Mount Churchill - Knowledge (XXG)

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Klutlan Glacier, over a length of more than 20 kilometres (12 mi). Their position above the present-day glacier surface may indicate that at the time of their deposition, the ice was thicker than present-day. Alternatively, they could have deposited during floods over the ice, perhaps after an eruption or the breach of a pumice-dammed lake. A 90-metre-high (300 ft) pumice mound on the other side of the glacier, 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) from Mount Churchill, was formed by tephra building up on a bedrock bench. It was once considered the vent of the White River Ash. In some places, 1-metre-thick (3.3 ft) volcanic ash covers the pumice.

619:. Several different rock chemistries contribute to each of the White River Ash lobes, which are otherwise very similar to each other and thus difficult to distinguish. The particles in the eastern lobe are coarser than in the northern and show evidence of two separate chemical trends; the deposits on Mount Churchill match the composition of the eastern lobe. Reconstructed magma temperatures are 950–990 °C (1,740–1,810 °F) for the northern lobe magma and 995–1,030 °C (1,823–1,886 °F) for the eastern lobe magma. 142: 66: 135: 38: 757:, the 300 years old "Lena ash" and the 6,330 years old "MTR-146" ash, resemble the White River Ash and may have been produced by eruptions of Mount Churchill; tephra with similar composition to the "Lena tephra" has been found in Europe. If the 1650 CE "Lena ash" comes from the volcano, it would be its youngest eruption. Beyond these, volcanic activity was uncommon in the region. 833:-covered ash fields and areas lacking vegetation, as the ash is an unsuitable ground for plant growth. Stumps of trees killed by the fallout emerge from the ash layers close to Mount Churchill. Ash is frequently reworked and redeposited, and forms soils in the St. Elias Mountains. Glaciers such as the 883:

The northern White River Ash extends along the Alaska–Canada border and reaches a thickness of 5–10 centimetres (2.0–3.9 in) 380 kilometres (240 mi) west of the volcano, declining to 2.5 centimetres (0.98 in) 580 kilometres (360 mi) north of Mount Churchill. The White River Ash is

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composition typical for melts derived from subducted basalts at high temperatures. During ascent, the magmas were further modified by interaction with the underlying basement of the Alexander terrane. Each of the White River Ash eruptions probably involved several different magma batches, rather than

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was emplaced between 2,039 and 1,520 years ago and resembles the northern White River Ash. The eruption may have occurred during summer, when winds blow from the south, and the eruption column might have been 30–35 kilometres (19–22 mi) high. While not as well studied as the east lobe eruption,

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occur around the amphitheater, which is otherwise entirely ice-covered. There are further outcrops of tephra in areas protected from erosion around the volcano; the largest such outcrop covers an area exceeding 3 square kilometres (1.2 sq mi). Pumice forms terraces above the sides of the

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may have arrived in the Yukon territory that way, and Dene people moved into coastal areas, sometimes coming into conflict with previously established people there and sometimes establishing new kin and commercial networks. Other Dene people migrated south and east after the eruption, driving the

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Mackay, Helen; Plunkett, Gill; Jensen, Britta J. L.; Aubry, Thomas J.; Corona, Christophe; Kim, Woon Mi; Toohey, Matthew; Sigl, Michael; Stoffel, Markus; Anchukaitis, Kevin J.; Raible, Christoph; Bolton, Matthew S. M.; Manning, Joseph G.; Newfield, Timothy P.; Di Cosmo, Nicola; Ludlow, Francis;

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Jensen, Britta J.L.; Pyne-O’Donnell, Sean; Plunkett, Gill; Froese, Duane G.; Hughes, Paul D.M.; Sigl, Michael; McConnell, Joseph R.; Amesbury, Matthew J.; Blackwell, Paul G.; van den Bogaard, Christel; Buck, Caitlin E.; Charman, Dan J.; Clague, John J.; Hall, Valerie A.; Koch, Johannes; Mackay,

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would have been visible for many hundreds of kilometers. Soon after it began, the sky would have turned dark for days and noise and lightning would have been heard and seen in Yukon. About 500 people might have been living in the directly affected area. It is probable that there were no direct

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and Klutlan Glaciers have captured and transported pumice and ash, or eroded ash layers when they advanced; some moraines at the foot of the St. Elias Mountains are formed mainly by White River Ash. Ash is washed away by the Klutlan and White River, contributing in no small part (together with

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McGimsey, Robert G.; Richter, Donald H.; DuBois, Gregory D.; Miller, T. P. (1992). A postulated new source for the White River Ash, Alaska: A section in Geologic studies in Alaska by the US. Geological Survey, 1990 (Report). Bulletin 1999. Denver, CO: U.S. Geological Survey. pp. 212–218.

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lava close to the summit. The 190,000 years old Sheep Creek tephra sub-unit "F" in Canada and Alaska may have originated at Mount Churchill, but more likely at Mount Drum. The appearance and height of Mount Churchill (and neighbouring Bona) imply that they were constructed in recent time. The

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Pyne-O'Donnell, Sean D.F.; Hughes, Paul D.M.; Froese, Duane G.; Jensen, Britta J.L.; Kuehn, Stephen C.; Mallon, Gunnar; Amesbury, Matthew J.; Charman, Dan J.; Daley, Tim J.; Loader, Neil J.; Mauquoy, Dmitri; Street-Perrott, F. Alayne; Woodman-Ralph, Jonathan (October 2012). "High-precision

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Various measurements have yielded summit heights of 4,744 metres (15,564 ft), 4,766 metres (15,636 ft), 4,767 metres (15,640 ft) or 4,768 metres (15,643 ft). It is a mountain in a glaciated, rugged mountain massif that rises sharply above the surrounding land. It is the

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Westgate, J.A.; Preece, S.J.; Froese, D.G.; Pearce, N.J.G.; Roberts, R.G.; Demuro, M.; Hart, W.K.; Perkins, W. (February 2008). "Changing ideas on the identity and stratigraphic significance of the Sheep Creek tephra beds in Alaska and the Yukon Territory, northwestern North America".

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Kristensen, Todd J.; Gregory Hare, P.; Gotthardt, Ruth M.; Easton, Norman A.; Ives, John W.; Speakman, Robert J.; Rasic, Jeffrey T. (December 2019). "The movement of obsidian in Subarctic Canada: Holocene social relationships and human responses to a large-scale volcanic eruption".

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Paine, Alice R.; Baldini, James U.L.; Wadsworth, Fabian B.; Lechleitner, Franziska A.; Jamieson, Robert A.; Baldini, Lisa M.; Brown, Richard J.; Müller, Wolfgang; Hercman, Helena; Gąsiorowski, Michał; Stefaniak, Krzysztof; Socha, Paweł; Sobczyk, Artur; Kasprzak, Marek (June 2021).

984:. These findings 7,000 kilometres (4,300 mi) from the volcano make the White River Ash one of the most extensive tephra deposits of the past 100,000 years, and drew attention to the potential for intercontinental spread of volcanic ash even by once-per-century eruptions. 796:

was proposed instead as the source vent and in 1965 Mount Bona. Only in 1984 and 1995 was Mount Churchill identified as the source. The eruptions produced about 25–50 cubic kilometres (6.0–12.0 cu mi) of tephra and covered an area exceeding 540,000 square kilometres

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populations, forcing them to move away; genomic data indicate a large shift in caribou populations after the eastern White River Ash eruption, although this theory is not uncontested. Ash fall into rivers and the remobilization of ash fallen on land would have disrupted

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Brueseke, Matthew E.; Benowitz, Jeffrey A.; Trop, Jeffrey M.; Davis, Kailyn N.; Berkelhammer, Samuel E.; Layer, Paul W.; Morter, Bethany K. (February 2019). "The Alaska Wrangell Arc: ~30 Ma of subduction-related magmatism along a still active arc-transform junction".

941:. Strong westerly winds carried the ash cloud eastward, where it may have mixed with snow as it fell out. The eastern lobe of the White River Ash is 2.5 centimetres (0.98 in) thick at 600 kilometres (370 mi) distance from Mount Churchill, extending to the 4447:

Ewert, J.W.; Diefenbach, A.K.; Ramsey, D.W. (2018). "2018 update to the U.S. Geological Survey national volcanic threat assessment". U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2018–5140 (Report). Scientific Investigations Report. p. 40.

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Watson, E. J.; Kołaczek, P.; Słowiński, M.; Swindles, G. T.; Marcisz, K.; Gałka, M.; Lamentowicz, M. (May 2017). "First discovery of Holocene Alaskan and Icelandic tephra in Polish peatlands: Holocene Alaskan and Icelandic tephra in Polish peatlands".

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The absence of White River Ash in the Bona-Churchill ice core has been cited as an argument against it being the source, but there is evidence of reworked White River Ash in the core. Evidence is more definitive for the eastern lobe than the northern

813:, are within the 25-millimetre (1 in) thickness area of the northern and eastern lobe, respectively. The ash is located at shallow depth in the ground, unless carried deeper underground by soil processes. It forms conspicuous layers along the 6285:

Trop, Jeffrey M.; Benowitz, Jeff A.; Kirby, Carl S.; Brueseke, Matthew E. (1 February 2022). "Geochronology of the Wrangell Arc: Spatial-temporal evolution of slab-edge magmatism along a flat-slab, subduction-transform transition, Alaska-Yukon".

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Trop, Jeffrey (2012). "Miocene basin development and volcanism along a strike-slip to flat-slab subduction transition: Stratigraphy, geochemistry, and geochronology of the central Wrangell volcanic belt, Yakutat–North America collision zone".

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Campbell, Seth; Kreutz, Karl; Osterberg, Erich; Arcone, Steven; Wake, Cameron; Introne, Douglas; Volkening, Kevin; Winski, Dominic (2012). "Melt regimes, stratigraphy, flow dynamics and glaciochemistry of three glaciers in the Alaska Range".

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McGimsey, R.G.; Richter, D.H.; Waythomas, C.F.; Donaldson, J.A. (1995). Potential hazards from future eruptions of Mt. Churchill, Alaska (Report). Geological Society of America, Abstracts with Programs, Cordilleran Section. Vol. 27.

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during that decade in Europe, and a clear link to the Mount Churchill eruption is not established; at worst, it would have aggravated a pre-existent climate disturbance. A link between the White River Ash and the mid-6th century cooling

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and other direct effects of the eruption were limited to the uninhabited surroundings of Mount Churchill, and the structures humans lived in at the time were unlikely to collapse under ash accumulation. There is disagreement on whether

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Sierra-Hernández, M. Roxana; Beaudon, Emilie; Porter, Stacy E.; Mosley-Thompson, Ellen; Thompson, Lonnie G. (27 January 2022). "Increased Fire Activity in Alaska Since the 1980s: Evidence From an Ice Core-Derived Black Carbon Record".

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Kostick, Conor; Yang, Zhen; Coyle McClung, Lisa; Amesbury, Matthew; Monteath, Alistair; Hughes, Paul D. M.; Langdon, Pete G.; Charman, Dan; Booth, Robert; Davies, Kimberley L.; Blundell, Antony; Swindles, Graeme T. (29 June 2022).

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Mount Churchill is one of Canada's most dangerous volcanoes, despite being outside of the country, owing to the size of its eruptions. Renewed large-scale activity would be extremely hazardous for northwestern Canada and adjoining

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were abandoned and new ones established after the eastern White River Ash eruption, implying that the displacement fostered a re-evaluation of economic activity and that displaced people had set up new trade networks. The use of

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Davies, Lauren J.; Jensen, Britta J.L.; Froese, Duane G.; Wallace, Kristi L. (August 2016). "Late Pleistocene and Holocene tephrostratigraphy of interior Alaska and Yukon: Key beds and chronologies over the past 30,000 years".

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Zdanowicz, Christian; Fisher, David; Bourgeois, Jocelyne; Demuth, Mike; Zheng, James; Mayewski, Paul; Kreutz, Karl; Osterberg, Erich; Yalcin, Kaplan; Wake, Cameron; Steig, Eric J.; Froese, Duane; Goto-Azuma, Kumiko (2014).

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imply a maximum cooling of 0.3 °C (0.54 °F), reaching 0.8 °C (1.4 °F) in some models, with no clear changes in precipitation. There are widespread reports of bad weather and resulting hardships such as

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The more than 500-kilometre-long (310 mi) Wrangell volcanic field (WVF) has been active for the past 30 million years in the Wrangell and St. Elias Mountains. The Wrangell volcanic field features numerous large

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eruptions, deposited during two of the largest volcanic eruptions in North America during the past two millennia. The northern lobe was emplaced about 1,890 years ago, while the larger eastern lobe erupted in winter

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Reuther, Joshua; Potter, Ben; Coffman, Sam; Smith, Holly; Bigelow, Nancy (February 2020). "Revisiting the Timing of the Northern Lobe of the White River Ash Volcanic Event in Eastern Alaska and Western Yukon".

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eruptions. With the exception of Mount Churchill, volcanism in the Wrangell volcanic field has migrated northwestwards and declined as plate configuration changed about 200,000 years ago and subduction ceased.

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Wilbur, S.C.; Molinari, M.P.; Beget, J.E.; Hengesh, J.V. (1991). Four Holocene tephra from the Prince William Sound area, Alaska (Report). Geological Society of America, Abstracts with Programs. Vol. 23.

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Zander, Paul D.; Kaufman, Darrell S.; Kuehn, Stephen C.; Wallace, Kristi L.; Anderson, R. Scott (November 2013). "Early and late Holocene glacial fluctuations and tephrostratigraphy, Cabin Lake, Alaska".

377:. It is extremely remote and there are no roads from which it is visible. The mountain was first ascended in 20 August 1951 by R. Gates and J. Lindberg and named in 1965 after the English politician 5450:

Patterson, R. Timothy; Crann, Carley A.; Cutts, Jamie A.; Courtney Mustaphi, Colin J.; Nasser, Nawaf A.; Macumber, Andrew L.; Galloway, Jennifer M.; Swindles, Graeme T.; Falck, Hendrik (July 2017).

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populations probably left the worst-hit areas and sought refuge in unaffected regions, returning only when conditions had improved or not at all. Archaeological data indicate that some important

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Plunkett, Gill; Sigl, Michael; McConnell, Joseph R.; Pilcher, Jonathan R.; Chellman, Nathan J. (February 2023). "The significance of volcanic ash in Greenland ice cores during the Common Era".

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Mount Churchill is the source of two of the largest volcanic eruptions of the past two millennia in North America. The first eruption about 1,890 years ago emplaced the northern lobe of the

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Donaldson, J.A.; Mueller, W. (1994). Dispersal of pumice along Klutlan Glacier, Yukon Territory (Report). Geological Society of America, Abstracts with Programs. Vol. 26. p. 113.

6237:"Radosław Palonka, Sztuka i archeologia kultur indiańskich prekolumbijskiego Południowego Zachodu USA. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2019, ss. 530, ryc. 307, tabl. 15" 417:

The older Mount Bona is 3.2 kilometres (2 mi) southwest of Mount Churchill. With a summit height of 5,005 metres (16,421 ft) above sea level, it is the highest mountain in the

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Capps, S.R. (1916). An ancient volcanic eruption in the upper Yukon Basin (Report). Professional Paper 95-D. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office. pp. 59–72.

1146:, with resultant consequences to transportation and the airline industry. Aircraft routes between Asia, Europe and North America pass through the extent of the White River Ash plume. 4343:

Doering, Briana N. (September 2021). "Subarctic landscape adaptations and paleodemography: A 14,000-year history of climate change and human settlement in central Alaska and Yukon".

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Preece, S.J.; McGimsey, R.G.; Westgate, J.A.; Pearce, N.J.G.; Hart, W.K.; Perkins, W.T. (October 2014). "Chemical complexity and source of the White River Ash, Alaska and Yukon".

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Fang, Ling; Jenk, Theo M.; Winski, Dominic; Kreutz, Karl; Brooks, Hanna L.; Erwin, Emma; Osterberg, Erich; Campbell, Seth; Wake, Cameron; Schwikowski, Margit (15 September 2023).

6715: 5007:"The 852/3 CE Mount Churchill eruption: examining the potential climatic and societal impacts and the timing of the Medieval Climate Anomaly in the North Atlantic region" 4202: 429:

at 4,400 metres (14,400 ft) elevation separates the two mountains. Both mountains are covered with about 5 cubic kilometres (1.2 cu mi) of ice. The Russell and

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Kristensen, Todd J; Ives, John W; Supernant, Kisha (October 2021). "Power, security, and exchange: Impacts of a Late Holocene volcanic eruption in Subarctic North America".

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Smith, C. A. S.; Ping, C. L.; Fox, C. A.; Kodama, H. (1 November 1999). "Weathering characteristics of some soils formed in White River Tephra, Yukon Territory, Canada".

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Addison, Jason A.; Beget, James E.; Ager, Thomas A.; Finney, Bruce P. (March 2010). "Marine tephrochronology of the Mt. Edgecumbe Volcanic Field, Southeast Alaska, USA".

663:. An ice core taken in 2002 from the col between Mount Churchill and Mount Bona is the longest non-polar ice core as of 2006, being 460.96 metres (1,512.3 ft) long. 321:

has largely ceased during the last one million years, causing a decline of the volcanic activity in the WVF. Churchill appears to be fed by melts derived from a stagnant

6700: 6665: 1310:"High threat" is the second-highest in a five-class scale, which considers both the threat posed by a volcano and the infrastructure/population/other human uses at risk. 1131:

there with ash fall and floods caused by blockages in the White River. Similar flood hazards exist in the Chitina and Copper River valleys south of Mount Churchill. The

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Richter, D H; Smith, J G; Lanphere, M A; Dalrymple, G B; Reed, B L; Shew, Nora (December 1990). "Age and progression of volcanism, Wrangell volcanic field, Alaska".

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Liang, Xuran; Zhao, Dapeng; Hua, Yuanyuan; Xu, Yi-Gang (January 2024). "Big Mantle Wedge and Intraplate Volcanism in Alaska: Insight From Anisotropic Tomography".

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Ash deposits from the eastern White River Ash have been detected across North America and into Europe, where it is identical to the "AD860B" ash found in Ireland,

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Preliminary integrated geologic map databases for the United States: digital data for the geology of Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park and Preserve, Alaska

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Rampton, V.N. (July 1978). "Holocene Glacial and Tree-Line Variations in the White River Valley and Skolai Pass, Alaska and Yukon Territory: A discussion".

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Ashfall could damage machinery, forests and waterbodies, and cause breathing problems. Even small eruptions of the high volcano could cause disturbances in

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Clague, John J. (1982), "The Role of Geomorphology in the Identification and Evaluation of Natural Hazards", in Craig, Richard G.; Craft, Jesse L. (eds.),

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There are six Holocene volcanic eruptions that may be attributed to Mount Churchill. Ash emplaced around 647±55 CE may come either from Mount Churchill or

6581:"Ice Cores from the St. Elias Mountains, Yukon, Canada: Their Significance for Climate, Atmospheric Composition and Volcanism in the North Pacific Region" 753:, and European tephras emplaced around 2,350 BCE and Greenland-Europe tephras from around 1100 CE resemble these of Mount Churchill. Two tephra layers in 5452:"New occurrences of the White River Ash (east lobe) in Subarctic Canada and utility for estimating freshwater reservoir effect in lake sediment archives" 5207:

Monteath, Alistair J.; van Hardenbroek, Maarten; Davies, Lauren J.; Froese, Duane G.; Langdon, Peter G.; Xu, Xiaomei; Edwards, Mary E. (September 2017).

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Porter, Stacy E.; Mosley-Thompson, Ellen; Thompson, Lonnie G. (27 October 2019). "Ice Core δ 18 O Record Linked to Western Arctic Sea Ice Variability".

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Hinkley, Todd K. (August 1994). "Composition and sources of atmospheric dusts in snow at 3200 meters in the St. Elias Range, southeastern Alaska, USA".

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Pewe, Troy Lewis (1975). Quaternary stratigraphic nomenclature in unglaciated central Alaska (Report). Professional Paper 862. U.S. Govt. Print. Off.

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Apart from direct physical effects, the Mount Churchill eruption likely had a strong psychological effect on the people in the affected area. The

564:. The intersection of the Totschunda Fault with the Connector and Duke River fault(s) may be the point where magma ascends into Mount Churchill. 5356: 725:

in the region. Mean annual temperature on Mount Churchill is about −23 °C (−9 °F). Annually, about 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) of

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productivity as forests opened up in some areas with ashfall. In lakes, volcanic ash can either bury organisms, or release nutrients such as

349:. The White River Ash covers vast expanses of Alaska and western Canada and has been found as far as Europe, and there is evidence that the 5812:

Rampton, Vern (1971). "Late Quaternary Vegetational and Climatic History of the Snag-Klutlan Area, Southwestern Yukon Territory, Canada".

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and thus increase productivity; both effects have been noted for the White River Ash. Burial of food sources and ingestion of ash and

401:. East of Mount Churchill, 300 metres (980 ft) below the summit, is a 2.7-by-4.2-kilometre-wide (1.7 mi × 2.6 mi) 20: 4009:

Bourne, A. J.; Abbott, P. M.; Albert, P. G.; Cook, E.; Pearce, N. J. G.; Ponomareva, V.; Svensson, A.; Davies, S. M. (21 July 2016).

6710: 5970: 5488:"Using cryptotephras to extend regional tephrochronologies: An example from southeast Alaska and implications for hazard assessment" 4759:"Environmental and Hunter-Gatherer Responses to the White River Ash East Volcanic Eruption in the Late Holocene Canadian Subarctic" 5411:"The trace-element composition of a Polish stalagmite: Implications for the use of speleothems as a record of explosive volcanism" 1132: 6161:"Big grains go far: understanding the discrepancy between tephrochronology and satellite infrared measurements of volcanic ash" 5950: 922: 189: 6675: 4594:

Holdsworth, Gerald; Roy Krouse, H. (2002). "Altitudinal variation of the stable isotopes of snow in regions of high relief".

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Territories impacted by the ashfall may have needed decades to recover, with century-long changes in vegetation, aquatic and

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run along the northern-western and eastern-southern side of Mount Churchill, respectively. The Klutlan Glacier is flanked by

544:, which is in the process of being accreted. The collision with the Yakutat Block caused the cessation of subduction, with 6685: 5951:

Guide to the Volcanoes of the Western Wrangell Mountains, Alaska: Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve (No. 2072)

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Quaternary geology and till geochemistry of the Anvil district (parts of 105K/2, 3, 5, 6 and 7), central Yukon Territory

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A Geologic Guide to Wrangell—Saint Elias National Park and Preserve, Alaska: A Tectonic Collage of Northbound Terranes

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Decadal Scale Climate Variability During The Last Millennium As Recorded By The Bona Churchill And Quelccaya Ice Cores

1142:. In addition, the intercontinental spread of ash would cause severe disruption, similar but on a larger scale to the 1111: 230: 6488:

Wilson, Frederic H.; Labay, Keith A.; Shew, Nora B.; Preller, Cindi C.; Mohadjer, Solmaz; Richter, Donald H. (2005).

6427: 842:) to its distinctive color that gives the White River its name. The ash deposits have been used as a time marker in 6670: 5544: 5410: 1082: 782: 6268:

Thompson, L. G.; Mosley-Thompson, E. S.; Zagorodnov, V.; Davis, M. E.; Mashiotta, T. A.; Lin, P. (December 2004).

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Stasiuk, Mark V.; Hickson, Catherine J.; Mulder, Taimi (2003). "The Vulnerability of Canada to Volcanic Hazards".

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are both ice-covered volcanoes with Churchill having a 2.7-by-4.2-kilometre-wide (1.7 mi × 2.6 mi)

5208: 4624: 910: 410: 6451: 6204:"Secondary mineral formation in the White River tephra in grassland and forest soils in central Yukon Territory" 5209:"Chronology and glass chemistry of tephra and cryptotephra horizons from lake sediments in northern Alaska, USA" 737:

The age of the Churchill-Bona massif is unknown but Mount Churchill began erupting during the late Pleistocene.

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have been taken from the Bona-Churchill massif and are an important source of information on the climate of the

6690: 4509: 1163: 487: 5825: 5115: 5048: 5451: 4514: 4302:"Late Holocene cryptotephra and a provisional 15 000-year Bayesian age model for Cascade Lake, Alaska" 3980:(Report). Indian & Northern Affairs Canada, Yukon Region, Exploration & Geological Services Division 821:

and their tributaries. The ash layers affect the properties of the soil they are in; they contribute to the

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1500 Years of Annual Climate and Environmental Variability as Recorded in Bona-Churchill (Alaska) Ice Cores

5545:"Defining the potential source region of volcanic ash in northwest Europe during the Mid- to Late Holocene" 4625:"MIDDLE-LATE HOLOCENE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE UPPER DIAMOND FORK VALLEY, YUKON-CHARLEY RIVERS NATIONAL PRESERVE" 738: 536:

were transported to Alaska by the Pacific Plate and attached to the continent: Windy terrane, the various

202: 74: 4471:"Early Holocene ice on the Begguya plateau (Mt. Hunter, Alaska) revealed by ice core 14C age constraints" 905:

The eastern White River Ash is better studied and was larger. Its intensity was intermediate between the

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It can end up in early Holocene sediments, thus creating problems with tephrochronological correlations

925:. A 40–45-kilometre-high (25–28 mi) eruption column rose over the volcano, injecting ash into the 897:

its impact on human populations was relatively modest, with few signs of population or culture shifts.

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Stevenson, J. A.; Millington, S. C.; Beckett, F. M.; Swindles, G. T.; Thordarson, T. (19 May 2015).

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migrated out of the region and into the present-day United States as a consequence of the eruption.

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Engineering Geology for Society and Territory - Volume 1: Climate Change and Engineering Geology

4011:"Underestimated risks of recurrent long-range ash dispersal from northern Pacific Arc volcanoes" 3932: 6600: 6526: 6468: 6375: 6256: 6223: 6190: 6057: 6038: 6001: 5966: 5937: 5763: 5389: 5342: 5313: 5272: 5176: 5160: 5083: 5036: 4945: 4889: 4848: 4770: 4658: 4546: 4492: 4457: 4435: 4406: 4331: 4250: 4216: 4138: 4065: 4048: 3995:"Variations in the depth and thickness of the White River Ash in lakes of the southwest Yukon" 3961: 3912: 1058: 1054: 718: 660: 549: 491: 378: 350: 6592: 6558: 6447: 6408: 6362: 6325: 6303: 6248: 6215: 6180: 6139: 6118: 6089: 6030: 5993: 5929: 5888: 5851: 5821: 5792: 5755: 5722: 5692: 5663: 5642: 5621: 5567: 5531: 5510: 5487: 5474: 5430: 5381: 5305: 5264: 5231: 5168: 5141: 5127: 5102: 5075: 5026: 4992: 4984: 4937: 4918: 4881: 4840: 4799: 4745: 4723: 4650: 4611: 4582: 4538: 4482: 4449: 4427: 4398: 4360: 4321: 4288: 4208: 4189: 4176: 4130: 4097: 4038: 4030: 3953: 3904: 3875: 1264: 942: 867: 843: 778: 627: 557: 405:, which forms a flat amphitheater open to the northeast. Numerous outcrops of light-colored 366: 326: 37: 6338: 1097: 1093: 1049: 1036: 1025: 946: 862: 834: 798: 766: 750: 545: 430: 337: 272: 184: 43: 4930:

Lollino, Giorgio; Manconi, Andrea; Clague, John; Shan, Wei; Chiarle, Marta, eds. (2015).

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Ewert, John W. (November 2007). "System for Ranking Relative Threats of U.S. Volcanoes".

6554: 6443: 6426:

Wiles, Gregory C.; Jacoby, Gordon C.; Davi, Nicole K.; McAllister, Ryan P. (July 2002).

6404: 6299: 6277: 6176: 6085: 5925: 5884: 5847: 5788: 5751: 5718: 5688: 5617: 5596: 5589:

A Paleo Perspective on Arctic and Mid-latitude Linkages from a Southeast Alaska Ice Core

5563: 5506: 5470: 5426: 5373: 5372:

Newfield, Timothy P. (2018), White, Sam; Pfister, Christian; Mauelshagen, Franz (eds.),

5227: 5116:"Cultural change and the climate record in final prehistoric and early medieval Ireland" 5022: 4980: 4914: 4877: 4836: 4719: 4693: 4607: 4578: 4394: 4356: 4317: 4284: 4172: 4093: 4026: 3871: 5736:"Neoglacial fluctuations of the Natazhat and Klutlan Glaciers, Yukon Territory, Canada" 4530: 4119:"Effects of the White River Ash Event on Aquatic Environments, Southwest Yukon, Canada" 4043: 4010: 3908: 1128: 872: 814: 793: 707: 687: 667: 623: 471: 459: 322: 218: 170: 6034: 5339:

Pushing Boundaries in Southwestern Archaeology: Chronometry, Collections, and Contexts

5159:

Miller, Thomas P.; Richter, Donald H. (1994), Plafker, George; Berg, Henry C. (eds.),

4931: 3974: 6649: 6570: 6376:"Resedimentation of the late Holocene White River tephra, Yukon Territory and Alaska" 6151: 6101: 5900: 5863: 5804: 5796: 5654:

Preece, Shari J.; Hart, William K. (November 2004). "Geochemical variations in the".

5442: 5325: 5069: 4811: 4686:

An Extensive Middle to Late Pleistocene Distal Tephra Record From East Central Alaska

4672: 4586: 4301: 4230: 4109: 3347: 3345: 3260: 3258: 2341: 2339: 2337: 1101: 1100:, was relatively modest, one third of that from the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo. 1070: 1066: 973: 953: 839: 679: 644: 631: 616: 577: 541: 517: 446: 398: 386: 314: 207: 6203: 5909: 5726: 5625: 5587:

Porter, S. E.; Mosley-Thompson, E.; Thompson, L. G.; Bolzan, J. F. (December 2017).

5579: 5571: 5522: 5243: 4959: 4820: 4644: 4378: 4364: 4292: 3941: 3887: 875:

referring to the White River Ash eruptions can be identified among the Athapaskans.

369:, and 25 kilometres (16 mi) or 40 kilometres (25 mi) from the border with 6202:

Strickland, A. J.; Arocena, J. M.; Sanborn, P.; Smith, C. A. S. (1 November 2005).

6160: 5329: 5006: 4676: 4470: 1239: 977: 926: 918: 906: 889: 818: 703: 553: 255: 245: 6236: 5434: 470:

had eruptions even larger than the White River Ash eruptions. Mount Churchill and

6412: 5478: 5385: 5120:

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy: Archaeology, Culture, History, Literature

4988: 3993:

Bunbury, J.; Gajewski, K.; Weston, L. H.; Blackburn, L. R.; Lewis, L. L. (2008).

690:. Other processes recorded in the Bona-Churchill ice cores are dust emissions in 5735: 5667: 5514: 4861: 4542: 4379:"Facies analysis of a pumiceous terrace beside klutlan Glacier, Yukon Territory" 3879: 1855: 1853: 1851: 1849: 1847: 1203: 1078: 1040: 969: 957: 822: 806: 789: 638:

until it melted and gave rise to the Mount Churchill magmas, which thus have an

635: 608: 600: 467: 5982:"Extending the Late Holocene White River Ash Distribution, Northwestern Canada" 5908:

Richter, D. H.; Preece, S. J.; Mcgimsey, R. G.; Westgate, J. A. (1 June 1995).

4967:

Lowe, David J. (April 2011). "Tephrochronology and its application: A review".

4821:"Distribution, composition, and source of the White River Ash, Yukon Territory" 4615: 4504: 3942:"Modern pollen rain and vegetation of the St. Elias Mountains, Yukon Territory" 2271: 2269: 2212: 2210: 2208: 2156: 2154: 1688: 1686: 1556: 1554: 1552: 1550: 6628: 6143: 5079: 4941: 4749: 4684:

Jensen, B. J.; Froese, D. G.; Preece, S. J.; Westgate, J. A. (December 2006).

4326: 4300:

Davies, Lauren J.; Jensen, Britta J. L.; Kaufman, Darrell S. (11 March 2022).

3935:(Report). Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs. Vol. 34. 2758: 2756: 2015: 2013: 1440: 1438: 1408: 1406: 1355: 1353: 1351: 1349: 1347: 1345: 1343: 1341: 1339: 1260: 1139: 1021: 992: 777:

emplaced the eastern lobe ("Eastern White River Ash"). Both were very violent

746:

mountain may have looked very different before the White River Ash eruptions.

592: 584: 537: 463: 381:

and is also known as Klutlan Glacier, Churchill-Bona, or White River volcano.

310: 288: 19:

This article is about the mountain in Alaska. For the mountain in Canada, see

6604: 6472: 6260: 6227: 6194: 6005: 5941: 5767: 5486:

Payne, Richard; Blackford, Jeffrey; van der Plicht, Johannes (January 2008).

5317: 5276: 5161:"Quaternary volcanism in the Alaska Peninsula and Wrangell Mountains, Alaska" 5040: 4893: 4852: 4803: 4774: 4496: 4461: 4439: 4410: 4335: 4254: 4142: 3965: 2695: 2693: 2680: 2678: 2676: 2674: 2672: 2670: 2668: 2666: 1759: 1757: 1755: 106: 93: 6252: 6185: 5172: 5031: 4702:

Helen; Mallon, Gunnar; McColl, Lynsey; Pilcher, Jonathan R. (October 2014).

4487: 4377:

Donaldson, J. Allan; Guerstein, Pablo G.; Mueller, Wulf (1 September 1996).

3120: 3118: 2653: 2651: 2405: 2393: 1718: 1716: 1703: 1701: 1372: 1370: 1368: 1207: 1017: 914: 851: 829:. Closer to the US-Alaska border at the Klutlan Glacier it thickens to form 826: 604: 483: 390: 296: 6498: 5099:

Athapaskans and Migrations: The Archaeology of Eagle Lake, British Columbia

4062:

Thin Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of Climate in the World's Highest Mountains

4052: 2833: 2831: 1571: 1569: 888:

in Alaska, and particles from it have been detected as far as the northern

5309: 5131: 4654: 4212: 4180: 3482: 3480: 2288: 2286: 2284: 1909: 1907: 6093: 5855: 5646: 5293: 4922: 996: 934: 788:

Deposits from the eruption were first discovered in 1883 along the upper

769:("Northern White River Ash"), the better known second eruption in winter 695: 671: 656: 639: 596: 529: 507: 475: 333: 6612: 6596: 6580: 6480: 6460: 6013: 5981: 5294:"An Archaeological Test of the Effects of the White River Ash Eruptions" 5235: 4782: 4758: 4453: 4262: 4238: 4150: 4134: 4118: 1301:

Whose language probably began developing around the time of the eruption

6329: 6307: 6021:

Scott, William E. (2003). "Quaternary volcanism in the United States".

5997: 5892: 5696: 5196: 5106: 3764: 3762: 1661: 1659: 1610: 1608: 1275:

Erosion caused by the volcanic events may have led to the discovery of

1000: 961: 949:. The eastern White River Ash has a color ranging from white to beige. 930: 855: 612: 588: 580: 573: 533: 521: 510: 499: 434: 402: 292: 211: 6489: 6428:"Late Holocene glacier fluctuations in the Wrangell Mountains, Alaska" 5910:"Mount Churchill, Alaska: source of the late Holocene White River Ash" 5284: 5252: 5167:, Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America, pp. 759–779, 4996: 4101: 4034: 2345: 2081: 2079: 1928: 1926: 1924: 1922: 389:. The mountain is mostly covered by ice hundreds of meters thick, but 6562: 6366: 5145: 4727: 3973:

Bond, Jeffrey David; MacGregor, Dylan B.; Lipovsky, Panya S. (2001).

3594: 3510: 3399: 2227: 2225: 1786: 1784: 1498: 1496: 1494: 1276: 1124: 1106: 1045: 965: 742: 449:. Ice on Mount Churchill is up to 800, and possibly 1500, years old. 406: 394: 370: 304: 300: 284: 158: 57: 6219: 6122: 5933: 5759: 4885: 4844: 4402: 3957: 3933:

Stratigraphic displacement of a tephra bed in organic lake sediments

3264: 3249: 5268: 2735: 2417: 5535: 4193: 3387: 3351: 3312: 3237: 1127:. Smaller eruptions could threaten the White River valley and the 1032: 1012: 1008: 981: 691: 666:

The ice cores record evidence of volcanic eruptions, including of

445:. Glaciers on the southern flank of Mount Bona discharge into the 438: 5963:

Alaska's Skyboys: Cowboy Pilots and the Myth of the Last Frontier

5253:"Northern Athapaskan Oral Traditions and the White River Volcano" 4757:

Kristensen, Todd J.; Beaudoin, Alwynne B.; Ives, John W. (2020).

3105: 3103: 1859: 1193:

Sometimes its elevation is given as 5,029 metres (16,499 ft)

792:. After Mount Wrangell had been ruled out as its source in 1892, 397:

deposits form outcrops, indicating that Mount Churchill may be a

3288: 3276: 3042: 3040: 3038: 2539: 2537: 1004: 988: 830: 711: 675: 3300: 2602: 2600: 2244: 2242: 2240: 1537: 1535: 513:; most of Mount Bona may be formed by these nonvolcanic rocks. 5949:

Richter, D. H.; Rosenkrans, D. S.; Steigerwald, M. J. (1995).

3324: 1412: 1393: 1391: 1389: 1387: 1385: 1089: 774: 770: 426: 346: 342: 4537:, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 145–161, 3605: 3603: 2453: 2429: 2357: 2216: 2199: 2133: 2019: 2004: 1826: 1692: 1560: 1444: 1359: 972:, south-central Alaska, southeastern Alaska and the adjacent 361:

The mountain is in the University Mountains sub-range of the

6492:(Report). U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005-1342. 3741: 3005: 2762: 2591: 2567: 2555: 2528: 2275: 2172: 2160: 1775: 1626: 1376: 6452:

10.1130/0016-7606(2002)114<0896:LHGFIT>2.0.CO;2

5251:

Moodie, D. Wayne; Catchpole, A. J. W.; Abel, Kerry (1992).

5202:(Report). U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 894. p. 137. 4704:"Transatlantic distribution of the Alaskan White River Ash" 2145: 1763: 1746: 1677: 1650: 1028:

populations would have recovered within a short timeframe.

5705:

ultra-distal Holocene tephrochronology in North America".

3148: 2465: 2328: 2183: 2181: 1980: 1870: 1868: 1599: 1088:

The eruption produced sulfate aerosols, which can dim the

5826:

10.1130/0016-7606(1971)82[959:LQVACH]2.0.CO;2

3729: 3717: 3705: 3693: 3681: 3669: 3184: 3124: 2699: 2684: 2657: 2516: 2292: 2031: 1956: 1913: 1886: 1722: 1707: 1575: 710:

cover. Shallow ice and snow has been used to reconstruct

5097:

Matson, R. G.; Magne, Martin Paul Robert (31 May 2003).

3221: 3219: 3217: 2837: 1665: 1162:

The value of 5,005 metres (16,421 ft) given by the

540:

terranes, Chugach, Prince William and most recently the

5197:

Geology of the Chitina Valley and adjacent area, Alaska

3582: 3558: 3546: 3534: 3498: 3486: 3447: 3435: 3411: 2747: 4862:"The White River Ash: largest Holocene Plinian tephra" 3840: 3645: 3471: 3363: 3336: 3208: 3070: 3029: 2618: 2476: 2474: 2097: 2085: 1932: 626:

left over from the subduction may have stalled in the

498:

under Mount Bona is formed by a plateau consisting of

462:, which are among the largest arc volcanoes on Earth. 441:

deposits. Both glaciers eventually discharge into the

295:

just east of its summit. There are sparse outcrops of

3828: 2798: 2042: 2040: 4819:

Lerbekmo, J. F.; Campbell, F. A. (1 February 1969).

3780: 3768: 1790: 1614: 929:; ash fell more than a thousand kilometers away and 42:

U.S. Geological Survey climbing party ascending the

6345:

OhioLINK Electronic Theses and Dissertations Center

5543:Plunkett, Gill; Pilcher, Jonathan R. (April 2018). 5380:, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 447–493, 4531:"The Decline of Social Control in the Pueblo World" 3657: 3522: 3082: 2579: 2231: 1092:and cause a cooling of Earth's climate, creating a 254: 244: 239: 229: 217: 201: 196: 183: 169: 122: 83: 73: 56: 51: 30: 2121: 1425: 1423: 1421: 1135:ranks Mount Churchill as a "high threat" volcano. 516:Off the western coast of southeastern Alaska, the 250:August 20, 1951 by R. Gates, J. Lindberg 6272:. American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2004. 5591:. American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2017. 5459:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4688:. American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2006. 1469: 1467: 1465: 1175:About 90% of the area is covered by snow and ice. 825:and sometimes they are the detachment surface of 741:has yielded an age of 119,000±17,000 years for a 466:and other volcanoes in the WVF during the middle 425:and the United States in general. A snow-covered 5337:Nash, Stephen E.; Baxter, Erin L., eds. (2023). 3895:Bailey, Robert C.; Burn, Christopher R. (2023), 2921: 2774: 1734: 6347:(Doctoral dissertation). Ohio State University. 3423: 3375: 3109: 3017: 2543: 1202:The White River Ash has also been described as 560:while subduction continues farther west in the 6052:Sheets, Payson D.; Grayson, Donald K. (1979). 2260: 1587: 913:. It was more than twice the size of the 1912 365:of Alaska, 64 kilometres (40 mi) east of 6706:Wrangell–St. Elias National Park and Preserve 6656:Landforms of Copper River Census Area, Alaska 6521:Wood, Michael; Coombs, Colby (January 2001). 3046: 2606: 2504: 2248: 2058: 1802: 1541: 1526: 1397: 375:Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve 332:The volcano erupted several times during the 155:Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve 8: 6716:Monuments and memorials to Winston Churchill 6074:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 5635:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 5114:McClung, Lisa Coyle; Plunkett, Gill (2020). 4903:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 4936:. Cham: Springer International Publishing. 3094: 2454:Porter, Mosley-Thompson & Thompson 2019 2430:Porter, Mosley-Thompson & Thompson 2019 921:eruption and was ten times larger than the 721:block the maritime airmasses, leading to a 4646:A Theory of Northern Athapaskan Prehistory 3609: 2969: 2763:Richter, Rosenkrans & Steigerwald 1995 2592:Payne, Blackford & van der Plicht 2008 2568:Payne, Blackford & van der Plicht 2008 2316: 2304: 1968: 1944: 1638: 1514: 1456: 1377:Richter, Rosenkrans & Steigerwald 1995 1330: 892:in Alaska. The widespread "PWS tephra" in 482:Mount Churchill and Mount Bona consist of 64: 27: 6184: 5030: 4486: 4325: 4042: 3621: 1838: 1259:Where ash deposition is recorded through 1184:Derived presumably from the magma conduit 336:. The most notable eruptions are the two 16:Volcano in the St Elias Mountains, Alaska 6701:Volcanoes of Unorganized Borough, Alaska 6666:Mountains of Unorganized Borough, Alaska 5956:(Report). US Government Printing Office. 5378:The Palgrave Handbook of Climate History 4117:Bunbury, Joan; Gajewski, Konrad (2013). 3753: 3160: 2981: 2897: 2849: 2723: 2369: 2187: 2070: 1874: 714:composition at the St. Elias Mountains. 329:, left over by the previous subduction. 5068:Mantell, C. L.; Mantell, A. M. (1976). 3570: 3459: 2957: 2945: 2885: 2873: 2786: 2441: 1887:Donaldson, Guerstein & Mueller 1996 1723:Donaldson, Guerstein & Mueller 1996 1708:Donaldson, Guerstein & Mueller 1996 1323: 1155: 1035:was depopulated by the eruption. Local 846:to obtain dates for natural events and 583:suite. There is a moderate quantity of 474:are the only volcanoes in the WVF with 141: 6432:Geological Society of America Bulletin 6374:West, K. D.; Donaldson, J. A. (2001). 5814:Geological Society of America Bulletin 5292:Mullen, Patrick O. (6 February 2012). 4738:Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 3792: 3633: 3225: 3196: 3172: 2630: 1814: 1085:, bringing their languages with them. 6235:Szykulski, Józef (3 September 2021). 5961:Ringsmuth, Katherine Johnson (2015). 4432:10.1061/(ASCE)1527-6988(2007)8:4(112) 3940:Birks, H. J. B. (15 September 1977). 3816: 3804: 3583:Kristensen, Ives & Supernant 2021 3559:Kristensen, Ives & Supernant 2021 3547:Kristensen, Ives & Supernant 2021 3535:Kristensen, Ives & Supernant 2021 3499:Kristensen, Ives & Supernant 2021 3487:Kristensen, Ives & Supernant 2021 3448:Kristensen, Ives & Supernant 2021 3436:Kristensen, Ives & Supernant 2021 3412:Kristensen, Ives & Supernant 2021 2993: 2933: 2909: 2861: 2822: 2810: 2748:Kristensen, Ives & Supernant 2021 2642: 2381: 1229:Between September 852 and January 853 1024:and other fish populations, although 968:and Greenland. Other findings are in 797:(210,000 sq mi) in Alaska, 682:, and of climate variations like the 7: 6681:Stratovolcanoes of the United States 4535:The Bioarchaeology of Social Control 3472:Kristensen, Beaudoin & Ives 2020 3209:Kristensen, Beaudoin & Ives 2020 3136: 3071:Kristensen, Beaudoin & Ives 2020 3058: 3030:Kristensen, Beaudoin & Ives 2020 2492: 2480: 2109: 1898: 528:, giving rise to the WVF. Since the 6054:Volcanic activity and human ecology 6023:Developments in Quaternary Sciences 3829:Ewert, Diefenbach & Ramsey 2018 2799:Bond, MacGregor & Lipovsky 2001 2711: 2046: 1992: 1502: 1485: 1473: 1429: 494:, now exposed through erosion. The 62:4,744 m (15,564 ft) 6165:Atmospheric Measurement Techniques 5965:. University of Washington Press. 5914:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 5740:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 4866:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 4825:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 4383:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 3909:10.1016/b978-0-12-818847-7.00023-9 3781:Stasiuk, Hickson & Mulder 2003 3769:Stasiuk, Hickson & Mulder 2003 1144:2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull 21:Mount Churchill (British Columbia) 14: 3658:Moodie, Catchpole & Abel 1992 3523:Moodie, Catchpole & Abel 1992 3083:Moodie, Catchpole & Abel 1992 2580:Davies, Jensen & Kaufman 2022 2232:Davies, Jensen & Kaufman 2022 1283:area, as stated by oral tradition 850:from Alaska and Yukon as well as 6208:Canadian Journal of Soil Science 6111:Canadian Journal of Soil Science 5734:Rampton, Vern (1 October 1970). 5374:"The Climate Downturn of 536–50" 5341:. University Press of Colorado. 1791:Holdsworth & Roy Krouse 2002 1133:United States Geological Service 568:Composition and origin of magmas 140: 133: 36: 6465:Canadian Journal of Archaeology 5727:10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.07.024 5626:10.1016/j.quascirev.2022.107936 5572:10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.02.006 4567:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 4365:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.107139 4293:10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.05.026 923:1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo 854:(correlation of ice cores) and 421:and the highest volcano in the 4632:Alaska Journal of Anthropology 4060:Bowen, Mark (3 October 2006). 3903:, Elsevier, pp. 714–745, 866:casualties from the eruption; 817:, in riverbanks of the Yukon, 1: 6543:Journal of Quaternary Science 6383:Yukon Exploration and Geology 6355:Journal of Quaternary Science 6035:10.1016/S1571-0866(03)01016-9 5980:Robinson, Stephen D. (2001). 5435:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2021.120157 4860:Lerbekmo, J. F. (June 2008). 4643:Ives, John W. (20 May 2019). 4623:Holloway, Caitlin R. (2020). 4002:Yukon Exploration and Geology 1666:Natural Resources Canada 2009 1488:, Synonyms & Subfeatures. 1166:actually refers to Mount Bona 1061:across the continent. By the 287:. Churchill and its neighbor 6413:10.1016/j.quaint.2007.03.009 6056:. New York: Academic Press. 5797:10.1016/0033-5894(78)90017-0 5479:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.03.031 5386:10.1057/978-1-137-43020-5_32 4989:10.1016/j.quageo.2010.08.003 4792:North American Archaeologist 4587:10.1016/0016-7037(94)90052-3 3931:Beierle, Brandon D. (2002). 2922:Lerbekmo & Campbell 1969 2775:Lerbekmo & Campbell 1969 2406:Sierra-Hernández et al. 2022 2394:Sierra-Hernández et al. 2022 1735:Donaldson & Mueller 1994 1057:expansion and spreading the 5668:10.1016/j.tecto.2004.04.011 5515:10.1016/j.yqres.2007.10.007 5074:. Boston, MA: Springer US. 4543:10.1007/978-3-319-59516-0_9 3880:10.1016/j.yqres.2009.10.007 3424:Bunbury & Gajewski 2013 3376:Plunkett & Pilcher 2018 3110:Bunbury & Gajewski 2013 3018:McClung & Plunkett 2020 2544:Plunkett & Pilcher 2018 1112:Late Antique Little Ice Age 805:. The present-day towns of 490:is a 8.4 million years old 393:with columnar jointing and 357:Geography and geomorphology 46:en route to Mount Churchill 6732: 6525:. The Mountaineers Books. 6461:"An Athabaskan Hypothesis" 5707:Quaternary Science Reviews 5606:Quaternary Science Reviews 4616:10.3189/172756502781831638 4345:Quaternary Science Reviews 4273:Quaternary Science Reviews 4064:. Henry Holt and Company. 3946:Canadian Journal of Botany 3250:Pyne-O'Donnell et al. 2012 2384:, Alaska's Bona-Churchill. 1588:Mantell & Mantell 1976 1083:southwestern United States 783:volcanic explosivity index 729:falls on Mount Churchill. 385:tenth-highest peak in the 373:. The area is part of the 79:1,188 ft (362 m) 18: 5080:10.1007/978-1-4684-0754-9 4942:10.1007/978-3-319-09300-0 4750:10.1016/j.jaa.2019.101114 4649:(1 ed.). Routledge. 4327:10.5194/gchron-4-121-2022 4239:"Walking into New Worlds" 3047:Sheets & Grayson 1979 2607:Sheets & Grayson 1979 2505:Miller & Richter 1994 2249:West & Donaldson 2001 2059:Miller & Richter 1994 1803:Miller & Richter 1994 1542:Sheets & Grayson 1979 1527:Miller & Richter 1994 1398:West & Donaldson 2001 911:1883 eruption of Krakatau 761:White River Ash eruptions 698:in Alaska, North Pacific 127: 35: 6711:Holocene stratovolcanoes 6523:Alaska: A Climbing Guide 6459:Wilmeth, Roscoe (1979). 6393:Quaternary International 5361:Natural Resources Canada 5071:Our Fragile Water Planet 4969:Quaternary Geochronology 4804:10.1177/0197693120986822 4529:Harrod, Ryan P. (2017), 4510:Global Volcanism Program 1164:Global Volcanism Program 1096:. The sulfur yield, 2.5 1063:arrival of the Europeans 879:Northern White River Ash 700:sea surface temperatures 6253:10.23858/PA69.2021.2402 6241:Przegląd Archeologiczny 6186:10.5194/amt-8-2069-2015 6144:10.1023/A:1022954829974 5873:Bulletin of Volcanology 5173:10.1130/dnag-gna-g1.759 5032:10.5194/cp-18-1475-2022 4515:Smithsonian Institution 4488:10.5194/tc-17-4007-2023 3901:Rivers of North America 3095:Matson & Magne 2003 1065:, Athabaskans like the 901:Eastern White River Ash 423:Wrangell volcanic field 281:Wrangell Volcanic Field 224:Wrangell Volcanic Field 192:McCarthy B-2 Quadrangle 4420:Natural Hazards Review 4237:Coates, Karen (2020). 3610:Nash & Baxter 2023 3595:Kristensen et al. 2019 3511:Kristensen et al. 2019 3400:Kristensen et al. 2019 2970:Bailey & Burn 2023 2317:Preece & Hart 2004 2305:Preece & Hart 2004 2134:Strickland et al. 2005 1969:Preece & Hart 2004 1945:Preece & Hart 2004 1639:Preece & Hart 2004 1515:Wood & Coombs 2001 1505:, General Information. 1457:Wood & Coombs 2001 1331:Wood & Coombs 2001 1114:) has been ruled out. 739:Potassium-argon dating 107:61.41917°N 141.71528°W 6676:Saint Elias Mountains 5552:Earth-Science Reviews 5310:10.1353/arc.2012.0013 5195:Moffit, F.H. (1938). 5165:The Geology of Alaska 5132:10.1353/ria.2020.0014 4655:10.4324/9780429044212 4596:Journal of Glaciology 4213:10.4324/9781003027461 4204:Applied Geomorphology 4181:10.3189/2012JoG10J238 4161:Journal of Glaciology 3672:, pp. 1477–1478. 3388:Stevenson et al. 2015 3325:Zdanowicz et al. 2014 3265:Patterson et al. 2017 803:Northwest Territories 727:snow water equivalent 651:Ice cores and climate 363:Saint Elias Mountains 277:Saint Elias Mountains 178:Saint Elias Mountains 6686:Subduction volcanoes 6094:10.1029/2021JD035668 5856:10.1017/RDC.2019.110 5647:10.1029/2019JD031023 4923:10.1029/2023JB027617 3742:Plunkett et al. 2023 3006:Plunkett et al. 2023 2736:Monteath et al. 2017 2529:Plunkett et al. 2023 2519:, pp. 766, 768. 2466:Westgate et al. 2008 2358:Campbell et al. 2012 2346:Thompson et al. 2004 2329:Westgate et al. 2008 2146:McGimsey et al. 1992 1957:Brueseke et al. 2019 1860:McGimsey et al. 1995 1764:McGimsey et al. 1992 1747:McGimsey et al. 1992 1678:McGimsey et al. 1992 1651:McGimsey et al. 1992 1600:Westgate et al. 2008 999:would have impacted 937:precipitated in the 894:Prince William Sound 848:archaeological sites 684:Medieval Warm Period 630:, and was heated by 572:Churchill rocks are 548:now occurring along 526:North American Plate 112:61.41917; -141.71528 6696:Volcanoes of Alaska 6661:Mountains of Alaska 6597:10.14430/arctic4352 6555:2013JQS....28..761Z 6444:2002GSAB..114..896W 6405:2008QuInt.178..183W 6337:Urmann, D. (2009). 6300:2022Geosp..18...19T 6278:2004AGUFMPP23C..05T 6177:2015AMT.....8.2069S 6086:2022JGRD..12735668S 5926:1995CaJES..32..741R 5885:1990BVol...53...29R 5848:2020Radcb..62..169R 5789:1978QuRes..10..130R 5777:Quaternary Research 5752:1970CaJES...7.1236R 5719:2012QSRv...52....6P 5689:2014Geosp..10.1020P 5641:(20): 10784–10801. 5618:2023QSRv..30107936P 5597:2017AGUFM.A42B..02P 5564:2018ESRv..179...20P 5507:2008QuRes..69...42P 5495:Quaternary Research 5471:2017PPP...477....1P 5427:2021ChGeo.57020157P 5298:Arctic Anthropology 5236:10.1017/qua.2017.38 5228:2017QuRes..88..169M 5216:Quaternary Research 5023:2022CliPa..18.1475M 5011:Climate of the Past 4981:2011QuGeo...6..107L 4915:2024JGRB..12927617L 4878:2008CaJES..45..693L 4837:1969CaJES...6..109L 4720:2014Geo....42..875J 4694:2006AGUFM.V33B0662J 4608:2002JGlac..48...31H 4579:1994GeCoA..58.3245H 4454:10.3133/sir20185140 4395:1996CaJES..33.1233D 4357:2021QSRv..26807139D 4318:2022GeChr...4..121D 4285:2016QSRv..146...28D 4173:2012JGlac..58...99C 4135:10.14430/arctic4262 4094:2019TeNov..31...59B 4027:2016NatSR...629837B 3897:"Yukon River Basin" 3872:2010QuRes..73..277A 3860:Quaternary Research 3646:Addison et al. 2010 3337:Addison et al. 2010 3185:Reuther et al. 2020 3125:Reuther et al. 2020 2838:Lollino et al. 2015 2714:, Eruptive History. 2658:Reuther et al. 2020 2619:Addison et al. 2010 2372:, pp. 693–694. 2217:Richter et al. 1995 2200:Richter et al. 1995 2020:Richter et al. 1990 2005:Richter et al. 1990 1827:Richter et al. 1990 1693:Richter et al. 1995 1561:Richter et al. 1995 1445:Richter et al. 1995 1413:Bunbury et al. 2008 1360:Richter et al. 1995 1292:Possibly also north 1279:in the White River- 1073:had spread between 939:Greenland Ice Sheet 755:southeastern Alaska 723:continental climate 706:weather system and 562:Aleutian megathrust 319:southeastern Alaska 103: / 6330:10.1130/GES00762.1 6308:10.1130/GES02417.1 5998:10.14430/arctic775 5893:10.1007/BF00680318 5697:10.1130/GES00953.1 5107:10.14288/1.0363461 5055:. 31 December 1981 4015:Scientific Reports 3841:Bourne et al. 2016 3730:Mackay et al. 2022 3718:Mackay et al. 2022 3706:Mackay et al. 2022 3694:Mackay et al. 2022 3682:Mackay et al. 2022 3670:Mackay et al. 2022 3364:Bourne et al. 2016 3352:Jensen et al. 2014 3313:Jensen et al. 2014 3301:Watson et al. 2017 3238:Jensen et al. 2014 3149:Wilbur et al. 1991 2700:Mackay et al. 2022 2685:Mackay et al. 2022 2556:Preece et al. 2014 2517:Zander et al. 2013 2418:Porter et al. 2017 2293:Davies et al. 2016 2276:Preece et al. 2014 2173:Preece et al. 2014 2161:Preece et al. 2014 2098:Wilson et al. 2005 2086:Wilson et al. 2005 1981:Jensen et al. 2006 1933:Wilson et al. 2005 1776:Preece et al. 2014 1627:Preece et al. 2014 886:stratigraphic unit 823:formation of soils 811:Whitehorse, Canada 702:, position of the 634:flowing through a 550:strike-slip faults 492:volcanic intrusion 419:Wrangell Mountains 235:700 AD ± 200 years 52:Highest point 6671:Dormant volcanoes 6629:"Mount Churchill" 6532:978-0-89886-724-4 6497:Winkler, Gary R. 6063:978-0-12-639120-6 6044:978-0-444-51470-7 5395:978-1-137-43019-9 5357:"Mount Churchill" 5348:978-1-64642-362-0 5182:978-0-8137-5219-8 5089:978-1-4684-0756-3 5053:USGS National Map 4951:978-3-319-09299-7 4664:978-0-429-04421-2 4573:(15): 3245–3254. 4552:978-3-319-59515-3 4222:978-1-003-02746-1 4102:10.1111/ter.12369 4071:978-1-4299-3270-7 4035:10.1038/srep29837 3952:(18): 2367–2382. 3918:978-0-12-818847-7 3474:, pp. 18–19. 3289:Paine et al. 2021 3277:Paine et al. 2021 2261:Liang et al. 2024 2122:Smith et al. 1999 1576:Wiles et al. 2002 1059:Na-Dene languages 909:eruption and the 868:pyroclastic flows 779:Plinian eruptions 719:Chugach Mountains 661:Pacific Northwest 558:Totschunda Faults 532:, seven separate 379:Winston Churchill 351:Athabaskan people 283:(WVF) of eastern 266: 265: 6723: 6642: 6640: 6639: 6616: 6574: 6563:10.1002/jqs.2671 6536: 6517: 6515: 6513: 6503: 6493: 6484: 6455: 6422: 6416: 6386: 6380: 6370: 6367:10.1002/jqs.2945 6348: 6333: 6311: 6281: 6264: 6231: 6198: 6188: 6171:(5): 2069–2091. 6155: 6138:(2/3): 563–589. 6126: 6105: 6067: 6048: 6017: 5976: 5957: 5955: 5945: 5904: 5867: 5829: 5808: 5771: 5746:(5): 1236–1263. 5730: 5700: 5683:(5): 1020–1042. 5671: 5662:(1–4): 165–191. 5650: 5629: 5600: 5583: 5549: 5539: 5526: 5492: 5482: 5456: 5446: 5415:Chemical Geology 5404: 5403: 5402: 5368: 5363:. Archived from 5352: 5333: 5288: 5247: 5213: 5203: 5201: 5191: 5190: 5189: 5155: 5149: 5146:10.3133/70180193 5135: 5110: 5093: 5064: 5062: 5060: 5044: 5034: 5017:(6): 1475–1508. 5000: 4963: 4926: 4897: 4856: 4815: 4786: 4753: 4731: 4728:10.1130/G35945.1 4697: 4680: 4639: 4629: 4619: 4590: 4561: 4560: 4559: 4525: 4523: 4521: 4500: 4490: 4481:(9): 4007–4020. 4465: 4443: 4414: 4389:(9): 1233–1242. 4373: 4368: 4339: 4329: 4296: 4266: 4233: 4197: 4184: 4154: 4113: 4075: 4056: 4046: 4005: 3999: 3989: 3987: 3985: 3979: 3969: 3936: 3927: 3926: 3925: 3891: 3844: 3838: 3832: 3826: 3820: 3814: 3808: 3802: 3796: 3790: 3784: 3778: 3772: 3766: 3757: 3751: 3745: 3739: 3733: 3727: 3721: 3715: 3709: 3703: 3697: 3691: 3685: 3679: 3673: 3667: 3661: 3655: 3649: 3643: 3637: 3631: 3625: 3619: 3613: 3607: 3598: 3592: 3586: 3580: 3574: 3568: 3562: 3556: 3550: 3544: 3538: 3532: 3526: 3520: 3514: 3508: 3502: 3496: 3490: 3484: 3475: 3469: 3463: 3457: 3451: 3445: 3439: 3433: 3427: 3421: 3415: 3409: 3403: 3397: 3391: 3385: 3379: 3373: 3367: 3361: 3355: 3349: 3340: 3334: 3328: 3322: 3316: 3310: 3304: 3298: 3292: 3286: 3280: 3274: 3268: 3262: 3253: 3247: 3241: 3235: 3229: 3223: 3212: 3206: 3200: 3194: 3188: 3182: 3176: 3170: 3164: 3158: 3152: 3146: 3140: 3134: 3128: 3122: 3113: 3107: 3098: 3092: 3086: 3080: 3074: 3068: 3062: 3056: 3050: 3044: 3033: 3027: 3021: 3015: 3009: 3003: 2997: 2991: 2985: 2979: 2973: 2967: 2961: 2955: 2949: 2943: 2937: 2931: 2925: 2919: 2913: 2907: 2901: 2895: 2889: 2883: 2877: 2871: 2865: 2859: 2853: 2847: 2841: 2835: 2826: 2820: 2814: 2808: 2802: 2796: 2790: 2784: 2778: 2772: 2766: 2760: 2751: 2745: 2739: 2733: 2727: 2721: 2715: 2709: 2703: 2697: 2688: 2682: 2661: 2655: 2646: 2640: 2634: 2628: 2622: 2616: 2610: 2604: 2595: 2589: 2583: 2577: 2571: 2565: 2559: 2553: 2547: 2541: 2532: 2526: 2520: 2514: 2508: 2502: 2496: 2490: 2484: 2478: 2469: 2463: 2457: 2456:, p. 10786. 2451: 2445: 2439: 2433: 2432:, p. 10797. 2427: 2421: 2415: 2409: 2403: 2397: 2391: 2385: 2379: 2373: 2367: 2361: 2355: 2349: 2343: 2332: 2326: 2320: 2314: 2308: 2302: 2296: 2290: 2279: 2273: 2264: 2258: 2252: 2246: 2235: 2229: 2220: 2214: 2203: 2197: 2191: 2185: 2176: 2170: 2164: 2158: 2149: 2143: 2137: 2131: 2125: 2119: 2113: 2107: 2101: 2095: 2089: 2083: 2074: 2068: 2062: 2056: 2050: 2044: 2035: 2032:Trop et al. 2022 2029: 2023: 2017: 2008: 2002: 1996: 1990: 1984: 1978: 1972: 1966: 1960: 1954: 1948: 1942: 1936: 1930: 1917: 1914:Trop et al. 2022 1911: 1902: 1896: 1890: 1884: 1878: 1872: 1863: 1857: 1842: 1836: 1830: 1824: 1818: 1812: 1806: 1800: 1794: 1788: 1779: 1773: 1767: 1761: 1750: 1744: 1738: 1732: 1726: 1720: 1711: 1705: 1696: 1690: 1681: 1675: 1669: 1663: 1654: 1648: 1642: 1636: 1630: 1624: 1618: 1615:Fang et al. 2023 1612: 1603: 1597: 1591: 1585: 1579: 1573: 1564: 1558: 1545: 1539: 1530: 1524: 1518: 1512: 1506: 1500: 1489: 1483: 1477: 1471: 1460: 1454: 1448: 1442: 1433: 1427: 1416: 1410: 1401: 1395: 1380: 1374: 1363: 1357: 1334: 1328: 1311: 1308: 1302: 1299: 1293: 1290: 1284: 1273: 1267: 1265:Kletno Bear Cave 1257: 1251: 1248: 1242: 1236: 1230: 1227: 1221: 1217: 1211: 1200: 1194: 1191: 1185: 1182: 1176: 1173: 1167: 1160: 1075:subarctic Canada 947:Great Bear Lakes 844:tephrochronology 733:Eruption history 460:shield volcanoes 431:Klutlan Glaciers 367:McCarthy, Alaska 258: 173: 144: 143: 137: 118: 117: 115: 114: 113: 108: 104: 101: 100: 99: 96: 69: 68: 40: 28: 6731: 6730: 6726: 6725: 6724: 6722: 6721: 6720: 6691:VEI-6 volcanoes 6646: 6645: 6637: 6635: 6627: 6624: 6619: 6577: 6539: 6533: 6520: 6511: 6509: 6501: 6496: 6487: 6458: 6425: 6419: 6389: 6378: 6373: 6351: 6336: 6314: 6284: 6267: 6234: 6220:10.4141/S05-001 6201: 6158: 6132:Natural Hazards 6129: 6123:10.4141/S98-066 6108: 6070: 6064: 6051: 6045: 6020: 5979: 5973: 5960: 5953: 5948: 5934:10.1139/e95-063 5907: 5870: 5832: 5811: 5774: 5760:10.1139/e70-118 5733: 5703: 5674: 5653: 5632: 5603: 5586: 5547: 5542: 5529: 5490: 5485: 5454: 5449: 5407: 5400: 5398: 5396: 5371: 5367:on 8 June 2009. 5355: 5349: 5336: 5291: 5250: 5211: 5206: 5199: 5194: 5187: 5185: 5183: 5158: 5152: 5138: 5113: 5096: 5090: 5067: 5058: 5056: 5047: 5003: 4966: 4952: 4929: 4900: 4886:10.1139/E08-023 4859: 4845:10.1139/e69-011 4818: 4789: 4756: 4734: 4714:(10): 875–878. 4700: 4683: 4665: 4642: 4627: 4622: 4593: 4564: 4557: 4555: 4553: 4528: 4519: 4517: 4503: 4468: 4446: 4417: 4403:10.1139/e96-093 4376: 4371: 4342: 4299: 4269: 4236: 4223: 4200: 4187: 4167:(207): 99–109. 4157: 4116: 4078: 4072: 4059: 4008: 3997: 3992: 3983: 3981: 3977: 3972: 3958:10.1139/b77-270 3939: 3930: 3923: 3921: 3919: 3894: 3857: 3853: 3848: 3847: 3839: 3835: 3827: 3823: 3815: 3811: 3803: 3799: 3791: 3787: 3779: 3775: 3767: 3760: 3752: 3748: 3740: 3736: 3732:, p. 1486. 3728: 3724: 3720:, p. 1485. 3716: 3712: 3708:, p. 1490. 3704: 3700: 3696:, p. 1489. 3692: 3688: 3684:, p. 1482. 3680: 3676: 3668: 3664: 3656: 3652: 3644: 3640: 3632: 3628: 3620: 3616: 3608: 3601: 3593: 3589: 3581: 3577: 3569: 3565: 3557: 3553: 3545: 3541: 3533: 3529: 3521: 3517: 3509: 3505: 3497: 3493: 3485: 3478: 3470: 3466: 3458: 3454: 3446: 3442: 3434: 3430: 3422: 3418: 3410: 3406: 3398: 3394: 3390:, p. 2075. 3386: 3382: 3374: 3370: 3362: 3358: 3350: 3343: 3335: 3331: 3323: 3319: 3311: 3307: 3299: 3295: 3287: 3283: 3275: 3271: 3263: 3256: 3248: 3244: 3236: 3232: 3224: 3215: 3207: 3203: 3195: 3191: 3183: 3179: 3171: 3167: 3159: 3155: 3147: 3143: 3135: 3131: 3123: 3116: 3108: 3101: 3093: 3089: 3081: 3077: 3069: 3065: 3057: 3053: 3045: 3036: 3028: 3024: 3016: 3012: 3004: 3000: 2992: 2988: 2980: 2976: 2968: 2964: 2960:, p. 1249. 2956: 2952: 2948:, p. 1241. 2944: 2940: 2932: 2928: 2920: 2916: 2912:, p. 2371. 2908: 2904: 2896: 2892: 2884: 2880: 2872: 2868: 2860: 2856: 2848: 2844: 2836: 2829: 2821: 2817: 2809: 2805: 2797: 2793: 2785: 2781: 2773: 2769: 2761: 2754: 2746: 2742: 2734: 2730: 2722: 2718: 2710: 2706: 2702:, p. 1477. 2698: 2691: 2687:, p. 1476. 2683: 2664: 2656: 2649: 2641: 2637: 2629: 2625: 2617: 2613: 2605: 2598: 2590: 2586: 2578: 2574: 2566: 2562: 2558:, p. 1020. 2554: 2550: 2542: 2535: 2527: 2523: 2515: 2511: 2503: 2499: 2491: 2487: 2479: 2472: 2464: 2460: 2452: 2448: 2444:, p. 3246. 2440: 2436: 2428: 2424: 2416: 2412: 2404: 2400: 2392: 2388: 2380: 2376: 2368: 2364: 2356: 2352: 2344: 2335: 2327: 2323: 2315: 2311: 2303: 2299: 2291: 2282: 2278:, p. 1038. 2274: 2267: 2259: 2255: 2247: 2238: 2230: 2223: 2215: 2206: 2198: 2194: 2186: 2179: 2175:, p. 1027. 2171: 2167: 2163:, p. 1040. 2159: 2152: 2144: 2140: 2132: 2128: 2120: 2116: 2108: 2104: 2096: 2092: 2084: 2077: 2069: 2065: 2057: 2053: 2045: 2038: 2030: 2026: 2018: 2011: 2003: 1999: 1991: 1987: 1979: 1975: 1967: 1963: 1955: 1951: 1943: 1939: 1931: 1920: 1912: 1905: 1897: 1893: 1889:, p. 1235. 1885: 1881: 1873: 1866: 1858: 1845: 1837: 1833: 1825: 1821: 1813: 1809: 1801: 1797: 1789: 1782: 1778:, p. 1025. 1774: 1770: 1762: 1753: 1745: 1741: 1733: 1729: 1725:, p. 1241. 1721: 1714: 1710:, p. 1234. 1706: 1699: 1691: 1684: 1676: 1672: 1664: 1657: 1649: 1645: 1637: 1633: 1629:, p. 1039. 1625: 1621: 1617:, p. 4015. 1613: 1606: 1598: 1594: 1586: 1582: 1574: 1567: 1559: 1548: 1540: 1533: 1525: 1521: 1513: 1509: 1501: 1492: 1484: 1480: 1472: 1463: 1455: 1451: 1443: 1436: 1428: 1419: 1411: 1404: 1396: 1383: 1375: 1366: 1358: 1337: 1329: 1325: 1320: 1315: 1314: 1309: 1305: 1300: 1296: 1291: 1287: 1274: 1270: 1258: 1254: 1249: 1245: 1237: 1233: 1228: 1224: 1218: 1214: 1201: 1197: 1192: 1188: 1183: 1179: 1174: 1170: 1161: 1157: 1152: 1120: 1094:volcanic winter 1050:bows and arrows 1037:hunter-gatherer 1026:anadromous fish 903: 881: 863:eruption column 799:Yukon Territory 767:White River Ash 763: 751:Redoubt volcano 735: 653: 570: 506:-age rocks and 488:University Peak 455: 359: 338:White River Ash 273:dormant volcano 269:Mount Churchill 256: 171: 165: 164: 163: 162: 161: 152: 151: 150: 149: 148:Mount Churchill 145: 111: 109: 105: 102: 97: 94: 92: 90: 89: 63: 47: 44:Klutlan Glacier 31:Mount Churchill 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6729: 6727: 6719: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6688: 6683: 6678: 6673: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6648: 6647: 6644: 6643: 6623: 6622:External links 6620: 6618: 6617: 6575: 6549:(8): 761–771. 6537: 6531: 6518: 6494: 6485: 6456: 6438:(7): 896–908. 6423: 6417: 6399:(1): 183–209. 6387: 6371: 6361:(4): 457–462. 6349: 6334: 6312: 6282: 6265: 6232: 6214:(5): 637–648. 6199: 6156: 6127: 6117:(4): 603–613. 6106: 6068: 6062: 6049: 6043: 6018: 5992:(2): 157–161. 5977: 5971: 5958: 5946: 5920:(6): 741–748. 5905: 5868: 5842:(1): 169–188. 5830: 5809: 5783:(1): 130–134. 5772: 5731: 5701: 5672: 5656:Tectonophysics 5651: 5630: 5601: 5584: 5540: 5527: 5483: 5447: 5405: 5394: 5369: 5353: 5347: 5334: 5289: 5269:10.2307/482391 5263:(2): 148–171. 5248: 5222:(2): 169–178. 5204: 5192: 5181: 5156: 5150: 5136: 5126:(1): 129–158. 5111: 5094: 5088: 5065: 5045: 5001: 4975:(2): 107–153. 4964: 4950: 4927: 4898: 4872:(6): 693–700. 4857: 4831:(1): 109–116. 4816: 4798:(4): 425–472. 4787: 4769:(2): 153–186. 4754: 4732: 4698: 4681: 4663: 4640: 4620: 4602:(160): 31–41. 4591: 4562: 4551: 4526: 4501: 4475:The Cryosphere 4466: 4444: 4426:(4): 112–124. 4415: 4374: 4369: 4340: 4312:(1): 121–141. 4297: 4267: 4234: 4221: 4198: 4185: 4155: 4114: 4076: 4070: 4057: 4006: 3990: 3970: 3937: 3928: 3917: 3892: 3866:(2): 277–292. 3854: 3852: 3849: 3846: 3845: 3833: 3821: 3819:, p. 112. 3809: 3807:, p. 122. 3797: 3785: 3783:, p. 569. 3773: 3771:, p. 576. 3758: 3756:, p. 464. 3746: 3734: 3722: 3710: 3698: 3686: 3674: 3662: 3660:, p. 163. 3650: 3648:, p. 285. 3638: 3626: 3624:, p. 283. 3622:Szykulski 2021 3614: 3612:, p. 302. 3599: 3587: 3585:, p. 453. 3575: 3563: 3561:, p. 451. 3551: 3549:, p. 448. 3539: 3537:, p. 449. 3527: 3525:, p. 157. 3515: 3503: 3501:, p. 445. 3491: 3489:, p. 444. 3476: 3464: 3452: 3450:, p. 443. 3440: 3438:, p. 442. 3428: 3416: 3414:, p. 441. 3404: 3392: 3380: 3368: 3356: 3354:, p. 877. 3341: 3339:, p. 278. 3329: 3317: 3315:, p. 876. 3305: 3303:, p. 460. 3293: 3281: 3269: 3254: 3242: 3240:, p. 875. 3230: 3213: 3201: 3199:, p. 149. 3189: 3187:, p. 185. 3177: 3165: 3153: 3141: 3129: 3127:, p. 171. 3114: 3099: 3097:, p. 556. 3087: 3085:, p. 149. 3075: 3063: 3051: 3049:, p. 350. 3034: 3022: 3020:, p. 152. 3010: 2998: 2996:, p. 363. 2986: 2984:, p. 160. 2974: 2972:, p. 728. 2962: 2950: 2938: 2926: 2924:, p. 113. 2914: 2902: 2900:, p. 696. 2890: 2888:, p. 976. 2878: 2876:, p. 133. 2866: 2854: 2842: 2840:, p. 453. 2827: 2815: 2803: 2791: 2779: 2777:, p. 109. 2767: 2752: 2750:, p. 428. 2740: 2738:, p. 173. 2728: 2726:, p. 159. 2716: 2704: 2689: 2662: 2660:, p. 169. 2647: 2645:, p. 366. 2635: 2623: 2621:, p. 286. 2611: 2609:, p. 348. 2596: 2584: 2582:, p. 136. 2572: 2560: 2548: 2533: 2521: 2509: 2507:, p. 773. 2497: 2495:, p. 121. 2485: 2483:, p. 131. 2470: 2468:, p. 203. 2458: 2446: 2434: 2422: 2410: 2398: 2386: 2374: 2362: 2360:, p. 100. 2350: 2333: 2331:, p. 202. 2321: 2319:, p. 187. 2309: 2307:, p. 184. 2297: 2280: 2265: 2253: 2251:, p. 242. 2236: 2234:, p. 131. 2221: 2219:, p. 747. 2204: 2202:, p. 745. 2192: 2190:, p. 158. 2177: 2165: 2150: 2148:, p. 215. 2138: 2136:, p. 638. 2126: 2124:, p. 603. 2114: 2112:, p. 806. 2102: 2090: 2075: 2073:, p. 694. 2063: 2061:, p. 775. 2051: 2049:, p. 113. 2036: 2024: 2009: 1997: 1995:, p. 110. 1985: 1973: 1971:, p. 167. 1961: 1949: 1947:, p. 166. 1937: 1918: 1903: 1901:, p. 807. 1891: 1879: 1877:, p. 695. 1864: 1843: 1839:Ringsmuth 2015 1831: 1819: 1807: 1805:, p. 771. 1795: 1780: 1768: 1766:, p. 212. 1751: 1749:, p. 213. 1739: 1727: 1712: 1697: 1695:, p. 744. 1682: 1680:, p. 214. 1670: 1655: 1653:, p. 243. 1643: 1641:, p. 168. 1631: 1619: 1604: 1602:, p. 201. 1592: 1580: 1578:, p. 896. 1565: 1563:, p. 743. 1546: 1544:, p. 349. 1531: 1529:, p. 772. 1519: 1517:, p. 160. 1507: 1490: 1478: 1461: 1459:, p. 161. 1449: 1447:, p. 742. 1434: 1417: 1402: 1400:, p. 240. 1381: 1364: 1362:, p. 741. 1335: 1333:, p. 144. 1322: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1313: 1312: 1303: 1294: 1285: 1268: 1252: 1243: 1238:As far as the 1231: 1222: 1212: 1195: 1186: 1177: 1168: 1154: 1153: 1151: 1148: 1129:Alaska Highway 1119: 1116: 1102:Climate models 902: 899: 880: 877: 873:oral tradition 815:Alaska Highway 794:Mount Natazhat 762: 759: 734: 731: 708:Arctic sea ice 688:Little Ice Age 652: 649: 611:, with little 569: 566: 472:Mount Wrangell 454: 451: 409:with embedded 358: 355: 264: 263: 260: 252: 251: 248: 242: 241: 237: 236: 233: 227: 226: 221: 219:Volcanic field 215: 214: 205: 199: 198: 194: 193: 187: 181: 180: 175: 167: 166: 153: 147: 146: 139: 138: 132: 131: 130: 129: 128: 125: 124: 120: 119: 87: 81: 80: 77: 71: 70: 60: 54: 53: 49: 48: 41: 33: 32: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6728: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6692: 6689: 6687: 6684: 6682: 6679: 6677: 6674: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6654: 6653: 6651: 6634: 6630: 6626: 6625: 6621: 6614: 6610: 6606: 6602: 6598: 6594: 6590: 6586: 6582: 6576: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6548: 6544: 6538: 6534: 6528: 6524: 6519: 6507: 6500: 6495: 6491: 6486: 6482: 6478: 6474: 6470: 6466: 6462: 6457: 6453: 6449: 6445: 6441: 6437: 6433: 6429: 6424: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6394: 6388: 6384: 6377: 6372: 6368: 6364: 6360: 6356: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6341: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6313: 6309: 6305: 6301: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6283: 6279: 6275: 6271: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6243:(in Polish). 6242: 6238: 6233: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6200: 6196: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6157: 6153: 6149: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6128: 6124: 6120: 6116: 6112: 6107: 6103: 6099: 6095: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6079: 6075: 6069: 6065: 6059: 6055: 6050: 6046: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6019: 6015: 6011: 6007: 6003: 5999: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5983: 5978: 5974: 5972:9780295995083 5968: 5964: 5959: 5952: 5947: 5943: 5939: 5935: 5931: 5927: 5923: 5919: 5915: 5911: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5878: 5874: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5831: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5815: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5786: 5782: 5778: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5732: 5728: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5708: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5682: 5678: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5636: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5607: 5602: 5598: 5594: 5590: 5585: 5581: 5577: 5573: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5546: 5541: 5537: 5536:10.3133/pp862 5533: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5489: 5484: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5453: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5406: 5397: 5391: 5387: 5383: 5379: 5375: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5354: 5350: 5344: 5340: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5290: 5286: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5217: 5210: 5205: 5198: 5193: 5184: 5178: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5157: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5112: 5108: 5104: 5100: 5095: 5091: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5073: 5072: 5066: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5033: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4965: 4961: 4957: 4953: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4934: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4647: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4626: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4592: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4563: 4554: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4527: 4516: 4512: 4511: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4489: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4375: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4306:Geochronology 4303: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4235: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4207:, Routledge, 4206: 4205: 4199: 4195: 4194:10.3133/pp95D 4191: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4077: 4073: 4067: 4063: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4045: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4007: 4003: 3996: 3991: 3976: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3938: 3934: 3929: 3920: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3856: 3855: 3850: 3842: 3837: 3834: 3830: 3825: 3822: 3818: 3813: 3810: 3806: 3801: 3798: 3795:, p. 35. 3794: 3789: 3786: 3782: 3777: 3774: 3770: 3765: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3754:Newfield 2018 3750: 3747: 3744:, p. 12. 3743: 3738: 3735: 3731: 3726: 3723: 3719: 3714: 3711: 3707: 3702: 3699: 3695: 3690: 3687: 3683: 3678: 3675: 3671: 3666: 3663: 3659: 3654: 3651: 3647: 3642: 3639: 3636:, p. 42. 3635: 3630: 3627: 3623: 3618: 3615: 3611: 3606: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3591: 3588: 3584: 3579: 3576: 3573:, p. 35. 3572: 3567: 3564: 3560: 3555: 3552: 3548: 3543: 3540: 3536: 3531: 3528: 3524: 3519: 3516: 3513:, p. 15. 3512: 3507: 3504: 3500: 3495: 3492: 3488: 3483: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3468: 3465: 3461: 3456: 3453: 3449: 3444: 3441: 3437: 3432: 3429: 3426:, p. 29. 3425: 3420: 3417: 3413: 3408: 3405: 3402:, p. 13. 3401: 3396: 3393: 3389: 3384: 3381: 3378:, p. 20. 3377: 3372: 3369: 3365: 3360: 3357: 3353: 3348: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3333: 3330: 3327:, p. 48. 3326: 3321: 3318: 3314: 3309: 3306: 3302: 3297: 3294: 3290: 3285: 3282: 3278: 3273: 3270: 3266: 3261: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3246: 3243: 3239: 3234: 3231: 3228:, p. 36. 3227: 3222: 3220: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3205: 3202: 3198: 3193: 3190: 3186: 3181: 3178: 3175:, p. 37. 3174: 3169: 3166: 3163:, p. 29. 3162: 3161:Holloway 2020 3157: 3154: 3150: 3145: 3142: 3139:, p. 19. 3138: 3133: 3130: 3126: 3121: 3119: 3115: 3112:, p. 18. 3111: 3106: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3091: 3088: 3084: 3079: 3076: 3073:, p. 17. 3072: 3067: 3064: 3061:, p. 43. 3060: 3055: 3052: 3048: 3043: 3041: 3039: 3035: 3032:, p. 21. 3031: 3026: 3023: 3019: 3014: 3011: 3007: 3002: 2999: 2995: 2990: 2987: 2983: 2982:Robinson 2001 2978: 2975: 2971: 2966: 2963: 2959: 2954: 2951: 2947: 2942: 2939: 2936:, p. 64. 2935: 2930: 2927: 2923: 2918: 2915: 2911: 2906: 2903: 2899: 2898:Lerbekmo 2008 2894: 2891: 2887: 2882: 2879: 2875: 2870: 2867: 2864:, p. 61. 2863: 2858: 2855: 2852:, p. 28. 2851: 2850:Holloway 2020 2846: 2843: 2839: 2834: 2832: 2828: 2825:, p. 60. 2824: 2819: 2816: 2813:, p. 59. 2812: 2807: 2804: 2801:, p. 25. 2800: 2795: 2792: 2788: 2783: 2780: 2776: 2771: 2768: 2765:, p. 27. 2764: 2759: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2744: 2741: 2737: 2732: 2729: 2725: 2724:Robinson 2001 2720: 2717: 2713: 2708: 2705: 2701: 2696: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2681: 2679: 2677: 2675: 2673: 2671: 2669: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2654: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2639: 2636: 2632: 2627: 2624: 2620: 2615: 2612: 2608: 2603: 2601: 2597: 2594:, p. 51. 2593: 2588: 2585: 2581: 2576: 2573: 2570:, p. 53. 2569: 2564: 2561: 2557: 2552: 2549: 2546:, p. 27. 2545: 2540: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2525: 2522: 2518: 2513: 2510: 2506: 2501: 2498: 2494: 2489: 2486: 2482: 2477: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2462: 2459: 2455: 2450: 2447: 2443: 2438: 2435: 2431: 2426: 2423: 2419: 2414: 2411: 2407: 2402: 2399: 2395: 2390: 2387: 2383: 2378: 2375: 2371: 2370:Lerbekmo 2008 2366: 2363: 2359: 2354: 2351: 2347: 2342: 2340: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2325: 2322: 2318: 2313: 2310: 2306: 2301: 2298: 2295:, p. 47. 2294: 2289: 2287: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2272: 2270: 2266: 2263:, p. 33. 2262: 2257: 2254: 2250: 2245: 2243: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2228: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2213: 2211: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2196: 2193: 2189: 2188:Robinson 2001 2184: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2169: 2166: 2162: 2157: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2142: 2139: 2135: 2130: 2127: 2123: 2118: 2115: 2111: 2106: 2103: 2099: 2094: 2091: 2087: 2082: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2071:Lerbekmo 2008 2067: 2064: 2060: 2055: 2052: 2048: 2043: 2041: 2037: 2034:, p. 41. 2033: 2028: 2025: 2022:, p. 42. 2021: 2016: 2014: 2010: 2007:, p. 40. 2006: 2001: 1998: 1994: 1989: 1986: 1982: 1977: 1974: 1970: 1965: 1962: 1959:, p. 61. 1958: 1953: 1950: 1946: 1941: 1938: 1934: 1929: 1927: 1925: 1923: 1919: 1916:, p. 37. 1915: 1910: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1895: 1892: 1888: 1883: 1880: 1876: 1875:Lerbekmo 2008 1871: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1856: 1854: 1852: 1850: 1848: 1844: 1841:, p. 12. 1840: 1835: 1832: 1829:, p. 29. 1828: 1823: 1820: 1816: 1811: 1808: 1804: 1799: 1796: 1793:, p. 32. 1792: 1787: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1772: 1769: 1765: 1760: 1758: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1743: 1740: 1736: 1731: 1728: 1724: 1719: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1704: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1689: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1674: 1671: 1667: 1662: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1647: 1644: 1640: 1635: 1632: 1628: 1623: 1620: 1616: 1611: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1596: 1593: 1590:, p. 18. 1589: 1584: 1581: 1577: 1572: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1557: 1555: 1553: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1538: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1523: 1520: 1516: 1511: 1508: 1504: 1499: 1497: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1482: 1479: 1475: 1470: 1468: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1453: 1450: 1446: 1441: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1426: 1424: 1422: 1418: 1415:, p. 78. 1414: 1409: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1394: 1392: 1390: 1388: 1386: 1382: 1379:, p. 29. 1378: 1373: 1371: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1356: 1354: 1352: 1350: 1348: 1346: 1344: 1342: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1327: 1324: 1317: 1307: 1304: 1298: 1295: 1289: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1272: 1269: 1266: 1262: 1256: 1253: 1247: 1244: 1241: 1235: 1232: 1226: 1223: 1216: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1199: 1196: 1190: 1187: 1181: 1178: 1172: 1169: 1165: 1159: 1156: 1149: 1147: 1145: 1141: 1136: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1117: 1115: 1113: 1108: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1086: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1051: 1047: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1029: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 985: 983: 979: 975: 974:Pacific Ocean 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 954:Great Britain 950: 948: 944: 940: 936: 932: 928: 924: 920: 916: 912: 908: 900: 898: 895: 891: 887: 878: 876: 874: 869: 864: 859: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 840:glacial flour 836: 832: 828: 824: 820: 816: 812: 808: 804: 800: 795: 791: 786: 784: 780: 776: 772: 768: 760: 758: 756: 752: 747: 744: 740: 732: 730: 728: 724: 720: 715: 713: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 664: 662: 658: 650: 648: 646: 645:magma chamber 641: 637: 633: 632:asthenosphere 629: 625: 622:The Wrangell 620: 618: 617:orthopyroxene 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 579: 578:calc-alkaline 576:and define a 575: 567: 565: 563: 559: 555: 551: 547: 543: 542:Yakutat Block 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 518:Pacific Plate 514: 512: 509: 505: 504:Pennsylvanian 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 480: 477: 473: 469: 465: 461: 452: 450: 448: 447:Chitina River 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 415: 412: 408: 404: 400: 399:stratovolcano 396: 392: 388: 387:United States 382: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 356: 354: 352: 348: 344: 339: 335: 330: 328: 324: 320: 316: 315:Pacific Plate 312: 308: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 270: 261: 259: 257:Easiest route 253: 249: 247: 243: 238: 234: 232: 231:Last eruption 228: 225: 222: 220: 216: 213: 209: 208:Stratovolcano 206: 204: 203:Mountain type 200: 195: 191: 188: 186: 182: 179: 176: 174: 168: 160: 156: 136: 126: 121: 116: 88: 86: 82: 78: 76: 72: 67: 61: 59: 55: 50: 45: 39: 34: 29: 26: 22: 6636:. Retrieved 6632: 6591:(5): 35–57. 6588: 6584: 6546: 6542: 6522: 6510:. Retrieved 6505: 6467:(3): 33–40. 6464: 6435: 6431: 6421:p. 398. 6396: 6392: 6382: 6358: 6354: 6344: 6339: 6321: 6317: 6294:(1): 19–48. 6291: 6287: 6269: 6244: 6240: 6211: 6207: 6168: 6164: 6135: 6131: 6114: 6110: 6077: 6073: 6053: 6026: 6022: 5989: 5985: 5962: 5917: 5913: 5879:(1): 29–44. 5876: 5872: 5839: 5835: 5817: 5813: 5780: 5776: 5743: 5739: 5710: 5706: 5680: 5676: 5659: 5655: 5638: 5634: 5609: 5605: 5588: 5555: 5551: 5501:(1): 42–55. 5498: 5494: 5462: 5458: 5418: 5414: 5399:, retrieved 5377: 5365:the original 5360: 5338: 5330:Project MUSE 5328:– via 5304:(1): 35–44. 5301: 5297: 5260: 5257:Ethnohistory 5256: 5219: 5215: 5186:, retrieved 5164: 5123: 5119: 5098: 5070: 5057:. Retrieved 5052: 5014: 5010: 4972: 4968: 4932: 4906: 4902: 4869: 4865: 4828: 4824: 4795: 4791: 4766: 4762: 4741: 4737: 4711: 4707: 4696:. V33B-0662. 4685: 4677:ResearchGate 4675:– via 4645: 4635: 4631: 4599: 4595: 4570: 4566: 4556:, retrieved 4534: 4518:. Retrieved 4508: 4478: 4474: 4423: 4419: 4386: 4382: 4348: 4344: 4309: 4305: 4276: 4272: 4249:(5): 38–43. 4246: 4242: 4203: 4164: 4160: 4129:(1): 17–31. 4126: 4122: 4088:(1): 59–66. 4085: 4081: 4061: 4021:(1): 29837. 4018: 4014: 4001: 3982:. 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