provide strength. Similar issues applied to the defensive ditches, where designers found that the wider the ditch was dug, the deeper and steeper the sides of the scarp could be, making it more defensive. Although militarily a motte was, as Norman Pounds describes it, "almost indestructible", they required frequent maintenance. Soil wash was a problem, particularly with steeper mounds, and mottes could be clad with wood or stone slabs to protect them. Over time, some mottes suffered from
226:. The size of mottes varied considerably, with these mounds being 3 metres to 30 metres in height (10–100 feet), and from 30 to 90 metres (100 to 300 ft) in diameter. This minimum height of 3 metres (10 feet) for mottes is usually intended to exclude smaller mounds which often had non-military purposes. In England and Wales, only 7% of mottes were taller than 10 metres (33 feet) high; 24% were between 10 and 5 metres (33 and 16 ft), and 69% were less than 5 metres (16 feet) tall. A motte was protected by a ditch around it, which would typically have also been a source of the earth and soil for constructing the mound itself.
388:, protected by a ditch. The choice of motte and bailey or ringwork was partially driven by terrain, as mottes were typically built on low ground, and on deeper clay and alluvial soils. Another factor may have been speed, as ringworks were faster to build than mottes. Some ringwork castles were later converted into motte-and-bailey designs, by filling in the centre of the ringwork to produce a flat-topped motte. The reasons for why this decision was taken are unclear; motte-and-bailey castles may have been felt to be more prestigious, or easier to defend; another theory is that like the
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408:
207:
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470:
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on ringworks and that the earliest motte-and-baileys were converted ringworks. Finally, there may be a link between the local geography and the building of motte-and-bailey castles, which are usually built on low-lying areas, in many cases subject to regular flooding. Regardless of the reasons behind the initial popularity of the motte-and-bailey design, however, there is widespread agreement that the castles were first widely adopted in
Normandy and Angevin territory in the 10th and 11th centuries.
857:
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centre of the castle's economic activity. The bailey was connected to the motte by a bridge, or, as often seen in
England, by steps cut into the motte. Typically the ditch of the motte and the bailey joined, forming a figure of eight around the castle. Wherever possible, nearby streams and rivers would be dammed or diverted, creating water-filled moats, artificial lakes and other forms of water defences.
548:
132:
242:, where the "first storey was on the surface of the ground, where were cellars and granaries, and great boxes, tuns, casks, and other domestic utensils. In the storey above were the dwelling and common living rooms of the residents in which were the larders, the rooms of the bakers and butlers, and the great chamber in which the lord and his wife slept ... In the upper storey of the house were
806:
42:
626:, the first motte and bailey castles began relatively early at the end of the 11th century. The rural motte-and-bailey castles followed the traditional design, but the urban castles often lacked the traditional baileys, using parts of the town to fulfil this role instead. Motte-and-bailey castles in Flanders were particularly numerous in the south along the
889:
as feudal society changed. In the
Netherlands, cheap brick started to be used in castles from the 13th century onwards in place of earthworks, and many mottes were levelled, to help develop the surrounding, low-lying fields; these "levelled mottes" are a particularly Dutch phenomenon. In Denmark, motte and baileys gave way in the 14th century to a
445:, it is argued, began to build them to protect against the Viking raids, and the design spread to deal with the attacks along the Slav and Hungarian frontiers. Another argument is that, given the links between this style of castle and the Norman style, who were of Viking descent, it was in fact originally a Viking design, transported to
584:. The second and third waves of castle building in the late-11th century were led by the major magnates and then the more junior knights on their new estates. Some regional patterns in castle building can be seen – relatively few castles were built in East Anglia compared to the west of England or the
888:
Across Europe, motte-and-bailey construction came to an end. At the end of the 12th century, the Welsh rulers began to build castles in stone, primarily in the principality of North Wales and usually along the higher peaks where mottes were unnecessary. In
Flanders, a decline came in the 13th century
880:
in 994. Several were built in
England and Wales after the conquest; by 1216 there were around 100 in the country. These massive keeps could be either erected on top of settled, well-established mottes or could have mottes built around them – so-called "buried" keeps. The ability of mottes, especially
710:
In neighbouring
Denmark, motte-and-bailey castles appeared somewhat later in the 12th and 13th centuries and in more limited numbers than elsewhere, due to the less feudal society. Except for a handful of mote and bailey castles in Norway, built in the first half of the 11th century and including the
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invaded from
Normandy in 1066, resulting in three phases of castle building in England, around 80% of which were in the motte-and-bailey pattern. The first of these was the establishment by the new king of royal castles in key strategic locations, including many towns. These urban castles could make
325:
could produce a motte without the need to create an artificial mound, but more commonly much of the motte would have to be constructed by hand. Four methods existed for building a mound and a tower: the mound could either be built first, and a tower placed on top of it; the tower could alternatively
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introduced the design into
England and Wales. Motte-and-bailey castles were adopted in Scotland, Ireland, and Denmark in the 12th and 13th centuries. By the end of the 13th century, the design was largely superseded by alternative forms of fortification, but the earthworks remain a prominent feature
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There has been some debate over the absence of indigenous Irish castle building. Irish castle specialist Tom McNeill has noted that it would appear very strange if the indigenous Irish lords had not adopted castle technology during their long struggle with the Anglo-Norman nobility, but there is no
460:
mode of society. The spread of motte-and-bailey castles was usually closely tied to the creation of local fiefdoms and feudal landowners, and areas without this method of governance rarely built these castles. Yet another theory suggests that the design emerged as a result of the pressures of space
307:
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The Norman expansion into Wales slowed in the 12th century but remained an ongoing threat to the remaining native rulers. In response, the Welsh princes and lords began to build their own castles, frequently motte-and-bailey designs, usually in wood. There are indications that this may have begun
531:
from France during the first half of the 11th century, spreading further into
Bohemia and Austria in the subsequent years. This form of castle was closely associated with the colonisation of newly cultivated areas within the Empire, as new lords were granted lands by the emperor and built castles
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Regardless of the sequencing, artificial mottes had to be built by piling up earth; this work was undertaken by hand, using wooden shovels and hand-barrows, possibly with picks as well in the later periods. Larger mottes took disproportionately more effort to build than their smaller equivalents,
793:, however, and there may not have been as many genuine motte-and-bailey castles in southern Italy as was once thought on the basis of the documentary evidence alone. In addition, there is evidence of the Norman crusaders building a motte and bailey using sand and wood in Egypt in 1221 during the
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resulted in its territory being divided among individual lords and princes and local territories became threatened by the
Magyars and the Norse. Against this background, various explanations have been put forward to explain the origins and spread of the motte-and-bailey design across western and
270:
and another ditch. The bailey was often kidney-shaped to fit against a circular motte but could be made in other shapes according to the terrain. The bailey would contain a wide number of buildings, including a hall, kitchens, a chapel, barracks, stores, stables, forges or workshops, and was the
229:
A keep and a protective wall would usually be built on top of the motte. Some walls would be large enough to have a wall-walk around them, and the outer walls of the motte and the wall-walk could be strengthened by filling in the gap between the wooden walls with earth and stones, allowing it to
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region in northern France. De Colmieu described how the nobles would build "a mound of earth as high as they can and dig a ditch about it as wide and deep as possible. The space on top of the mound is enclosed by a palisade of very strong hewn logs, strengthened at intervals by as many towers as
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designs. The Norman invaders spread up the valleys, using this form of castle to occupy their new territories. After the Norman conquest of England and Wales, the building of motte-and-bailey castles in Normandy accelerated as well, resulting in a broad swath of these castles across the Norman
194:
their means can provide. Inside the enclosure is a citadel, or keep, which commands the whole circuit of the defences. The entrance to the fortress is by means of a bridge, which, rising from the outer side of the moat and supported on posts as it ascends, reaches to the top of the mound". At
825:
Motte-and-bailey castles became a less popular design in the mid-medieval period. In France, they were not built after the start of the 12th century, and mottes ceased to be built in most of England after around 1170, although they continued to be erected in Wales and along the Marches. Many
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model, where the castle was built with a fortified bailey and a fortified mound, somewhat smaller than the typical motte. By the 12th century, the castles in Western Germany began to thin in number, due to changes in land ownership, and various mottes were abandoned. In Germany and Denmark,
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be built on the original ground surface and then buried within the mound; the tower could potentially be built on the original ground surface and then partially buried within the mound, the buried part forming a cellar beneath; or the tower could be built first, and the mound added later.
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northern Europe; there is often a tension among the academic community between explanations that stress military and social reasons for the rise of this design. One suggestion is that these castles were built particularly in order to protect against external attack – the
120:
238:, or brattices, small balconies that projected from the upper floors of the building, allowing defenders to cover the base of the fortification wall. The early 12th-century chronicler Lambert of Ardres described the wooden keep on top of the motte at the castle of
826:
motte-and-bailey castles were occupied relatively briefly; in England, many had been abandoned or allowed to lapse into disrepair by the 12th century. In the Low Countries and Germany, a similar transition occurred in the 13th and 14th centuries.
485:
The earliest purely documentary evidence for motte-and-bailey castles in Normandy and Angers comes from between 1020 and 1040, but a combination of documentary and archaeological evidence pushes the date for the first motte and bailey castle, at
747:, which had resisted the rule of David and his predecessors, was a particular focus for this colonisation. The size of these Scottish castles, primarily wooden motte and bailey constructions, varied considerably, from larger designs such as the
961:
Ringworks require an inner scarp, or sloping face; this means that the interior space is always less than a flat-topped motte of equivalent height and width. In-filling ringworks certainly occurred later, and may have been the initial step as
427:
The motte-and-bailey castle is a particularly western and northern European phenomenon, most numerous in France and Britain, but also seen in Denmark, Germany, Southern Italy and occasionally beyond. European castles first emerged between the
453:. The motte-and-bailey castle was certainly effective against assault, although as historian André Debord suggests, the historical and archaeological record of the military operation of motte-and-bailey castles remains relatively limited.
198:, contemporaries described how the motte-and-bailey superstructure arose from the "tumulus of rising earth" with a keep rising "into thin air, strong within and without" with a "stalwart house...glittering with beauty in every part".
837:, in Angers. Although wood was a more powerful defensive material than was once thought, stone became increasingly popular for military and symbolic reasons. Some existing motte-and-bailey castles were converted to stone, with the
789:; although they had the technology to build more modern designs, in many cases wooden motte-and-bailey castles were built instead for reasons of speed. The Italians came to refer to a range of different castle types as
538:, or town. motte-and-bailey castle building substantially enhanced the prestige of local nobles, and it has been suggested that their early adoption was because they were a cheaper way of imitating the more prestigious
2500:
218:
Mottes were made out of earth and flattened on top, and it can be very hard to determine whether a mound is artificial or natural without excavation. Some were also built over older artificial structures, such as
617:
Having become well established in Normandy, Germany and Britain, motte-and-bailey castles began to be adopted elsewhere, mainly in northern Europe, during the 12th and 13th centuries. Conflict through the
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encouraged Norman and French nobles to settle in Scotland, introducing a feudal mode of landholding and the use of castles as a way of controlling the contested lowlands. The quasi-independent polity of
650:
the local lords had a high degree of independence during the 12th and 13th centuries, owing to the wider conflict for power between neighbouring Flanders and Friesland. The Zeeland lords had also built
906:
In England, motte-and-bailey earthworks were put to various uses over later years; in some cases, mottes were turned into garden features in the 18th century, or reused as military defences during the
498:, who built a great number of them between 987 and 1060. Many of these earliest castles would have appeared quite crude and rustic by later standards, belying the power and prestige of their builders.
735:, were of equivalent quality to the equivalent Norman fortifications in the area, and it can prove difficult to distinguish the builders of some sites from the archaeological evidence alone.
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use of the existing town's walls and fortification, but typically required the demolition of local houses to make space for them. This could cause extensive damage: records suggest that in
544:
built on high ground, but this is usually regarded as unlikely. In many cases, bergfrieds were converted into motte and bailey designs by burying existing castle towers within the mounds.
234:. Smaller mottes could support only simple towers with room for a few soldiers, whilst larger mottes could be equipped with a much grander building. Many wooden keeps were designed with
365:
soils could support a steeper motte, whilst sandier soils meant that a motte would need a more gentle incline. Where available, layers of different sorts of earth, such as clay,
910:. Today, almost no mottes of motte-and-bailey castles remain in regular use in Europe, with one of the few exceptions being that at Windsor Castle, converted for the storage of
81:. Relatively easy to build with unskilled labour, but still militarily formidable, these castles were built across northern Europe from the 10th century onwards, spreading from
829:
One factor was the introduction of stone into castle buildings. The earliest stone castles had emerged in the 10th century, with stone keeps being built on mottes along the
638:, raised "dwelling mounds" which lacked towers and were usually lower in height than a typical motte, were created instead. By the end of the medieval period, however, the
506:, is believed to have adopted the motte-and-bailey design from neighbouring Anjou. Duke William went on to prohibit the building of castles without his consent through the
294:. Some mottes could be square instead of round, such as at Cabal Tump (Herefordshire). Instead of single ditches, occasionally double-ditch defences were built, as seen at
691:
mottes were built from scratch. Around 323 known or probable motte and bailey castles of this design are believed to have been built within the borders of the modern
517:, which then spanned central Europe. They now typically took the form of an enclosure on a hilltop, or, on lower ground, a tall, free-standing tower (German
246:
rooms ... In this storey also the watchmen and the servants appointed to keep the house took their sleep". Wooden structures on mottes could be protected by
380:
Although motte-and-bailey castles are the best-known castle design, they were not always the most numerous in any given area. A popular alternative was the
2260:
Colardelle, Michel and Chantal Mazard. (1982) "Les mottes castrales et l'Ă©volution des pouvoirs dans le Alpes du Nord. Aux origines de la seigneurie," in
853:, or low protective wall, around the base. By the 14th century, a number of motte and bailey castles had been converted into powerful stone fortresses.
174:, came to refer to a turf bank, and by the 12th century was used to refer to the castle design itself. The word "bailey" comes from the Norman-French
2770:
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for constructing mottes. In Wales, the first wave of the Norman castles was again predominantly made of wood in a mixture of motte-and-bailey and
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Newer castle designs placed less emphasis on mottes. Square Norman keeps built in stone became popular following the first such construction in
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154:); and at least one bailey (a fortified enclosure built next to the motte). The constructive elements themselves are ancient, but the term
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588:, for example; this was probably due to the relatively settled and prosperous nature of the east of England and reflected a shortage of
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Simpson, Grant G. and Bruce Webster. (2003) "Charter Evidence and the Distribution of Mottes in Scotland," in Liddiard (ed) (2003a).
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Jansen, Walter. (1981) "The international background of castle building in Central Europe," in Skyum-Nielsen and Lund (eds) (1981).
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in the Netherlands, or Vorburg and Hauptburg in Lower Rhineland, raising the height of the castle was done to create a drier site.
1031:
937:
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523:). The largest castles had well-defined inner and outer courts, but no mottes. The motte-and-bailey design began to spread into
4492:
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A motte-and-bailey castle was made up of two structures: a motte (a type of mound – often artificial – topped with a wooden or
2272:
The History of the Castle of York, from its Foundation to the Current Day with an Account of the Building of Clifford's Tower.
510:, with his legal definition of castles centring on the classic motte-and-bailey features of ditching, banking and palisading.
898:, or "water castle", a stronghold and bailey construction surrounded by water, and widely built in the late medieval period.
646:, non-residential defensive towers, often on motte-like mounds, owned by the increasingly powerful nobles and landowners. On
634:, the relatively decentralised, egalitarian society initially discouraged the building of motte and bailey castles, although
490:, back to 979. The castles were built by the more powerful lords of Anjou in the late 10th and 11th centuries, in particular
698:
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Motte-and-bailey castles in Scotland emerged as a consequence of the centralising of royal authority in the 12th century.
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2763:
2532:
De Meulemeester, Johnny. (1982) "Mottes Castrales du Comté de Flandres: État de la question d'apr les fouilles récent,"
2681:
Stiesdal, Hans. (1981) "Types of public and private fortifications in Denmark," in Skyum-Nielsen and Lund (eds) (1981).
922:. The landscape of northern Europe remains scattered with their earthworks, and many form popular tourist attractions.
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newly built mottes, to support the heavier stone structures, was limited, and many needed to be built on fresh ground.
849:
were built on many mottes, circular stone shells running around the top of the motte, sometimes protected by a further
274:
In practice, there was a wide number of variations to this common design. A castle could have more than one bailey: at
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3133:
495:
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919:
885:, relying on several lines of baileys and defensive walls, made increasingly little use of keeps or mottes at all.
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124:
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A small number of motte-and-bailey castles were built outside of northern Europe. In the late-12th century, the
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King, D. J. Cathcart. (1972) "The field archaeology of mottes in England and Wales: eine kurze ĂĽbersichte," in
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35:
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O'Conor, Kieran. (2002) "Motte Castles in Ireland, Permanent fortresses, Residences and Manorial Centres," in
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in Ireland, built in 1211 using imported labourers – the costs would rise quickly, in this case reaching £20.
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385:
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139:
74:
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877:
834:
469:
31:
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564:
499:
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encouraged castle building in a number of regions from the late 12th century to the 14th century. In
189:
One contemporary account of these structures comes from Jean de Colmieu around 1130, describing the
97:
it controlled, in the 11th century, when these castles were popularized in the area that became the
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1032:"Castle Pulverbatch motte and bailey castle with outer bailey, 100m NNW of Brook Cottage (1012860)"
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An alternative approach focuses on the links between this form of castle and what can be termed a
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Purton, pp.195-6; Collardelle and Mazard, pp.71, 78; Jansen, p.195; Kaufmann and Kaufmann, p.110.
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135:
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Héricher, Anne-Marie Flambard. (2002) "Fortifications de terre et résidences en Normandie," in
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in Shropshire in England was built in the 11th or 12th century and abandoned by 1202. This
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situated on a raised area of ground called a motte, accompanied by a walled courtyard, or
2743:
Mottes: a type of castle or simply an element of some castles? A century of motte studies
2344:
Ekroll, Oystein. (1996) "Norwegian medieval castles: building on the edge of Europe," in
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because of the volumes of earth involved. The largest mottes in England, such as that of
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of the motte; the low walls enclosing the base of the motte are a 19th-century addition.
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291:
287:
119:
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shows the motte just left of centre, with the bailey to the right (north-east) of it.
94:
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131:
17:
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was constructed, or alternatively, several baileys could flank the motte, as at
247:
235:
98:
54:
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Castles and Landscapes: Power, Community and Fortification in Medieval England.
1609:
Collardelle and Mazard, pp.71, 78; Jansen, p.195; Kaufmann and Kaufmann, p.110.
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Various methods were used to build mottes. Where a natural hill could be used,
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3258:
3100:
3063:
3016:
846:
810:
706:
in Aberdeenshire in Scotland, a large mid-12th-century motte-and-bailey castle
374:
298:. Local geography and the intent of the builder produced many unique designs.
220:
50:
41:
597:
territories, around 741 motte-and-bailey castles in England and Wales alone.
3947:
3878:
3705:
3700:
3633:
3274:
3187:
3117:
3075:
2901:
2871:
2832:
2798:
1013:
972:
significant archaeological or historical evidence to show such construction.
842:
830:
631:
552:
519:
263:
2393:
The Medieval Fortress: castles, forts and walled cities of the Middle Ages.
2317:
Debord, André. (1982) "A propos de l'utilisation des mottes castrales," in
934:— generally constructed atop mounds, similarly to a motte-and-bailey castle
2235:
2119:
4431:
4426:
4351:
4192:
3910:
3885:
3868:
3798:
3739:
3667:
3660:
3503:
3391:
3265:
3085:
3080:
3056:
2984:
2964:
2944:
2911:
2606:
The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: a social and political history.
2243:
Châteaux Forts et Féodalité en Ile de France, du XIème au XIIIème siècle.
993:
744:
623:
593:
446:
420:
381:
267:
82:
78:
2620:
Pringle, Denys. "A castle in the sand: mottes in the Crusader east," in
2450:
Castles and Fortified Cities of Medieval Europe: an illustrated history.
2279:
2160:
723:, with the first documentary evidence of a native Welsh castle being at
361:
The type of soil would make a difference to the design of the motte, as
4563:
4528:
4523:
3861:
3844:
3829:
3813:
3765:
3693:
3638:
3628:
3596:
3498:
3473:
3458:
3228:
3172:
3090:
2937:
2930:
2876:
647:
266:
overlooked by the high motte and surrounded by a wooden fence called a
223:
147:
102:
995:
A Short History of the Netherlands: From Prehistory to the Present Day
4568:
3922:
3488:
3426:
3370:
3348:
3325:
3318:
3194:
3177:
3009:
2841:
2823:
2793:
524:
457:
366:
243:
239:
190:
49:
in the 16th century, showing the motte-and-bailey fortifications of
377:
or damage from flooding, requiring repairs and stabilisation work.
158:
is a relatively modern one and is not medieval in origin. The word
4609:
4553:
4297:
3822:
3653:
3493:
2814:
855:
804:
770:
Motte-and-bailey castles were introduced to Ireland following the
757:
697:
604:
546:
468:
433:
429:
406:
384:
castle, involving a palisade being built on top of a raised earth
370:
340:
305:
205:
130:
118:
2748:
2562:
Medieval Warfare: theory and practice of war in Europe, 300–1500.
2484:
Castles in Context: Power, Symbolism and Landscape, 1066 to 1500.
3591:
3433:
3400:
3375:
3167:
3157:
3126:
3105:
869:
838:
712:
528:
474:
390:
362:
350:
306:
151:
66:
46:
2752:
2220:
Struggle for Mastery: The Penguin History of Britain 1066–1284.
894:
motte-and-bailey castles also provided the model for the later
872:
built atop the motte (top left), and the walled-in bailey below
715:, the design did not play a role further north in Scandinavia.
182:, referring to a low yard. In medieval sources, the Latin term
2742:
186:
was used to describe the bailey complex within these castles.
171:
2501:
Discovering Fortifications: From the Tudors to the Cold War.
2089:
Creighton, pp.85-6; Lowry, p.23; Creighton and Higham, p.62.
2433:
The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History.
727:
in 1116. These timber castles, including Tomen y Rhodywdd,
630:, a fiercely contested border. Further along the coast in
2364:"Twelfth Century Great Towers – The Case for the Defence"
659:
constructions–effectively mottes–which were later termed
250:
to prevent their being easily set alight during a siege.
127:
in North Yorkshire, an archetypal motte-and-bailey design
2125:
Besteman, Jan. C. (1984) "Mottes in the Netherland," in
2745:(2021) talk by Tom McNeill for the Castle Studies Group
918:
in northern England, where the round tower is used for
513:
By the 11th century, castles were built throughout the
345:
A cross-section showing the layers within the motte at
1719:
1717:
2300:
Creighton, Oliver Hamilton and Robert Higham. (2003)
436:
in the 9th and 10th centuries, after the fall of the
2622:
Château Gaillard: études de castellologie médiévale.
2578:
Château Gaillard: études de castellologie médiévale.
2534:
Château Gaillard: études de castellologie médiévale.
2425:
Château Gaillard: études de castellologie médiévale.
2353:
Château Gaillard: études de castellologie médiévale.
2346:
Château Gaillard: études de castellologie médiévale.
2319:
Château Gaillard: études de castellologie médiévale.
2262:
Château Gaillard: études de castellologie médiévale.
2127:
Château Gaillard: études de castellologie médiévale.
4582:
4506:
4450:
4384:
4270:
4175:
3985:
3896:
3612:
3605:
3037:
2786:
2518:
Castles in Ireland: Feudal Power in a Gaelic World.
1972:
Pounds, pp.20-1; Kenyon, p.17; Meulemeester, p.104.
65:is a European fortification with a wooden or stone
2630:A History of the Early Medieval Siege, c.450-1200.
1140:
1138:
679:". During the 12th and 13th centuries a number of
2661:Skyum-Nielsen, Niels and Niels Lund (eds) (1981)
2647:Windsor Castle: the Official Illustrated History.
1183:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1065:
1063:
998:(4th ed.). Amersfoort: Bekking. p. 34.
572:166 houses were destroyed in the construction of
1507:Lepage, p. 35; Collardelle and Mazard, pp. 72–3.
1489:Nicholson, p. 77; Kaufmann and Kaufmann, p. 109.
1226:Meulemeester, p.105; Cooper, p.18; Butler, p.13.
290:. Some baileys had two mottes, such as those at
3020:
1824:
1822:
1749:
1747:
3582:
3528:
3346:
3192:
2667:Københavns, Denmark: Museum Tusculanum Press.
2333:Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press.
2135:Stephen and Matilda: the Civil War of 1139–53.
2112:The Early Norman Castles of the British isles.
1981:Nicholson, p.78; Kaufmann and Kaufmann, p.109.
1630:Liddiard (2005), p.17; Creighton (2005), p.48.
1537:Kaufmann and Kaufmann, p. 109; Nicolle, p. 33.
1515:
1513:
1281:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1213:
1211:
4237:
3967:
3796:
3772:
3389:
3380:
3337:
3061:
2857:
2848:
2764:
1617:
1615:
1480:Nicolle, p.33; Kaufmann and Kaufmann, p. 109.
1105:Kenyon, p.13 citing Armitage 1912: pp. 147–8.
774:that began between 1166 and 1171 under first
8:
4356:
4337:
4328:
4319:
3908:
3883:
3859:
3820:
3811:
3763:
3749:
3720:
3691:
3682:
3658:
3619:
3424:
3405:
3323:
3272:
3263:
3219:
3210:
3201:
3138:
3124:
3115:
2998:
2975:
2306:Princes Risborough, UK: Shire Publications.
1440:
1438:
1320:
1318:
1238:
1236:
1234:
1232:
1153:Kenyon, p. 4, citing King (1972), pp. 101–2.
465:Initial development, 10th and 11th centuries
314:(HESTENGA CEASTRA) in East Sussex, from the
30:"Motte" redirects here. For other uses, see
3007:
2989:
2935:
2921:
2839:
2830:
2821:
2812:
2803:
2391:Kaufmann, J. E. and H. W. Kaufmann. (2004)
1855:Simpson and Webster, p.225; Tabraham, p.11.
868:as it was in the 14th century, showing the
801:Conversion and decline, 13th–14th centuries
3609:
2771:
2757:
2749:
1648:Liddiard (2005), p.19; Brown (1962), p.22.
1639:Liddiard (2005), p.18; Brown (1962), p.22.
601:Further expansion, 12th and 13th centuries
2724:Manchester: Manchester University Press.
2204:Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York.
1990:Liddiard (2005), p.53; King (1991), p.62.
1702:Liddiard (2005), p.23; King (1991), p.47.
1657:Brown (1962), p.22; Pounds (1994), p.208.
787:Normans invaded southern Italy and Sicily
57:topped by Clifford's Tower (centre right)
845:usually the first parts to be upgraded.
45:A reconstruction of the English city of
40:
2704:Castles: Their Construction and History
2650:London: Royal Collection Publications.
2609:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2173:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1900:Carpenter, p.221; O'Conor, pp.173, 179.
984:
954:
762:The motte (left) and bailey (right) of
2664:Danish Medieval History: New Currents.
1498:Brown (1962), pp. 28–9; Debord, p. 95.
576:, and that 113 were destroyed for the
353:: "A" marks the 20th-century concrete
2603:Pounds, Norman John Greville. (1994)
2565:Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
655:mounds, but these gave way to larger
230:carry more weight; this was called a
7:
2504:Risborough, UK: Shire Publications.
2487:Macclesfield, UK: Windgather Press.
1342:Brown (2004), p. 110; Cooper, p. 15.
4163:Weapons Storage and Security System
2589:Welsh Castles: a Guide by Counties.
2285:Creighton, Oliver Hamilton. (2005)
1798:Stiesdal, pp.210, 213; Kenyon, p.8.
1771:King (1991), p.39; Besteman, p.216.
162:is the French version of the Latin
2718:Van Houts, Elisabeth M. C. (2000)
1037:National Heritage List for England
766:in County Down in Northern Ireland
25:
419:in Brittany, shown with a wooden
415:scene depicting an attack on the
210:The motte and bailey defences of
4662:
4661:
2380:
2371:The Castle Studies Group Journal
2017:Hulme, p.213; King (1991), p.36.
1423:Pounds, p. 17; Creighton, p. 47.
1114:Toy, p. 52; Brown (1962), p. 24.
992:Rietbergen, P. J. A. N. (2000).
938:List of motte-and-bailey castles
833:frontier and several, including
170:, generally used for a clump of
2633:Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press.
2592:Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press.
2470:Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press.
2464:Liddiard, Robert. (ed) (2003a)
2270:Cooper, Thomas Parsons. (1911)
2190:Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press.
2138:Stroud, UK: The History Press.
1963:Pounds, p.21; Châtelain, p.231.
719:from 1111 onwards under Prince
2644:Robinson, John Martin. (2010)
2187:Allen Brown's English Castles.
860:A reconstruction of England's
1:
4058:British "hedgehog" road block
2430:King, D. J. Cathcart. (1991)
2330:Medieval Military Technology.
2071:Collardelle and Mazard, p.79.
2053:Besteman, p.214; Kenyon, p.8.
2035:Kaufmann and Kaufmann, p.111.
1711:Besteman, p.217; Kenyon, p.8.
1582:Kaufmann and Kaufmann, p.109.
1405:Cooper, p. 76; Butler, p. 17.
73:, surrounded by a protective
1453:Pringle, p. 187; Toy, p. 52.
302:Construction and maintenance
4468:Cities with defensive walls
4053:Defensive fighting position
3968:
3773:
3583:
3529:
3390:
3381:
3347:
3338:
3193:
2559:Nicholson, Helen J. (2004)
2447:Lepage, Jean-Denis. (2002)
1864:Simpson and Webster, p.231.
1846:Simpson and Webster, p.225.
1666:Liddiard (2005), pp.18, 23.
4715:
2684:Tabraham, Chris J. (2005)
2453:Jefferson, US: McFarland.
2207:London: English Heritage.
772:Norman invasion of Ireland
166:, and in France, the word
29:
4652:
4098:Hardened aircraft shelter
4073:Entry control point (ECP)
2586:Pettifer, Adrian. (2000)
2481:Liddiard, Robert. (2005)
2240:Châtelain, André. (1983)
2218:Carpenter, David. (2004)
2201:Butler, Lawrence. (1997)
2110:Armitage, Ella S. (1912)
508:Consuetudines et Justicie
4699:Motte-and-bailey castles
4595:Continuity of government
2409:Medieval Fortifications.
2395:Cambridge, US: Da Capo.
2184:Brown, R. Allen. (2004)
2166:Brown, R. Allen. (1989)
2149:Brown, R. Allen. (1962)
1693:King (1991), pp.139-141.
943:Motte-and-bailey fallacy
751:to smaller castles like
683:mounds were turned into
613:motte in the Netherlands
36:Motte-and-bailey fallacy
4417:Motte-and-bailey castle
4123:Missile launch facility
4118:Main line of resistance
2813:
2545:The Age of Charlemagne.
2542:Nicolle, David. (1984)
2406:Kenyon, John R. (2005)
2362:Hulme, Richard (2008),
2327:DeVries, Kelly. (2003)
1312:King (1991), pp. 50–51.
817:on top of the motte at
403:Emergence of the design
140:digital elevation model
63:motte-and-bailey castle
34:. For the fallacy, see
4493:Military installations
4357:
4338:
4329:
4320:
4238:
3909:
3884:
3860:
3850:Scarp and Counterscarp
3821:
3812:
3797:
3764:
3750:
3721:
3692:
3683:
3659:
3620:
3425:
3406:
3324:
3273:
3264:
3220:
3211:
3202:
3139:
3125:
3116:
3062:
3021:
3008:
2999:
2990:
2976:
2936:
2922:
2858:
2849:
2840:
2831:
2822:
2804:
2721:The Normans in Europe.
2627:Purton, Peter. (2009)
2274:London: Elliot Stock.
2132:Bradbury, Jim. (2009)
2129:XII. pp. 211–224.
1675:Liddiard (2005), p.25.
1303:Liddiard (2005), p.42.
1196:King (1991), pp. 53–4.
873:
822:
767:
707:
614:
560:
482:
424:
358:
318:
310:Building the motte of
215:
143:
128:
58:
53:(left foreground) and
32:Motte (disambiguation)
27:Medieval fortification
4262:Floating water castle
3993:Admiralty scaffolding
3286:Fortified buildings (
2515:McNeill, Tom. (2000)
2467:Anglo-Norman Castles.
2236:10.1017/9781846152429
2008:King (1991), pp.62-65
920:student accommodation
914:. Another example is
859:
808:
761:
701:
687:mottes, and some new
608:
550:
500:William the Conqueror
479:Saint-Sylvain-d'Anjou
473:Reconstructed wooden
472:
423:surmounting the motte
410:
344:
309:
209:
150:structure known as a
134:
122:
44:
4605:Subterranean warfare
3558:Viking ring fortress
2701:Toy, Sidney. (1985)
2169:Castles From the Air
1891:Carpenter, pp.220-1.
1732:Meulemeester, p.102.
1723:Meulemeester, p.103.
1205:Brown (1962), p. 30.
1162:Brown (1962), p. 29.
89:in France, into the
4422:Quadrangular castle
4158:Weapon storage area
3514:Quadrangular castle
2687:Scotland's Castles.
2624:XVIII, pp. 187–190.
2521:London: Routledge.
2436:London: Routledge.
2427:V, pp. 107–111
2412:London: Continuum.
2114:London: J. Murray.
1999:Brown (1962), p.38.
1909:McNeill, pp.74, 84.
1828:King (1991), p.130.
1519:King (1991), p. 37.
1462:King (1991), p. 34.
1369:McNeill, pp. 39–40.
1294:King (1972), p.106.
1269:Brown (1962), p.26.
1260:Brown (1989), p.23.
1251:Brown (1962), p.24.
1171:King (1991), p. 55.
835:Château de Langeais
780:Henry II of England
711:royal residence in
582:castle in Cambridge
532:close to the local
106:in many countries.
4153:Underground hangar
3938:Fire control tower
3735:Gunpowder magazine
3163:Butter-churn tower
2690:London: Batsford.
2155:London: Batsford.
2044:King (1991), p.94.
1573:King (1991), p.35.
1546:DeVries, pp.203-4.
1069:King (1991), p.38.
883:Concentric castles
874:
862:Carisbrooke Castle
823:
768:
721:Cadwgan ap Bleddyn
708:
615:
561:
483:
438:Carolingian Empire
425:
359:
319:
216:
144:
136:Castle Pulverbatch
129:
59:
18:Motte & Bailey
4676:
4675:
4600:Military urbanism
4534:Fortified gateway
4407:Concentric castle
4171:
4170:
4088:Fire support base
3928:Coastal artillery
3803:(Spanish America)
3397:
3239:Concentric castle
2730:978-0-7190-4751-0
2713:978-0-486-24898-1
2696:978-0-7134-8943-9
2673:978-87-88073-30-0
2656:978-1-902163-21-5
2639:978-1-84383-448-9
2615:978-0-521-45828-3
2598:978-0-85115-778-8
2580:XX, pp. 173–182.
2571:978-0-333-76330-8
2554:978-0-85045-042-2
2536:XI, pp. 101–115.
2527:978-0-415-22853-4
2510:978-0-7478-0651-6
2476:978-0-85115-904-1
2459:978-0-7864-1092-7
2418:978-0-8264-7886-3
2401:978-0-306-81358-0
2348:XVIII, pp. 65–73.
2339:978-0-921149-74-3
2312:978-0-7478-0546-5
2303:Medieval Castles.
2295:978-1-904768-67-8
2289:London: Equinox.
2252:978-2-902894-16-1
2228:978-0-14-014824-4
2222:London: Penguin.
2196:978-1-84383-069-6
2179:978-0-521-32932-3
2144:978-0-7509-3793-1
1816:Pettifer, p. xiv.
1684:Pettifer, p.xiii.
1471:Debord, pp. 93–4.
1432:Creighton, p. 47.
1414:Van Houts, p. 61.
1144:Besteman, p. 213.
1123:Kenyon, pp. 9–10.
1057:Besteman, p. 212.
749:Bass of Inverurie
704:Bass of Inverurie
663:. Sometimes both
578:castle in Norwich
527:and the northern
515:Holy Roman Empire
212:Launceston Castle
93:, as well as the
91:Holy Roman Empire
16:(Redirected from
4706:
4665:
4664:
4658:
4549:National redoubt
4478:Fortified estate
4402:Circular rampart
4362:
4343:
4334:
4325:
4243:
4003:Anti-tank trench
3998:Air raid shelter
3973:
3933:Disappearing gun
3914:
3889:
3865:
3826:
3817:
3802:
3778:
3769:
3755:
3726:
3697:
3688:
3664:
3625:
3610:
3588:
3568:Bailey (or ward)
3534:
3439:Motte-and-bailey
3430:
3411:
3395:
3387:
3386:
3352:
3343:
3329:
3278:
3269:
3225:
3216:
3207:
3198:
3144:
3130:
3121:
3067:
3024:
3013:
3004:
2995:
2981:
2941:
2927:
2867:Circular rampart
2863:
2854:
2845:
2836:
2827:
2818:
2809:
2773:
2766:
2759:
2750:
2583:
2548:Oxford: Osprey.
2539:
2498:Lowry, Bernard.
2385:
2384:
2378:
2368:
2358:
2324:
2267:
2257:
2246:Nonette: Créer.
2152:English Castles.
2099:
2098:Robinson, p.142.
2096:
2090:
2087:
2081:
2078:
2072:
2069:
2063:
2062:Stiesdal, p.214.
2060:
2054:
2051:
2045:
2042:
2036:
2033:
2027:
2026:Bradbury, p.121.
2024:
2018:
2015:
2009:
2006:
2000:
1997:
1991:
1988:
1982:
1979:
1973:
1970:
1964:
1961:
1955:
1952:
1946:
1943:
1937:
1934:
1928:
1925:
1919:
1916:
1910:
1907:
1901:
1898:
1892:
1889:
1883:
1880:
1874:
1871:
1865:
1862:
1856:
1853:
1847:
1844:
1838:
1837:Pettifer, p.xiv.
1835:
1829:
1826:
1817:
1814:
1808:
1805:
1799:
1796:
1790:
1789:Besteman, p.216.
1787:
1781:
1780:Nicholson, p.77.
1778:
1772:
1769:
1763:
1762:Besteman, p.217.
1760:
1754:
1753:Besteman, p.215.
1751:
1742:
1741:Besteman, p.219.
1739:
1733:
1730:
1724:
1721:
1712:
1709:
1703:
1700:
1694:
1691:
1685:
1682:
1676:
1673:
1667:
1664:
1658:
1655:
1649:
1646:
1640:
1637:
1631:
1628:
1622:
1619:
1610:
1607:
1601:
1598:
1592:
1589:
1583:
1580:
1574:
1571:
1565:
1562:
1556:
1553:
1547:
1544:
1538:
1535:
1529:
1528:DeVries, p. 202.
1526:
1520:
1517:
1508:
1505:
1499:
1496:
1490:
1487:
1481:
1478:
1472:
1469:
1463:
1460:
1454:
1451:
1445:
1442:
1433:
1430:
1424:
1421:
1415:
1412:
1406:
1403:
1397:
1394:
1388:
1385:
1379:
1376:
1370:
1367:
1361:
1358:
1352:
1349:
1343:
1340:
1334:
1331:
1325:
1322:
1313:
1310:
1304:
1301:
1295:
1292:
1286:
1283:
1270:
1267:
1261:
1258:
1252:
1249:
1243:
1240:
1227:
1224:
1218:
1215:
1206:
1203:
1197:
1194:
1188:
1187:DeVries, p. 209.
1185:
1172:
1169:
1163:
1160:
1154:
1151:
1145:
1142:
1133:
1130:
1124:
1121:
1115:
1112:
1106:
1103:
1097:
1094:
1088:
1085:
1079:
1076:
1070:
1067:
1058:
1055:
1049:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1028:Historic England
1024:
1018:
1017:
989:
973:
969:
963:
959:
932:Japanese castles
908:Second World War
776:Richard de Clare
504:Duke of Normandy
417:Château de Dinan
347:Clifford's Tower
276:Warkworth Castle
262:was an enclosed
156:motte-and-bailey
125:Topcliffe Castle
21:
4714:
4713:
4709:
4708:
4707:
4705:
4704:
4703:
4694:Castles by type
4679:
4678:
4677:
4672:
4656:
4648:
4578:
4502:
4446:
4380:
4315:Imperial castle
4288:Coercion castle
4283:Coastal defence
4266:
4228:Promontory fort
4198:Hillside castle
4167:
4083:Fallout shelter
4048:Concertina wire
4028:Border security
3981:
3892:
3601:
3234:Coercion castle
3222:Cheval de frise
3204:Chemin de ronde
3052:Albarrana tower
3033:
2978:Schwedenschanze
2955:Promontory fort
2782:
2777:
2739:
2581:
2537:
2379:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2355:XX pp. 87–100.
2322:
2321:XI, pp. 91–99.
2265:
2264:XI, pp. 69–89.
2255:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2093:
2088:
2084:
2079:
2075:
2070:
2066:
2061:
2057:
2052:
2048:
2043:
2039:
2034:
2030:
2025:
2021:
2016:
2012:
2007:
2003:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1985:
1980:
1976:
1971:
1967:
1962:
1958:
1954:Pringle, p.190.
1953:
1949:
1945:Pringle, p.187.
1944:
1940:
1935:
1931:
1927:O'Conor, p.173.
1926:
1922:
1917:
1913:
1908:
1904:
1899:
1895:
1890:
1886:
1881:
1877:
1873:Tabraham, p.16.
1872:
1868:
1863:
1859:
1854:
1850:
1845:
1841:
1836:
1832:
1827:
1820:
1815:
1811:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1793:
1788:
1784:
1779:
1775:
1770:
1766:
1761:
1757:
1752:
1745:
1740:
1736:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1715:
1710:
1706:
1701:
1697:
1692:
1688:
1683:
1679:
1674:
1670:
1665:
1661:
1656:
1652:
1647:
1643:
1638:
1634:
1629:
1625:
1620:
1613:
1608:
1604:
1599:
1595:
1590:
1586:
1581:
1577:
1572:
1568:
1564:DeVries, p.204.
1563:
1559:
1555:HĂ©richer, p.97.
1554:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1536:
1532:
1527:
1523:
1518:
1511:
1506:
1502:
1497:
1493:
1488:
1484:
1479:
1475:
1470:
1466:
1461:
1457:
1452:
1448:
1443:
1436:
1431:
1427:
1422:
1418:
1413:
1409:
1404:
1400:
1395:
1391:
1386:
1382:
1377:
1373:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1355:
1350:
1346:
1341:
1337:
1332:
1328:
1323:
1316:
1311:
1307:
1302:
1298:
1293:
1289:
1285:DeVries, p.212.
1284:
1273:
1268:
1264:
1259:
1255:
1250:
1246:
1241:
1230:
1225:
1221:
1217:DeVries, p.211.
1216:
1209:
1204:
1200:
1195:
1191:
1186:
1175:
1170:
1166:
1161:
1157:
1152:
1148:
1143:
1136:
1131:
1127:
1122:
1118:
1113:
1109:
1104:
1100:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1073:
1068:
1061:
1056:
1052:
1042:
1040:
1026:
1025:
1021:
1006:
991:
990:
986:
982:
977:
976:
970:
966:
960:
956:
951:
928:
912:royal documents
904:
803:
729:Tomen y Faerdre
603:
580:and 27 for the
467:
413:Bayeux Tapestry
405:
400:
332:Thetford Castle
316:Bayeux Tapestry
312:Hastings Castle
304:
256:
248:skins and hides
204:
117:
112:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4712:
4710:
4702:
4701:
4696:
4691:
4681:
4680:
4674:
4673:
4671:
4670:
4653:
4650:
4649:
4647:
4646:
4645:
4644:
4634:
4632:Trench warfare
4629:
4627:Tunnel warfare
4624:
4623:
4622:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4597:
4592:
4586:
4584:
4580:
4579:
4577:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4510:
4508:
4504:
4503:
4501:
4500:
4495:
4490:
4485:
4483:Fortifications
4480:
4475:
4470:
4465:
4460:
4454:
4452:
4448:
4447:
4445:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4394:
4388:
4386:
4382:
4381:
4379:
4378:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4335:
4326:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4300:
4295:
4293:Counter-castle
4290:
4285:
4280:
4278:Border barrier
4274:
4272:
4268:
4267:
4265:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4244:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4213:Lowland castle
4210:
4205:
4203:Hilltop castle
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4179:
4177:
4173:
4172:
4169:
4168:
4166:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4078:Electric fence
4075:
4070:
4068:Dragon's teeth
4065:
4063:Czech hedgehog
4060:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3989:
3987:
3983:
3982:
3980:
3979:
3977:Wire obstacles
3974:
3965:
3963:Polygonal fort
3960:
3955:
3953:Martello tower
3950:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3918:Border outpost
3915:
3906:
3900:
3898:
3894:
3893:
3891:
3890:
3881:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3818:
3809:
3804:
3794:
3792:Polygonal fort
3789:
3784:
3779:
3770:
3761:
3756:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3689:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3616:
3614:
3607:
3603:
3602:
3600:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3403:
3398:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3344:
3335:
3330:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3304:
3299:
3284:
3282:Flanking tower
3279:
3270:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3249:Counter-castle
3246:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3217:
3208:
3199:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3136:
3131:
3122:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3043:
3041:
3039:Post-classical
3035:
3034:
3032:
3031:
3029:Vitrified fort
3026:
3014:
3005:
2996:
2987:
2982:
2973:
2968:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2933:
2928:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2887:Defensive wall
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2855:
2846:
2837:
2828:
2819:
2810:
2801:
2796:
2790:
2788:
2784:
2783:
2780:Fortifications
2778:
2776:
2775:
2768:
2761:
2753:
2747:
2746:
2738:
2737:External links
2735:
2734:
2733:
2716:
2699:
2682:
2679:
2676:
2659:
2642:
2625:
2618:
2601:
2584:
2574:
2557:
2540:
2530:
2513:
2496:
2479:
2462:
2445:
2428:
2421:
2404:
2389:
2386:
2359:
2349:
2342:
2325:
2315:
2298:
2283:
2268:
2258:
2238:
2216:
2199:
2182:
2164:
2147:
2130:
2123:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2100:
2091:
2082:
2080:Jansen, p.197.
2073:
2064:
2055:
2046:
2037:
2028:
2019:
2010:
2001:
1992:
1983:
1974:
1965:
1956:
1947:
1938:
1929:
1920:
1918:McNeill, p.84.
1911:
1902:
1893:
1884:
1882:McNeill, p.17.
1875:
1866:
1857:
1848:
1839:
1830:
1818:
1809:
1800:
1791:
1782:
1773:
1764:
1755:
1743:
1734:
1725:
1713:
1704:
1695:
1686:
1677:
1668:
1659:
1650:
1641:
1632:
1623:
1621:Purton, p.196.
1611:
1602:
1593:
1591:Purton, p.195.
1584:
1575:
1566:
1557:
1548:
1539:
1530:
1521:
1509:
1500:
1491:
1482:
1473:
1464:
1455:
1446:
1444:Pounds, p. 14.
1434:
1425:
1416:
1407:
1398:
1396:Pounds, p. 21.
1389:
1387:Kenyon, p. 10.
1380:
1378:Kenyon, p. 11.
1371:
1362:
1360:Pounds, p. 20.
1353:
1344:
1335:
1333:Pounds, p. 19.
1326:
1324:Pounds, p. 18.
1314:
1305:
1296:
1287:
1271:
1262:
1253:
1244:
1228:
1219:
1207:
1198:
1189:
1173:
1164:
1155:
1146:
1134:
1125:
1116:
1107:
1098:
1089:
1087:Pounds, p. 22.
1080:
1078:Lepage, p. 34.
1071:
1059:
1050:
1019:
1004:
983:
981:
978:
975:
974:
964:
953:
952:
950:
947:
946:
945:
940:
935:
927:
924:
903:
900:
802:
799:
677:refuge castles
602:
599:
574:Lincoln Castle
551:Reconstructed
466:
463:
432:river and the
404:
401:
399:
396:
303:
300:
288:Windsor Castle
255:
252:
203:
200:
116:
113:
111:
108:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4711:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4686:
4684:
4669:
4668:
4655:
4654:
4651:
4643:
4640:
4639:
4638:
4637:Urban warfare
4635:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4625:
4621:
4618:
4617:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4591:
4590:Civil defense
4588:
4587:
4585:
4581:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4511:
4509:
4505:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4464:
4461:
4459:
4458:Bastion forts
4456:
4455:
4453:
4449:
4443:
4442:Z-plan castle
4440:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4412:L-plan castle
4410:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4397:Bridge castle
4395:
4393:
4390:
4389:
4387:
4383:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4366:Refuge castle
4364:
4361:
4360:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4347:Military base
4345:
4342:
4341:
4336:
4333:
4332:
4327:
4324:
4323:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4310:Hunting lodge
4308:
4306:
4305:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4275:
4273:
4269:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4242:
4241:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4223:Moated castle
4221:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4208:Island castle
4206:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4180:
4178:
4176:By topography
4174:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4148:Submarine pen
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4103:Hesco bastion
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4018:Blast shelter
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3990:
3988:
3984:
3978:
3975:
3972:
3971:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3941:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3913:
3912:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3901:
3899:
3895:
3888:
3887:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3864:
3863:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3825:
3824:
3819:
3816:
3815:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3801:
3800:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3787:Place-of-arms
3785:
3783:
3780:
3777:
3776:
3771:
3768:
3767:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3754:
3753:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3725:
3724:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3696:
3695:
3690:
3687:
3686:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3663:
3662:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3624:
3623:
3618:
3617:
3615:
3611:
3608:
3604:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3587:
3586:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3533:
3532:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3429:
3428:
3423:
3421:
3420:Machicolation
3418:
3416:
3415:L-plan castle
3413:
3410:
3409:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3394:
3393:
3385:
3384:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3351:
3350:
3345:
3342:
3341:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3328:
3327:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3309:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3277:
3276:
3271:
3268:
3267:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3224:
3223:
3218:
3215:
3214:
3209:
3206:
3205:
3200:
3197:
3196:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3148:Bridge castle
3146:
3143:
3142:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3129:
3128:
3123:
3120:
3119:
3114:
3112:
3111:Bent entrance
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3096:Battery tower
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3066:
3065:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3047:Advanced work
3045:
3044:
3042:
3040:
3036:
3030:
3027:
3023:
3018:
3015:
3012:
3011:
3006:
3003:
3002:
2997:
2994:
2993:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2980:
2979:
2974:
2972:
2971:Refuge castle
2969:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2940:
2939:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2926:
2925:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2862:
2861:
2856:
2853:
2852:
2847:
2844:
2843:
2838:
2835:
2834:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2820:
2817:
2816:
2811:
2808:
2807:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2791:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2774:
2769:
2767:
2762:
2760:
2755:
2754:
2751:
2744:
2741:
2740:
2736:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2722:
2717:
2714:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2700:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2688:
2683:
2680:
2677:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2665:
2660:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2648:
2643:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2631:
2626:
2623:
2619:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2607:
2602:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2590:
2585:
2579:
2575:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2563:
2558:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2546:
2541:
2535:
2531:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2519:
2514:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2502:
2497:
2494:
2493:0-9545575-2-2
2490:
2486:
2485:
2480:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2468:
2463:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2451:
2446:
2443:
2442:0-415-00350-4
2439:
2435:
2434:
2429:
2426:
2422:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2410:
2405:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2387:
2383:
2376:
2372:
2365:
2360:
2354:
2350:
2347:
2343:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2331:
2326:
2320:
2316:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2304:
2299:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2263:
2259:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2244:
2239:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2214:
2213:1-85074-673-7
2210:
2206:
2205:
2200:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2188:
2183:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2170:
2165:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2153:
2148:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2136:
2131:
2128:
2124:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2108:
2104:
2095:
2092:
2086:
2083:
2077:
2074:
2068:
2065:
2059:
2056:
2050:
2047:
2041:
2038:
2032:
2029:
2023:
2020:
2014:
2011:
2005:
2002:
1996:
1993:
1987:
1984:
1978:
1975:
1969:
1966:
1960:
1957:
1951:
1948:
1942:
1939:
1933:
1930:
1924:
1921:
1915:
1912:
1906:
1903:
1897:
1894:
1888:
1885:
1879:
1876:
1870:
1867:
1861:
1858:
1852:
1849:
1843:
1840:
1834:
1831:
1825:
1823:
1819:
1813:
1810:
1807:Ekroll, p.66.
1804:
1801:
1795:
1792:
1786:
1783:
1777:
1774:
1768:
1765:
1759:
1756:
1750:
1748:
1744:
1738:
1735:
1729:
1726:
1720:
1718:
1714:
1708:
1705:
1699:
1696:
1690:
1687:
1681:
1678:
1672:
1669:
1663:
1660:
1654:
1651:
1645:
1642:
1636:
1633:
1627:
1624:
1618:
1616:
1612:
1606:
1603:
1597:
1594:
1588:
1585:
1579:
1576:
1570:
1567:
1561:
1558:
1552:
1549:
1543:
1540:
1534:
1531:
1525:
1522:
1516:
1514:
1510:
1504:
1501:
1495:
1492:
1486:
1483:
1477:
1474:
1468:
1465:
1459:
1456:
1450:
1447:
1441:
1439:
1435:
1429:
1426:
1420:
1417:
1411:
1408:
1402:
1399:
1393:
1390:
1384:
1381:
1375:
1372:
1366:
1363:
1357:
1354:
1351:Kenyon, p. 7.
1348:
1345:
1339:
1336:
1330:
1327:
1321:
1319:
1315:
1309:
1306:
1300:
1297:
1291:
1288:
1282:
1280:
1278:
1276:
1272:
1266:
1263:
1257:
1254:
1248:
1245:
1242:Pounds, p.17.
1239:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1223:
1220:
1214:
1212:
1208:
1202:
1199:
1193:
1190:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1174:
1168:
1165:
1159:
1156:
1150:
1147:
1141:
1139:
1135:
1129:
1126:
1120:
1117:
1111:
1108:
1102:
1099:
1093:
1090:
1084:
1081:
1075:
1072:
1066:
1064:
1060:
1054:
1051:
1039:
1038:
1033:
1029:
1023:
1020:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1005:90-6109-440-2
1001:
997:
996:
988:
985:
979:
968:
965:
958:
955:
948:
944:
941:
939:
936:
933:
930:
929:
925:
923:
921:
917:
916:Durham Castle
913:
909:
901:
899:
897:
892:
891:castrum-curia
886:
884:
879:
871:
867:
866:Isle of Wight
863:
858:
854:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
827:
820:
816:
812:
807:
800:
798:
796:
795:Fifth Crusade
792:
788:
783:
781:
777:
773:
765:
764:Clough Castle
760:
756:
754:
750:
746:
741:
736:
734:
730:
726:
722:
716:
714:
705:
700:
696:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
620:Low Countries
612:
607:
600:
598:
595:
591:
590:unfree labour
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
566:
558:
554:
549:
545:
543:
542:
537:
536:
530:
526:
522:
521:
516:
511:
509:
505:
501:
497:
494:and his son,
493:
489:
480:
476:
471:
464:
462:
459:
454:
452:
448:
444:
439:
435:
431:
422:
418:
414:
409:
402:
397:
395:
393:
392:
387:
383:
378:
376:
372:
368:
364:
356:
355:underpinnings
352:
348:
343:
339:
337:
333:
327:
324:
317:
313:
308:
301:
299:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
272:
269:
265:
261:
253:
251:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
227:
225:
222:
213:
208:
201:
199:
197:
196:Durham Castle
192:
187:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
141:
137:
133:
126:
121:
114:
109:
107:
104:
100:
96:
95:Low Countries
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
56:
52:
48:
43:
37:
33:
19:
4660:
4615:Siege engine
4583:Other topics
4507:Related word
4473:Defense line
4437:Tower castle
4416:
4392:Bastion fort
4376:Urban castle
4304:Ganerbenburg
4302:
4257:Water castle
4233:Ridge castle
4218:Marsh castle
4033:Bomb shelter
4013:Belgian gate
3986:20th century
3897:19th century
3835:Retrenchment
3807:Punji sticks
3716:Entrenchment
3711:Device Forts
3678:Counterguard
3613:Early modern
3543:Tower castle
3479:Powder tower
3454:Outer bailey
3438:
3366:Inner bailey
3340:Gulyay-gorod
3308:Ganerbenburg
3306:
3302:Fujian tulou
3244:Corner tower
3183:Chamber gate
3153:Bridge tower
3001:Trou de loup
2719:
2703:
2685:
2662:
2645:
2628:
2621:
2604:
2587:
2577:
2560:
2543:
2533:
2516:
2499:
2482:
2465:
2448:
2431:
2424:
2407:
2392:
2374:
2370:
2352:
2345:
2328:
2318:
2301:
2286:
2271:
2261:
2241:
2219:
2202:
2185:
2167:
2150:
2133:
2126:
2111:
2105:Bibliography
2094:
2085:
2076:
2067:
2058:
2049:
2040:
2031:
2022:
2013:
2004:
1995:
1986:
1977:
1968:
1959:
1950:
1941:
1936:Purton, 180.
1932:
1923:
1914:
1905:
1896:
1887:
1878:
1869:
1860:
1851:
1842:
1833:
1812:
1803:
1794:
1785:
1776:
1767:
1758:
1737:
1728:
1707:
1698:
1689:
1680:
1671:
1662:
1653:
1644:
1635:
1626:
1605:
1596:
1587:
1578:
1569:
1560:
1551:
1542:
1533:
1524:
1503:
1494:
1485:
1476:
1467:
1458:
1449:
1428:
1419:
1410:
1401:
1392:
1383:
1374:
1365:
1356:
1347:
1338:
1329:
1308:
1299:
1290:
1265:
1256:
1247:
1222:
1201:
1192:
1167:
1158:
1149:
1128:
1119:
1110:
1101:
1092:
1083:
1074:
1053:
1041:. Retrieved
1035:
1022:
994:
987:
967:
957:
905:
895:
890:
887:
875:
828:
824:
790:
784:
769:
753:Balmaclellan
737:
733:Gaer PenrhĂ´s
717:
709:
688:
684:
680:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
643:
642:gave way to
639:
635:
616:
610:
563:In England,
562:
539:
533:
518:
512:
507:
484:
455:
426:
389:
379:
360:
328:
320:
284:outer bailey
273:
257:
231:
228:
217:
188:
183:
179:
175:
167:
163:
159:
155:
145:
110:Architecture
62:
60:
4514:Castle town
4371:Toll castle
4340:Lustschloss
4322:Kaiserpfalz
4252:Spur castle
4247:Rock castle
4188:Hill castle
4183:Cave castle
4143:Spider hole
4043:Bremer wall
4008:Barbed tape
3904:Barbed wire
3578:Witch tower
3548:Tower house
3538:Toll castle
3524:Shield wall
3444:Murder hole
3333:Guard tower
2950:Pincer gate
2897:Faussebraye
2582:(in French)
2538:(in French)
2357:(in French)
2323:(in French)
2266:(in French)
2256:(in French)
1096:Toy, p. 53.
847:Shell keeps
693:Netherlands
671:are called
644:hege wieren
628:Lower Rhine
541:Höhenburgen
496:Geoffrey II
296:Berkhamsted
99:Netherlands
55:York Castle
4683:Categories
4539:Gatekeeper
4359:Ordensburg
4331:Landesburg
4138:Sentry gun
4093:Flak tower
4023:Blast wall
3943:Gun turret
3840:Sally port
3745:Kotta mara
3685:Couvreface
3649:Breastwork
3644:Blockhouse
3622:Abwurfdach
3573:Watchtower
3563:Wall tower
3519:Shell keep
3469:Portcullis
3464:Peel tower
3449:Neck ditch
3408:Landesburg
3356:Half tower
3314:Gate tower
3259:Drawbridge
3101:Battlement
3017:Wagon fort
2860:Chengqiang
1132:Toy, p.52.
980:References
896:wasserburg
811:shell keep
809:The stone
557:LĂĽtjenburg
375:subsidence
221:Bronze Age
214:in England
180:basse-cour
115:Structures
4689:Feudalism
4642:Guerrilla
4385:By design
4133:Revetment
3948:Land mine
3879:Star fort
3706:Crownwork
3701:Covertway
3634:Barricade
3275:Embrasure
3188:Chartaque
3118:Bergfried
3076:Arrowslit
2902:Gatehouse
2872:City gate
2833:Castellum
2799:Acropolis
2377:: 209–229
2120:458514584
843:gatehouse
831:Catalonia
821:in France
778:and then
673:vliedburg
632:Friesland
611:vliedburg
559:, Germany
553:Bergfried
520:Bergfried
502:, as the
264:courtyard
236:bretèches
184:castellum
51:Old Baile
4667:Category
4657:See also
4544:Loophole
4432:Ringwork
4427:Ringfort
4352:Obstacle
4193:Hillfort
4113:Loophole
3911:Barbette
3886:Tenaille
3869:Sea fort
3799:Presidio
3759:Magazine
3740:Hornwork
3673:Cavalier
3668:Casemate
3661:Caponier
3504:Ringwork
3392:Detinets
3361:Hoarding
3266:Enceinte
3141:Bretèche
3086:Bartizan
3081:Barbican
3057:Alcazaba
2985:Stockade
2965:Ringfort
2945:Palisade
2917:Landwehr
2912:Hillfort
1014:52849131
926:See also
878:Langeais
841:and the
745:Galloway
624:Flanders
594:ringwork
492:Fulk III
481:, France
447:Normandy
443:Angevins
421:palisade
382:ringwork
323:scarping
268:palisade
232:garillum
123:Plan of
83:Normandy
79:palisade
4574:Vedette
4564:Schloss
4529:Festung
4524:Dungeon
4519:Château
4463:Castles
4271:By role
4128:Pillbox
3958:Outpost
3874:Station
3862:Schanze
3845:Sandbag
3830:Redoubt
3814:Ravelin
3782:Palanka
3766:Orillon
3752:Lunette
3694:Coupure
3639:Bastion
3629:Arsenal
3597:Zwinger
3509:Roundel
3499:Ricetto
3474:Postern
3459:Outwork
3383:Kremlin
3254:Curtain
3229:Citadel
3213:Chemise
3173:Caltrop
3091:Bastion
3064:Alcázar
2960:Rampart
2938:Oppidum
2931:Nuraghe
2877:Crannog
2851:Castros
2787:Ancient
2280:4246355
2161:1392314
1043:28 July
864:on the
851:chemise
815:chemise
740:David I
648:Zeeland
586:Marches
570:Lincoln
565:William
398:History
386:rampart
292:Lincoln
282:and an
224:barrows
103:Normans
4569:Trench
4559:Picket
3970:Sangar
3923:Bunker
3855:Sconce
3775:Ostrog
3723:Flèche
3606:Modern
3585:Yagura
3553:Turret
3489:Reduit
3427:Merlon
3371:Kasbah
3349:Gusuku
3326:Glacis
3319:Gabion
3288:church
3195:Chashi
3178:Castle
3022:Laager
3010:Vallum
2967:(Rath)
2842:Castra
2824:Burgus
2794:Abatis
2728:
2711:
2694:
2671:
2654:
2637:
2613:
2596:
2569:
2552:
2525:
2508:
2491:
2474:
2457:
2440:
2416:
2399:
2337:
2310:
2293:
2278:
2250:
2226:
2211:
2194:
2177:
2159:
2142:
2118:
1012:
1002:
819:Gisors
725:Cymmer
689:werven
685:werven
681:terpen
675:, or "
669:werven
665:terpen
661:bergen
657:werven
653:terpen
640:terpen
636:terpen
525:Alsace
458:feudal
391:terpen
367:gravel
336:Clones
260:bailey
254:Bailey
244:garret
240:Ardres
191:Calais
176:baille
101:. The
71:bailey
4610:Siege
4554:Palas
4498:Walls
4488:Forts
4451:Lists
4298:Fence
4240:Rocca
4108:Kabal
3823:Redan
3730:Gorge
3654:Canal
3531:Shiro
3494:Ribat
3484:Qalat
3296:Dzong
3292:house
2992:Sudis
2924:Limes
2882:Ditch
2815:Broch
2806:Agger
2367:(PDF)
962:well.
949:Notes
902:Today
791:motta
488:Vincy
451:Anjou
434:Rhine
430:Loire
371:chalk
280:inner
202:Motte
178:, or
168:motte
160:motte
148:stone
87:Anjou
75:ditch
4620:list
4038:Buoy
3592:Yett
3434:Moat
3401:Ksar
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