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hazards have increased in both number and magnitude due to climate change. Patterns of river discharge will also be significantly affected by climate change, which in turn will have significant impacts on communities that rely on water fed from alpine sources. Nearly half of mountain areas provide essential or supportive water resources for mainly urban populations, in particular during the dry season and in semiarid areas such as in central Asia.
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is the highest mountain on Earth, at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft). There are at least 100 mountains with heights of over 7,200 metres (23,622 ft) above sea level, all of which are located in central and southern Asia. The highest mountains above sea level are generally not the highest above the
253:
In the United
Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, a mountain is usually defined as any summit at least 2,000 feet (610 m) high, which accords with the official UK government's definition that a mountain, for the purposes of access, is a summit of 2,000 feet (610 m) or higher. In addition,
743:
Alpine ecosystems can be particularly climatically sensitive. Many mid-latitude mountains act as cold climate refugia, with the ecosystems occupying small environmental niches. As well as the direct influence that the change in climate can have on an ecosystem, there is also the indirect one on the
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Climate change has started to affect the physical and ecological systems of mountains. In recent decades mountain ice caps and glaciers have experienced accelerating ice loss. The melting of the glaciers, permafrost and snow has caused underlying surfaces to become increasingly unstable. Landslip
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of hiking, skiing, and climbing mountains. While mountaineering began as attempts to reach the highest point of unclimbed big mountains it has branched into specializations that address different aspects of the mountain and consists of three areas: rock-craft, snow-craft and skiing, depending on
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With limited access to infrastructure, only a handful of human communities exist above 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) of elevation. Many are small and have heavily specialized economies, often relying on industries such as agriculture, mining, and tourism. An example of such a specialized town is
731:
Mountain environments are particularly sensitive to anthropogenic climate change and are currently undergoing alterations unprecedented in last 10,000 years. The effect of global warming on mountain regions (relative to lowlands) is still an active area of study. Observational studies show that
773:
The colder climate on mountains affects the plants and animals residing on mountains. A particular set of plants and animals tend to be adapted to a relatively narrow range of climate. Thus, ecosystems tend to lie along elevation bands of roughly constant climate. This is called
345:
forces surface rock upward, creating a landform higher than the surrounding features. The height of the feature makes it either a hill or, if higher and steeper, a mountain. Major mountains tend to occur in long linear arcs, indicating tectonic plate boundaries and activity.
696:(5.5 °C per kilometre or 3 °F (1.7 °C) per 1000 feet) The actual lapse rate can vary by altitude and by location. Therefore, moving up 100 m (330 ft) on a mountain is roughly equivalent to moving 80 kilometres (45 miles or 0.75° of
838:
The highest known permanently tolerable altitude is at 5,950 metres (19,520 ft). At very high altitudes, the decreasing atmospheric pressure means that less oxygen is available for breathing, and there is less protection against solar radiation
871:. While 7% of the land area of Earth is above 2,500 metres (8,200 ft), only 140 million people live above that altitude and only 20-30 million people above 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) elevation. About half of mountain dwellers live in the
665:. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. This is known as an
700:) towards the nearest pole. This relationship is only approximate, however, since local factors such as proximity to oceans (such as the Arctic Ocean) can drastically modify the climate. As the altitude increases, the main form of
2534:
Deline, Philip; Gruber, Stephan; Amann, Florian; Bodin, Xavier; et al. (2021). "Ice loss from glaciers and permafrost and related slope instability in high-mountain regions". In
Haeberli, Wilfried; Whiteman, Colin (eds.).
242:
a mountain is defined as "a natural elevation of the earth surface rising more or less abruptly from the surrounding level and attaining an altitude which, relatively to the adjacent elevation, is impressive or notable."
143:
of mountains: different elevations have different plants and animals. Because of the less hospitable terrain and climate, mountains tend to be used less for agriculture and more for resource extraction, such as
295:
Class 7: Isolated inner basins and plateaus less than 25 km (9.7 sq mi) in area that are completely surrounded by Class 1 to 6 mountains, but do not themselves meet criteria for Class 1 to 6
262:
defined a mountain as being 1,000 feet (305 m) or taller, but has abandoned the definition since the 1970s. Any similar landform lower than this height was considered a hill. However, today, the
1174:(4,169 m or 13,678 ft) is the largest mountain on Earth in terms of base area (about 2,000 sq mi or 5,200 km) and volume (about 18,000 cu mi or 75,000 km).
289:
Class 5: Elevation between 1,000 and 1,500 m (3,281 and 4,921 ft), with a slope greater than 5 degrees and/or 300 m (984 ft) elevation range within 7 km (4.3 mi).
518:
in the crust: a plane where rocks have moved past each other. When rocks on one side of a fault rise relative to the other, it can form a mountain. The uplifted blocks are block mountains or
781:
Some plants and animals found in altitudinal zones tend to become isolated since the conditions above and below a particular zone will be inhospitable and thus constrain their movements or
732:
highlands are warming faster than nearby lowlands, but when compared globally, the effect disappears. Precipitation in highland areas is not increasing as quickly as in lowland areas.
669:, which has a characteristic pressure-temperature dependence. As the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases. The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the
2203:
Ver
Straeten, Charles A. (July 2013). "Beneath it all: bedrock geology of the Catskill Mountains and implications of its weathering: Bedrock geology and weathering of the Catskills".
592:(water, wind, ice, and gravity) which gradually wear the uplifted area down. Erosion causes the surface of mountains to be younger than the rocks that form the mountains themselves.
778:. In regions with dry climates, the tendency of mountains to have higher precipitation as well as lower temperatures also provides for varying conditions, which enhances zonation.
719:
in 1947. Biotemperature is the mean temperature; all temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F) are considered to be 0 °C. When the temperature is below 0 °C, plants are
236:
There is no universally accepted definition of a mountain. Elevation, volume, relief, steepness, spacing and continuity have been used as criteria for defining a mountain. In the
300:
Using these definitions, mountains cover 33% of
Eurasia, 19% of South America, 24% of North America, and 14% of Africa. As a whole, 24% of the Earth's land mass is mountainous.
2969:
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Geological evolution of the
Colorado Plateau of eastern Utah and western Colorado, including the San Juan River, Natural Bridges, Canyonlands, Arches, and the Book Cliffs
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of a much greater volume forced downward into the mantle. Thus the continental crust is normally much thicker under mountains, compared to lower lying areas. Rock can
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of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly 333 K (60 °C; 140 °F), and the temperature would decay exponentially with height.
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are possible candidates for the tallest mountain on land by this measure. The bases of mountain islands are below sea level, and given this consideration
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hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the
1557:
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is the largest non-shield volcano in terms of both base area (245 sq mi or 635 km) and volume (1,150 cu mi or 4,793 km).
937:
are fed from mountain sources, with snow acting as a storage mechanism for downstream users. More than half of humanity depends on mountains for water.
292:
Class 6: Elevation between 300 and 1,000 m (984 and 3,281 ft), with a 300 m (984 ft) elevation range within 7 km (4.3 mi).
1379:
661:
However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of
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2363:
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Altitudinal zones tend to follow a typical pattern. At the highest elevations, trees cannot grow, and whatever life may be present will be of the
723:, so the exact temperature is unimportant. The peaks of mountains with permanent snow can have a biotemperature below 1.5 °C (34.7 °F).
402:
in the
Philippines. The magma does not have to reach the surface in order to create a mountain: magma that solidifies below ground can still form
108:, which act on time scales of up to tens of millions of years. Once mountain building ceases, mountains are slowly leveled through the action of
1901:"Diagnostic features and processes in the construction and evolution of Oman-, Zagros-, Himalayan-, Karakoram-, and Tibetan type orogenic belts"
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The effect of the climate on the ecology at an elevation can be largely captured through a combination of amount of precipitation, and the
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Viviroli, D; Kummu, M; Meybeck, M; Kallio, M; Wada, Y (2020). "Increasing dependence of lowland populations on mountain water resources".
2308:
1413:
843:). Above 8,000 metres (26,000 ft) elevation, there is not enough oxygen to support human life. This is sometimes referred to as the "
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Fold mountains occur when two plates collide: shortening occurs along thrust faults and the crust is overthickened. Since the less dense
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833:
199:
39:
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Ziegler, P.A.; Dèzes, P. (July 2007). "Cenozoic uplift of
Variscan Massifs in the Alpine foreland: Timing and controlling mechanisms".
903:, at 4,150 metres (13,620 ft), which has a highly diverse service and manufacturing economy and a population of nearly 1 million.
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states "Some authorities regard eminences above 600 metres (1,969 ft) as mountains, those below being referred to as hills."
382:. At a depth of around 100 km (60 mi), melting occurs in rock above the slab (due to the addition of water), and forms
1963:
Hsü, Kenneth J.; Nachev, Ivan K.; Vuchev, Vassil T. (July 1977). "Geologic evolution of
Bulgaria in light of plate tectonics".
1205:, is another contender. Both have elevations above sea level more than 2 kilometres (6,600 ft) less than that of Everest.
263:
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1197:'s tallest mountain, is usually considered to be the farthest point from the Earth's centre, although the southern summit of
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grow. In the temperate portions of the earth, those forests tend to be needleleaf trees, while in the tropics, they can be
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is not spherical. Sea level closer to the equator is several miles farther from the centre of the Earth. The summit of
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The highest mountains above sea level are also not those with peaks farthest from the centre of the Earth, because the
1610:
1263:
895:, a gold-mining town and the highest elevation human habitation at 5,100 metres (16,700 ft). A counterexample is
701:
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requirement, such as that the mountain rises 300 metres (984 ft) above the surrounding terrain. At one time the
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the base to peak rise of Denali is the largest of any mountain that lies entirely above sea level, some 18,000 feet.
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693:
270:
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673:, which is approximately 9.8 °C per kilometre (or 5.4 °F (3.0 °C) per 1000 feet) of altitude.
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Class 4: Elevation between 1,500 and 2,500 m (4,921 and 8,202 ft), with a slope greater than 2 degrees.
238:
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that reaches the surface. When the magma reaches the surface, it often builds a volcanic mountain, such as a
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give mixed signals about whether a particular highland area will have increased or decreased precipitation.
191:
from its underwater base at 9,330 m (30,610 ft) and some scientists consider it to be the tallest on earth.
1680:"What is the difference between "mountain", "hill", and "peak"; "lake" and "pond"; or "river" and "creek?""
676:
The presence of water in the atmosphere complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent
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998:. All require experience, athletic ability, and technical knowledge of the terrain to maintain safety.
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1498:. The Mountains of England & Wales. Vol. 2 (3rd ed.). Milnthorpe, Cumbria: Cicerone.
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of
Western North America. These areas often occur when the regional stress is extensional and the
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1998:
Becker, Arnfried (June 2000). "The Jura
Mountains — an active foreland fold-and-thrust belt?".
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on Mars at 21,171 m (69,459 ft). The tallest mountain including submarine terrain is
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2328:"The Holdridge Life Zones of the conterminous United States in relation to ecosystem mapping"
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supports mountain communities, with some intensive development around attractions such as
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515:
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407:
375:
331:
113:
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Lugo, Ariel E.; Brown, Sandra L.; Dodson, Rusty; Smith, Tom S.; Shugart, Hank H. (1999).
3110:
3021:
Kolossov, V (2005). "Border studies: changing perspectives and theoretical approaches".
2699:"Biotic Communities of the Colorado Plateau: C. Hart Merriam and the Life Zones Concept"
2665:
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2450:
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2114:
2079:
2011:
1976:
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is the largest non-volcanic mountain in base area (120 sq mi or 311 km).
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being an important component of the economics of some montane societies. More recently,
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habitation than lowlands, because of harsh weather and little level ground suitable for
3789:
3486:
3186:
Wilhelm Eppacher (1957), Raimund Klebelsberg (ed.), "Berg- und Gipfelkreuze in Tirol",
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2407:
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230:
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2019:
1698:"What is the difference between lake and pond; mountain and hill; or river and creek?"
489:
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1984:
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is also held to be sacred with tens of thousands of Japanese ascending it each year.
1021:
919:
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403:
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2621:"Climate change impacts on the Alpine ecosystem: an overview with focus on the soil"
2359:
2232:
2122:
1159:(4,207 m (13,802 ft) above sea level) is the world's tallest mountain and
334:: when portions of the Earth's crust move, crumple, and dive. Compressional forces,
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Whether a landform is called a mountain may depend on local usage. John Whittow's
2152:
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1179:
967:
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923:
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and cannot hold its quantity of water vapor. The water vapor condenses (forming
535:
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79:
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rocks beneath, the weight of any crustal material forced upward to form hills,
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3190:(in German), vol. 178, Innsbruck: Universitätsverlag Wagner, pp. 5–9
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3034:
2787:
2652:
Daubenmire, R.F. (June 1943). "Vegetational Zonation in the Rocky Mountains".
2597:
2435:"Climate Changes and Their Elevational Patterns in the Mountains of the World"
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1212:
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1029:
982:
844:
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467:: in asymmetric folding there may also be recumbent and overturned folds. The
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Class 2: Elevation between 3,500 and 4,500 m (11,483 and 14,764 ft).
218:
203:
109:
3408:
3168:
2866:
Cook, James D.; Boy, Erick; Flowers, Carol; del Carmen Daroca, Maria (2005).
1143:
surrounding terrain. There is no precise definition of surrounding base, but
283:
Class 3: Elevation between 2,500 and 3,500 m (8,202 and 11,483 ft).
3994:
3885:
3835:
3794:
3704:
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3524:
3503:
1444:
Mountain Environments: An Examination of the Physical Geography of Mountains
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goddesses Nanda and Sunanda; it has been off-limits to climbers since 1983.
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136:
105:
83:
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2416:
2224:
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17:
1747:. UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. Archived from
273:'s definition of "mountainous environment" includes any of the following:
175:, whose summit is 8,850 m (29,035 ft) above mean sea level. The
3954:
3918:
3908:
3799:
3679:
3443:
3236:
2458:
1378:
Cooke, Ronald U.; Cooke, Ronald Urwick; Warren, Andrew (1 January 1973).
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1028:. In Japanese culture, the 3,776.24 m (12,389.2 ft) volcano of
1013:
720:
697:
601:
497:
464:
452:
335:
3382:
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2467:
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Traditional mountain societies rely on agriculture, with higher risk of
638:
at high latitude and elevation have an alpine climate and barren ground.
266:
concludes that these terms do not have technical definitions in the US.
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2673:
2216:
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Blyth, S.; Groombridge, B.; Lysenko, I.; Miles, L.; Newton, A. (2002).
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63:
59:
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During and following uplift, mountains are subjected to the agents of
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3684:
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3646:
3624:
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3539:
3534:
3508:
3291:"Using GIS to estimate the total volume of Mauna Loa Volcano, Hawaii"
2831:
Moore, Lorna G. (2001). "Human Genetic Adaptation to High Altitude".
1144:
1017:
911:
883:
797:
605:
523:
508:
188:
157:
145:
67:
2539:. Hazards and Disasters (2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 501–540.
3056:
Van Houtum, H (2005). "The geopolitics of borders and boundaries".
2619:
Chersich, S; Rejšek, K; Vranová, V; Bordoni, M; Meisina, C (2015).
2433:
Pepin, NC; Arnone, E; Gobiet, A; Haslinger, K; et al. (2022).
2379:"Scientists' warning of the impacts of climate change on mountains"
1088:
is a sacred mountain, as it is believed to be the landing place of
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than at lower elevations. Minerals often occur in mountains, with
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2311:. The United Kingdom Environmental Change Network. Archived from
210:, whose summit is the point farthest away from the Earth's center
3999:
3913:
3619:
3592:
3572:
3476:
2066:
Chorowicz, Jean (October 2005). "The East African rift system".
1198:
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at similar latitude. These colder climates strongly affect the
3964:
3734:
3318:
1045:
995:
763:
277:
Class 1: Elevation greater than 4,500 m (14,764 ft).
3341:
1170:
The highest mountains are not generally the most voluminous.
812:
trees, which can withstand cold, dry conditions. Below that,
1016:. There are for example a number of sacred mountains within
688:), and releases heat, which changes the lapse rate from the
2134:
2132:
852:
58:, generally with steep sides that show significant exposed
62:. Although definitions vary, a mountain may differ from a
1878:. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. p. 430.
1651:"What is a "Mountain"? Mynydd Graig Goch and all that..."
886:
reaches up to 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) in elevation.
3233:
The Finest Peaks: Prominence and Other Mountain Measures
2763:. Microsoft Corporation. 2002 . 60210-442-1635445-74407.
1040:
of China, is considered to be sacred in four religions:
459:
either symmetrically or asymmetrically. The upfolds are
2774:
West, JB (2002). "Highest permanent human habitation".
1281: – Building in the mountains with food and shelter
1163:, rising about 10,203 m (33,474 ft) from the
1907:; MP Carlson; JH McBride; JR Martinez Catalán (eds.).
1100:
are often erected on the tops of prominent mountains.
744:
soils from changes in stability and soil development.
616:, are formed from the erosion of an uplifted plateau.
2492:"Carbon Dioxide's Effect on Mountain Climate Systems"
2868:"The influence of high-altitude living on body iron"
3932:
3894:
3813:
3718:
3670:
3548:
3517:
3459:
2182:(2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. pp. 358–376.
3129:"How Mount Fuji became Japan's most sacred symbol"
2952:"El Alto, Bolivia: A New World Out of Differences"
2537:Snow and Ice-Related Hazards, Risks, and Disasters
2511:Recent Climate Change Impacts on Mountain Glaciers
2038:
1441:
82:) above the surrounding land. A few mountains are
3202:"Nepal and China agree on Mount Everest's height"
1911:. Geological Society of America. pp. 41 ff.
785:. These isolated ecological systems are known as
680:. As air rises and cools, it eventually becomes
642:Climate in the mountains becomes colder at high
2249:Goody, Richard M.; Walker, James C.G. (1972).
2244:
2242:
428:Illustration of mountains that developed on a
27:Large natural elevation of the Earth's surface
3424:
3266:. National Geographic Society. Archived from
3083:Cox, Steven M.; Fulsaas, Kris, eds. (2009) .
2157:(3rd ed.). Belmont: Thomson Books/Cole.
2151:Fraknoi, A.; Morrison, D.; Wolff, S. (2004).
1435:
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8:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1729:
1727:
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1723:
1721:
1719:
1134:Heights of mountains are typically measured
863:Mountains are generally less preferable for
522:. The intervening dropped blocks are termed
1816:Science matters: earth and beyond; module 4
1309:Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "Mountain".
1118:Everest is highest from sea level (green),
1064:are made up the 952 metres (3,123 ft)
1012:Mountains often play a significant role in
3431:
3417:
3409:
2693:
2691:
2205:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1818:. Pearson South Africa. 2002. p. 75.
1624:(1). Coleraine: University of Ulster: 89.
1304:
1302:
1300:
596:produce characteristic landforms, such as
3089:(7 ed.). Seattle: The Mountaineers.
2883:
2636:
2466:
2406:
2396:
318:There are three main types of mountains:
3086:Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills
2761:Microsoft Encarta Reference Library 2003
2428:
2426:
1773:
1771:
1769:
944:mountains are often seen as preferable "
3354:
2970:"International Year of Freshwater 2003"
1611:"Listing the Irish hills and mountains"
1448:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
1296:
526:: these can be small or form extensive
1938:(4th ed.). W.H. Freeman. p.
1932:Press, Frank; Siever, Raymond (1985).
1550:"A Mountain is a Mountain – isn't it?"
973:Mountain climbing, or alpinism is the
3301:from the original on 25 January 2009.
2138:
372:a plate is pushed below another plate
179:on any planet in the Solar System is
131:High elevations on mountains produce
7:
3326:from the original on 30 January 2013
3264:"Mountains: Highest Points on Earth"
3115:Sacred Sites: World Pilgrimage Guide
1849:. Thompson/Delmar Learning. p.
1590:from the original on 5 February 2013
1560:from the original on 8 February 2013
1416:from the original on 30 January 2013
1373:
1371:
2932:Finnegan, William (20 April 2015).
2727:The Great Southwest Nature Factbook
2366:from the original on 28 April 2013.
1530:from the original on 2 October 2013
1520:"Survey turns hill into a mountain"
834:List of highest cities in the world
70:area, and is usually higher than a
2820:from the original on 18 June 2017.
2545:10.1016/B978-0-12-817129-5.00015-9
2490:Derouin, Sarah (7 November 2023).
2377:Knight, Jasper (24 October 2022).
2267:from the original on 29 July 2016.
1909:4-D framework of continental crust
1092:. In Europe and especially in the
330:. All three types are formed from
25:
3312:Krulwich, Robert (7 April 2007).
3297:. Geological Society of America.
3212:from the original on 3 March 2012
3135:. 6 February 2019. Archived from
2068:Journal of African Earth Sciences
1494:Nuttall, John & Anne (2008).
986:whether the route chosen is over
163:The highest mountain on Earth is
152:, along with recreation, such as
3391:
3374:
3357:
2352:10.1046/j.1365-2699.1999.00329.x
2088:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.019
1792:from the original on 3 June 2012
1473:. London: Penguin. p. 352.
1471:Dictionary of Physical Geography
1243:
1229:
1215:
859:Mountain societies and economies
650:and convection. Sunlight in the
646:, due to an interaction between
475:are examples of fold mountains.
394:. Examples of volcanoes include
254:some definitions also include a
248:Dictionary of Physical Geography
120:, as well as through erosion by
74:, typically rising at least 300
2123:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2006.12.004
2041:CliffsQuickReview Earth Science
1704:from the original on 9 May 2013
3314:"The 'Highest' Spot on Earth?"
3155:Pilgrimage in Medieval Ireland
2178:Thornbury, William D. (1969).
1812:"Chapter 6: Mountain building"
1386:University of California Press
514:Block mountains are caused by
453:balanced by the buoyancy force
54:is an elevated portion of the
1:
2776:High Altitude Medical Biology
2020:10.1016/S0040-1951(00)00089-5
1410:"The 'Highest' Spot on Earth"
1319:American Geological Institute
1269:List of ski areas and resorts
1126:from Earth's axis (pink) and
930:live below the poverty line.
1985:10.1016/0040-1951(77)90068-3
1841:"Chapter 8: Plate tectonics"
875:, Central Asia, and Africa.
260:US Board on Geographic Names
2309:"Factors affecting climate"
2180:Principles of geomorphology
2103:Global and Planetary Change
1264:List of peaks by prominence
229:, the highest point in the
4068:
4017:
2885:10.1182/blood-2004-12-4782
2845:10.1089/152702901750265341
2279:"Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate"
2251:"Atmospheric Temperatures"
1899:Searle, Michael P (2007).
1130:from Earth's centre (blue)
1107:
1005:
1002:Mountains as sacred places
955:
831:
751:
694:moist adiabatic lapse rate
623:
561:
500:, part of the fault-block
482:
417:
370:Volcanoes are formed when
353:
307:
271:UN Environmental Programme
46:, Earth's highest mountain
29:
4013:
3450:
3070:10.1080/14650040500318522
3035:10.1080/14650040500318415
2816:. PBS. 24 February 1998.
2788:10.1089/15270290260512882
2598:10.1038/s41893-020-0559-9
1874:Fillmore, Robert (2010).
1630:10.1080/00750770109555778
1412:. Npr.org. 7 April 2007.
1342:Levin, Harold L. (2010).
1110:List of highest mountains
1024:which was held to be the
966:Mountaineers climbing in
239:Oxford English Dictionary
32:Mountain (disambiguation)
2996:"The Mountain Institute"
2810:"Everest:The Death Zone"
2724:Tweit, Susan J. (1992).
1846:Science of Earth Systems
1839:Butz, Stephen D (2004).
1584:dictionary.reference.com
1381:Geomorphology in Deserts
1122:from its base (orange),
708:and the winds increase.
690:dry adiabatic lapse rate
608:that can contain lakes.
548:Basin and Range Province
256:topographical prominence
2332:Journal of Biogeography
1259:List of mountain ranges
1080:is associated with the
1038:Tibet Autonomous Region
855:are in the death zone.
612:mountains, such as the
443:"floats" on the denser
2732:Alaska Northwest Books
2154:Voyages to the Planets
1609:Wilson, Peter (2001).
1469:Whittow, John (1984).
1440:Gerrard, A.J. (1990).
1344:The Earth Through Time
1131:
1128:Chimborazo is farthest
970:
887:
770:
639:
585:
530:systems. This form of
511:
463:and the downfolds are
436:
367:
314:List of mountain types
233:
211:
177:highest known mountain
47:
4047:Geography terminology
3346:at Knowledge (XXG)'s
3231:Helman, Adam (2005).
2578:Nature Sustainability
2509:Pelto, Mauri (2016).
2439:Reviews of Geophysics
1905:Robert D. Hatcher Jr.
1201:'s tallest mountain,
1138:. Using this metric,
1117:
965:
881:
761:
633:
571:
492:
451:or mountains must be
427:
363:
217:
202:
42:
4020:Geographical feature
3856:Volcanic crater lake
2908:"Alps – The economy"
2638:10.17221/47/2015-JFS
2459:10.1029/2020RG000730
2033:Ryan, Scott (2006).
1684:US Geological Survey
1315:Alexandria, Virginia
1120:Mauna Kea is highest
948:" between polities.
933:Most of the world's
828:Mountains and humans
776:altitudinal zonation
678:heat of vaporization
671:adiabatic lapse rate
580:represent an eroded
264:US Geological Survey
94:Mountains are formed
86:, but most occur in
66:in having a limited
30:For other uses, see
3295:98th Annual Meeting
3289:Kaye, G.D. (2002).
3139:on 9 February 2019.
3133:National Geographic
2666:1943BotRv...9..325D
2590:2020NatSu...3..917V
2451:2022RvGeo..6000730P
2398:10.7717/peerj.14253
2344:1999JBiog..26.1025L
2141:, pp. 474–478.
2115:2007GPC....58..237Z
2080:2005JAfES..43..379C
2012:2000Tectp.321..381B
1977:1977Tectp..40..245H
1348:Hoboken, New Jersey
1311:Glossary of Geology
1187:figure of the Earth
1124:Cayambe is farthest
734:Climate simulations
116:and other forms of
2934:"Tears of the Sun"
2705:on 14 January 2013
2674:10.1007/BF02872481
2217:10.1111/nyas.12221
1274:Lists of mountains
1237:Environment portal
1132:
971:
946:natural boundaries
893:La Rinconada, Peru
888:
847:". The summits of
771:
715:, as described by
640:
604:, and bowl-shaped
586:
512:
437:
368:
310:Mountain formation
234:
212:
48:
4029:
4028:
3940:Artificial island
3846:Submarine volcano
3755:Continental shelf
3722:coastal landforms
3518:Continental plain
3453:List of landforms
3188:Schlern-Schriften
3175:. 11 August 2015.
3096:978-0-89886-828-9
2976:on 7 October 2006
2833:High Alt Med Biol
2260:. Prentice-Hall.
2164:978-0-534-39567-4
1949:978-0-7167-1743-0
1918:978-0-8137-1200-0
1505:978-1-85284-037-2
1455:978-0-262-07128-4
1395:978-0-520-02280-5
1176:Mount Kilimanjaro
1149:Mount Kilimanjaro
800:. Just below the
796:type, resembling
667:adiabatic process
656:greenhouse effect
594:Glacial processes
441:continental crust
341:and intrusion of
154:mountain climbing
16:(Redirected from
4059:
3975:Land reclamation
3871:Volcanic plateau
3433:
3426:
3419:
3410:
3404:
3396:
3395:
3394:
3387:
3379:
3378:
3377:
3370:
3362:
3361:
3360:
3350:
3336:
3335:
3333:
3331:
3309:
3303:
3302:
3286:
3280:
3279:
3277:
3275:
3260:
3254:
3253:
3228:
3222:
3221:
3219:
3217:
3208:. 8 April 2010.
3198:
3192:
3191:
3183:
3177:
3176:
3173:Complete Pilgrim
3165:
3159:
3158:
3147:
3141:
3140:
3125:
3119:
3118:
3107:
3101:
3100:
3080:
3074:
3073:
3053:
3047:
3046:
3018:
3012:
3011:
3009:
3007:
2998:. Archived from
2992:
2986:
2985:
2983:
2981:
2972:. Archived from
2966:
2960:
2959:
2954:. Archived from
2948:
2942:
2941:
2929:
2923:
2922:
2920:
2918:
2904:
2898:
2897:
2887:
2878:(4): 1441–1446.
2863:
2857:
2856:
2828:
2822:
2821:
2806:
2800:
2799:
2771:
2765:
2764:
2756:
2750:
2749:
2721:
2715:
2714:
2712:
2710:
2701:. Archived from
2695:
2686:
2685:
2654:Botanical Review
2649:
2643:
2642:
2640:
2616:
2610:
2609:
2573:
2567:
2566:
2531:
2525:
2524:
2506:
2500:
2499:
2487:
2481:
2480:
2470:
2430:
2421:
2420:
2410:
2400:
2374:
2368:
2367:
2338:(5): 1025–1038.
2323:
2317:
2316:
2315:on 16 July 2011.
2305:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2294:
2285:. Archived from
2275:
2269:
2268:
2266:
2255:
2246:
2237:
2236:
2200:
2194:
2193:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2148:
2142:
2136:
2127:
2126:
2109:(1–4): 237–269.
2098:
2092:
2091:
2074:(1–3): 379–410.
2063:
2057:
2056:
2044:
2030:
2024:
2023:
1995:
1989:
1988:
1971:(3–4): 245–256.
1960:
1954:
1953:
1929:
1923:
1922:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1871:
1865:
1864:
1836:
1830:
1829:
1808:
1802:
1801:
1799:
1797:
1791:
1784:
1775:
1764:
1763:
1761:
1759:
1753:
1746:
1742:"Mountain Watch"
1737:
1714:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1694:
1688:
1687:
1676:
1670:
1669:
1667:
1665:
1660:on 30 March 2013
1656:. Archived from
1647:
1641:
1640:
1638:
1632:. Archived from
1615:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1597:
1595:
1576:
1570:
1569:
1567:
1565:
1554:www.go4awalk.com
1546:
1540:
1539:
1537:
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1510:
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1491:
1485:
1484:
1466:
1460:
1459:
1447:
1437:
1426:
1425:
1423:
1421:
1406:
1400:
1399:
1375:
1366:
1365:
1346:(9th ed.).
1339:
1333:
1332:
1313:(4th ed.).
1306:
1253:
1248:
1247:
1246:
1239:
1234:
1233:
1225:
1223:Mountains portal
1220:
1219:
1218:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1026:home of the gods
1008:Sacred mountains
717:Leslie Holdridge
652:visible spectrum
578:Upstate New York
546:valley, and the
469:Balkan Mountains
84:isolated summits
21:
4067:
4066:
4062:
4061:
4060:
4058:
4057:
4056:
4032:
4031:
4030:
4025:
4022:
4009:
3945:Artificial reef
3928:
3890:
3866:Volcanic island
3851:Volcanic crater
3809:
3805:Volcanic island
3785:Mid-ocean ridge
3721:
3714:
3666:
3544:
3513:
3455:
3446:
3437:
3407:
3403:from Wikisource
3397:
3392:
3390:
3380:
3375:
3373:
3363:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3349:sister projects
3348:
3340:
3339:
3329:
3327:
3311:
3310:
3306:
3288:
3287:
3283:
3273:
3271:
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3247:
3230:
3229:
3225:
3215:
3213:
3200:
3199:
3195:
3185:
3184:
3180:
3167:
3166:
3162:
3151:"Mount Brandon"
3149:
3148:
3144:
3127:
3126:
3122:
3109:
3108:
3104:
3097:
3082:
3081:
3077:
3055:
3054:
3050:
3020:
3019:
3015:
3005:
3003:
2994:
2993:
2989:
2979:
2977:
2968:
2967:
2963:
2958:on 16 May 2015.
2950:
2949:
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2723:
2722:
2718:
2708:
2706:
2697:
2696:
2689:
2651:
2650:
2646:
2631:(11): 496–514.
2618:
2617:
2613:
2584:(11): 917–928.
2575:
2574:
2570:
2555:
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2100:
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1997:
1996:
1992:
1962:
1961:
1957:
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1663:
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1649:
1648:
1644:
1639:on 10 May 2013.
1636:
1618:Irish Geography
1613:
1608:
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1298:
1293:
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1228:
1221:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1136:above sea level
1127:
1123:
1119:
1112:
1106:
1070:Irish Catholics
1010:
1004:
960:
954:
928:mountain people
926:. About 80% of
861:
836:
830:
818:broadleaf trees
814:montane forests
804:, one may find
756:
754:Montane ecology
750:
729:
628:
622:
598:pyramidal peaks
566:
560:
534:can be seen in
487:
485:Block mountains
481:
479:Block mountains
422:
416:
408:Navajo Mountain
376:mid-ocean ridge
358:
352:
332:plate tectonics
316:
308:Main articles:
306:
197:
133:colder climates
98:tectonic forces
88:mountain ranges
35:
28:
23:
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15:
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3790:Oceanic trench
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3428:
3421:
3413:
3406:
3405:
3388:
3386:from Wikiquote
3371:
3342:
3338:
3337:
3304:
3281:
3270:on 3 July 2010
3255:
3245:
3223:
3193:
3178:
3160:
3157:. 6 June 2016.
3142:
3120:
3102:
3095:
3075:
3064:(4): 672–679.
3048:
3029:(4): 606–632.
3013:
3002:on 9 July 2006
2987:
2961:
2943:
2938:The New Yorker
2924:
2899:
2858:
2839:(2): 257–279.
2823:
2801:
2782:(4): 401–407.
2766:
2751:
2744:
2716:
2687:
2660:(6): 325–393.
2644:
2611:
2568:
2553:
2526:
2519:
2501:
2482:
2422:
2369:
2318:
2300:
2289:on 3 June 2016
2270:
2238:
2195:
2188:
2170:
2163:
2143:
2128:
2093:
2058:
2051:
2025:
2006:(4): 381–406.
2000:Tectonophysics
1990:
1965:Tectonophysics
1955:
1948:
1924:
1917:
1891:
1885:978-1607810049
1884:
1866:
1859:
1831:
1824:
1803:
1778:Panos (2002).
1765:
1754:on 11 May 2008
1715:
1689:
1671:
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713:biotemperature
636:northern Urals
626:Alpine climate
624:Main article:
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562:Main article:
559:
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494:Pirin Mountain
483:Main article:
480:
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473:Jura Mountains
432:that has been
420:Fold mountains
418:Main article:
415:
414:Fold mountains
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404:dome mountains
400:Mount Pinatubo
388:shield volcano
354:Main article:
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2035:"Figure 13-1"
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2013:
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397:
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56:Earth's crust
53:
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44:Mount Everest
41:
37:
33:
19:
3861:Volcanic dam
3558:Alluvial fan
3481:
3398:
3381:
3369:from Commons
3364:
3343:
3328:. Retrieved
3317:
3307:
3294:
3284:
3274:19 September
3272:. Retrieved
3268:the original
3258:
3250:
3232:
3226:
3214:. Retrieved
3205:
3196:
3187:
3181:
3172:
3169:"Nanda Devi"
3163:
3154:
3145:
3137:the original
3132:
3123:
3114:
3105:
3085:
3078:
3061:
3057:
3051:
3026:
3022:
3016:
3004:. Retrieved
3000:the original
2990:
2978:. Retrieved
2974:the original
2964:
2956:the original
2946:
2937:
2927:
2915:. Retrieved
2911:
2902:
2875:
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2836:
2832:
2826:
2813:
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2779:
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2769:
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2707:. Retrieved
2703:the original
2657:
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2647:
2628:
2624:
2614:
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2577:
2571:
2536:
2529:
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2468:2318/1842344
2442:
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2388:
2382:
2372:
2335:
2331:
2321:
2313:the original
2303:
2291:. Retrieved
2287:the original
2282:
2273:
2257:
2208:
2204:
2198:
2179:
2173:
2153:
2146:
2106:
2102:
2096:
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2028:
2003:
1999:
1993:
1968:
1964:
1958:
1934:
1927:
1908:
1894:
1875:
1869:
1845:
1834:
1815:
1806:
1794:. Retrieved
1756:. Retrieved
1749:the original
1706:. Retrieved
1692:
1683:
1674:
1662:. Retrieved
1658:the original
1654:Metric Views
1653:
1645:
1634:the original
1621:
1617:
1604:
1592:. Retrieved
1583:
1574:
1562:. Retrieved
1553:
1544:
1532:. Retrieved
1523:
1514:
1495:
1489:
1470:
1464:
1443:
1418:. Retrieved
1404:
1380:
1343:
1337:
1310:
1279:Mountain hut
1184:
1169:
1153:Nanga Parbat
1133:
1104:Superlatives
1086:Mount Ararat
1011:
972:
939:
932:
908:crop failure
905:
889:
882:The city of
862:
837:
791:
780:
772:
742:
738:
730:
710:
675:
660:
641:
587:
554:is thinned.
513:
438:
369:
365:Fuji volcano
317:
299:
268:
252:
247:
245:
237:
235:
223:Aosta Valley
181:Olympus Mons
162:
130:
118:mass wasting
92:
51:
49:
36:
3720:Oceanic and
3460:Mountainous
3058:Geopolitics
3023:Geopolitics
2734:. pp.
2625:J. For. Sci
2258:Atmospheres
1796:17 February
1758:17 February
1708:11 February
1180:Mount Logan
1062:pilgrimages
968:South Tyrol
942:geopolitics
924:ski resorts
869:agriculture
822:rain forest
808:forests of
787:sky islands
536:East Africa
528:rift valley
410:in the US.
18:Mountainous
4036:Categories
4018:See also:
3933:Artificial
3841:Lava field
3760:Coral reef
3588:Floodplain
3383:Quotations
3006:7 December
2980:7 December
2912:Britannica
2709:30 January
2391:: e14253.
2189:0471861979
2139:Levin 2010
1664:3 February
1594:3 February
1580:"mountain"
1564:3 February
1534:3 February
1328:0922152349
1291:References
1191:Chimborazo
1090:Noah's Ark
1078:Nanda Devi
1030:Mount Fuji
983:profession
845:death zone
832:See also:
810:needleleaf
768:Swiss Alps
762:An alpine
663:convection
644:elevations
461:anticlines
406:, such as
396:Mount Fuji
374:, or at a
296:mountains.
219:Mont Blanc
204:Chimborazo
195:Definition
141:ecosystems
112:, through
110:weathering
78:(980
4042:Mountains
3995:Reservoir
3886:Wall rock
3836:Lava dome
3795:Peninsula
3705:Ice field
3662:Waterfall
3525:Ice sheet
3504:Tableland
3444:landforms
3216:22 August
3043:143213848
2606:220375949
2563:234301790
2513:. Wiley.
2477:247008935
2045:. Wiley.
1203:Huascarán
1172:Mauna Loa
1157:Mauna Kea
1074:Himalayan
1036:, in the
806:subalpine
802:tree line
783:dispersal
682:saturated
648:radiation
614:Catskills
574:Catskills
532:landscape
465:synclines
350:Volcanoes
336:isostatic
185:Mauna Kea
169:Himalayas
137:sea level
106:volcanism
3955:Building
3919:Sandhill
3909:Dry lake
3814:Volcanic
3800:Seamount
3482:Mountain
3344:Mountain
3330:21 March
3324:Archived
3299:Archived
3237:Trafford
3210:Archived
3206:BBC News
2894:15870179
2853:11443005
2818:Archived
2796:12631426
2759:"Tree".
2682:10413001
2417:36312749
2364:Archived
2360:11733879
2283:tpub.com
2262:Archived
2233:19940868
2225:23895551
2211:: 1–29.
1787:Archived
1702:Archived
1700:. USGS.
1588:Archived
1558:Archived
1528:Archived
1524:BBC News
1414:Archived
1209:See also
1076:peak of
1050:Buddhism
1042:Hinduism
1020:such as
1014:religion
704:becomes
698:latitude
498:Bulgaria
471:and the
449:plateaus
320:volcanic
135:than at
126:glaciers
114:slumping
96:through
52:mountain
3896:Aeolian
3881:Volcano
3821:Caldera
3775:Isthmus
3765:Estuary
3745:Channel
3700:Glacier
3672:Glacial
3610:Meander
3578:Channel
3550:Fluvial
3494:Plateau
2917:13 July
2736:209–210
2662:Bibcode
2586:Bibcode
2447:Bibcode
2408:9610668
2340:Bibcode
2111:Bibcode
2076:Bibcode
2008:Bibcode
1973:Bibcode
1496:England
1420:31 July
1195:Ecuador
1167:floor.
1161:volcano
1058:Ireland
1054:Jainism
916:tourism
901:Bolivia
897:El Alto
766:in the
748:Ecology
721:dormant
692:to the
620:Climate
610:Plateau
606:cirques
590:erosion
582:plateau
564:Erosion
558:Erosion
506:Rhodope
380:hotspot
356:Volcano
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150:logging
102:erosion
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3826:Geyser
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