441:'s dissatisfaction, disgust, and personal conflict over the state of the Afro-French experience in France. All three shared a personal sense of revolt for the racism and colonial injustices that plagued their world and their French education. Senghor refused to believe that the purpose of his education was "to build Christianity and civilization in his soul where there was only paganism and barbarism before". Césaire's disgust came as embarrassment when he was accused by some of the people of the Caribbean as having nothing to do with the people of Africa—whom they saw as savages. They separated themselves from Africa and proclaimed themselves as civilized. He denounced the writers from the Caribbean as "intellectually... corrupt and literarily nourished with white decadence". Damas believed this because of the pride these writers would take when a white person could read their whole book and not be able to tell the author's complexion.
537:
introduction, Damas proclaimed that now was the age where "the colonized man becomes aware of his rights and of his duties as a writer, as a novelist or a storyteller, an essayist or a poet." Damas outlines the themes of the work. He says, "Poverty, illiteracy, exploitation of man by man, social and political racism suffered by the black or the yellow, forced labor, inequalities, lies, resignation, swindles, prejudices, complacencies, cowardice, failure, crimes committed in the name of liberty, of equality, of fraternity, that is the theme of this indigenous poetry in French." Damas' introduction was indeed a calling and affirmation for a distinct cultural identification.
2431:
388:
Mademoiselle
Paulette Nardall...kept a literary salon where African Negroestrans, West Indians, and American Negroes used to get together." Jane Nardal's 1929 article "Internationalisme noir" predates Senghor's first critical theory piece "What the Black Man Contributes", itself published in 1939. This essay, "Internationalisme noir", focuses on race consciousness in the African diaspora and cultural metissage, double-apparentance; seen as the philosophical foundation for the
2408:
2398:
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strands in the sense that its goal was to achieve black people's' "being-in-the-world", to emphasize that black individuals did have a history and a worthy culture capable of standing alongside the cultures of other countries as equals. Also important was the acceptance of and pride in being black
396:
by the masculinist domination of the movement. Paulette even wrote as much in 1960 when she "bitterly complained" about the lack of acknowledgment to her and her sister Jane regarding their importance to a movement historically and presently credited to Césaire, Senghor, and Damas. The name Nardal
457:
as the fact of being black, acceptance of this fact, and appreciation of the history and culture, and of black people. It is important to note that for Césaire, this emphasis on the acceptance of the fact of "blackness" was the means by which the "decolonization of the mind" could be achieved.
387:
The Nardal sisters were responsible for the introduction of the Harlem
Renaissance and its ideas to Césaire, Senghor, and Damas. In a letter from February 1960, Senghor admits the importance of the Nardal sisters, "We were in contact with these black Americans during the years 1929–34 through
536:
Damas' introduction was more political and cultural in nature. A distinctive feature of his anthology and beliefs was that Damas felt his message was one for the colonized in general, and included poets from
Indochina and Madagascar. This is sharply in contrast to Senghor's anthology. In the
685:
to imagine a rhetorical "disease" that he said was a mild form of leprosy, the only cure for which was to become white. But this attribution has been disputed as a misreading of secondary sources. If there was such use, it might not have been known by the Afro-Francophones who developed the
458:
According to him, western imperialism was responsible for the inferiority complex of black people. He sought to recognize the collective colonial experience of black individuals —the slave trade and plantation system. Césaire's ideology was especially important during the early years of
491:
would, according to
Senghor, enable black people in French lands to have a "seat at the give and take of the table as equals". However, the French eventually granted Senegal and its other African colonies independence. Poet and later the first president of Sénégal, Senghor used
215:
as a positive term. The problem with assimilation was that one assimilated into a culture that considered
African culture to be barbaric and unworthy of being seen as "civilized". The assimilation into this culture would have been seen as an implicit acceptance of this view.
610:. They believed that by deliberately and outspokenly being proud of their ethnicity, Black people were automatically on the defensive. Chinua Achebe wrote: A tiger doesn't proclaim its tigerness; it jumps on its prey). Soyinka in turn wrote in a 1960 essay for the
524:
in 1948. Damas's introduction to the work and the poetic anthology was meant to be a sort of manifesto for the movement, but
Senghor's own anthology eventually took that role. Though it would be the "Preface" written by French philosopher and public intellectual
598:
was based too much on
Blackness according to a European aesthetic, and was unable to define a new kind of perception of African-ness that would free Black people and Black art from Caucasian conceptualizations altogether.
2244:
469:, the capital, and a representative of Martinique in France's Parliament—nor Senghor in Senegal, envisaged political independence from France. Césaire called for France's political assimilation of Martinique with the
409:, the philosophy was characterized generally by opposition to colonialism, denunciation of Europe's alleged inhumanity, and rejection of Western domination and ideas. The movement also appears to have had some
374:(1931–32), a literary journal published in English and French, which attempted to appeal to African and Caribbean intellectuals in Paris. This Harlem inspiration was shared by the parallel development of
1277:
Rabanka, Leiland. « The
Negritude Movement: W.E.B. Du Bois, Leon Damas, Aimé Césaire, Léopold Senghor, Frantz Fanon, and the Evolution of an Insurgent Idea. » Lexington Books, 2015.
203:. The word appears in Césaire's first published work, "Conscience Raciale et Révolution Sociale", with the heading "Les Idées" and the rubric "Négreries", which is notable for its disavowal of
496:
to work toward a universal valuation of
African people. He advocated a modern incorporation of the expression and celebration of traditional African customs and ideas. This interpretation of
2217:
2232:
330:
During the 1920s and 1930s, young black students and scholars primarily from France's colonies and territories assembled in Paris, where they were introduced to writers of the
220:
previously had been used mainly in a pejorative sense. Césaire deliberately incorporated this derogatory word into the name of his philosophy. Césaire's choice of the
105:
political philosophy, in the black radical tradition. The writers drew heavily on a surrealist literary style, and some say they were also influenced somewhat by the
1091:
41:(from French "nègre" and "-itude" to denote a condition that can be translated as "Blackness") is a framework of critique and literary theory, mainly developed by
264:
2926:
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2162:
678:
2202:
516:
and rejected any kind of reconciliation with
Caucasians. Two particular anthologies were pivotal to the movement; one was published by Damas in 1946,
1620:
228:
has often been contested as a word before being contested as a concept", but the suffix allows Césaire to trope the vocabulary of racist science.
2916:
2238:
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2116:
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1181:
1101:
852:
638:
2197:
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discussions in their writings and also owned the Clamart Salon, a tea-shop venue of the Afro-French intelligentsia where the philosophy of
959:
101:, racism and Eurocentrism. They promoted African culture within a framework of persistent Franco-African ties. The intellectuals employed
809:
2477:
1394:
1301:
1071:
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movement. The Nardal sisters, for all their ideas and the importance of their Clamart Salon, have been minimized in the development of
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2652:
2353:
2167:
634:
2227:
1519:
1473:
1332:
1314:
158:, which, like its English counterpart, was derogatory and had a different meaning from "black man". The movement's use of the word
722:
2461:
2307:
783:
2378:
2207:
2136:
1465:
867:
Raisa Rexer (Winter 2013). "Black and White and Re(a)d All Over: L'Étudiant noir, Communism, and the Birth of Négritude".
566:
166:
form of empowerment. The term was first used in its present sense by Aimé Césaire, in the third issue (May–June 1935) of
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2837:
2192:
2177:
1613:
1373:
748:
78:
1257:
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2936:
2322:
1856:
687:
74:
1349:
475:
2454:
2131:
1433:
1280:
Sharpley-Whiting, T. Denean. “Femme Négritude: Jane Nardal, La Dépêche Africaine, and the Francophone New Negro.”
2931:
2822:
2752:
2187:
2152:
618:
will not paint 'duiker' on his beautiful back to proclaim his duikeritude; you'll know him by his elegant leap."
470:
1577:, Georges Courrèges, Baba Diop; Maison Africaine de la Poésie Internationale. Shot in Sénégal in 2005, 56' (DVD)
2956:
2911:
2642:
2343:
2092:
1997:
1921:
1761:
1066:
626:
204:
1588:
Noir, Journal Mensuel de l'Association des Etudiants Martiniquais en France, Premiere Annee N. 3 May–June 1935
1562:
1453:
Rexer, Raisa. "Black and White and Re(a)d All Over: L'Étudiant noir, Communism, and the Birth of Négritude".
2951:
2401:
2373:
2368:
2358:
2212:
2172:
1906:
1801:
1747:
1606:
777:
742:
312:
554:
2672:
2527:
2497:
2182:
1821:
1670:
1570:
370:
360:
2782:
2712:
2702:
2423:
2087:
1558:
642:
591:
292:
during the 1790s. Césaire spoke, thus, of Haiti as being "where négritude stood up for the first time".
20:
1362:
188:
168:
1550:
1487:
Return to the Kingdom of Childhood: Re-envisioning the Legacy and Philosophical Relevance of Negritude
177:
2827:
2657:
2647:
2522:
2269:
2222:
1952:
1876:
1841:
1566:
1324:
1087:
763:
710:
480:(the Departmentalization Law), which did not entail an abandonment of Martinique's distinct culture.
289:
196:
2562:
2517:
2312:
2286:
2007:
1650:
1232:
758:
630:
281:
2842:
2797:
2737:
2707:
2677:
2338:
2317:
2042:
1992:
1967:
1957:
1942:
1896:
1881:
1546:
1126:
1047:
918:
899:"Frantz Fanon and the Négritude Movement: How Strategic Essentialism Subverts Manichean Binaries"
880:
453:. He studied in Paris, where he discovered the black community and "rediscovered Africa". He saw
331:
304:
296:
255:
128:
1962:
1386:
1027:
983:
Negritude Agonistes, Assimilation against Nationalism in the Frenchspeaking Caribbean and Guyane
691:
430:
66:
365:
299:, a literary style developed in Harlem in Manhattan during the 1920s and 1930s, influenced the
2792:
2687:
2682:
2632:
2622:
2275:
1806:
1791:
1734:
1675:
1655:
1515:
1512:
The French Imperial Nation-State: Negritude & Colonial Humanism Between the Two World Wars
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1412:
1342:
1328:
1310:
1097:
848:
817:
662:
376:
320:
243:
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2817:
2772:
2747:
2291:
2067:
2002:
1982:
1977:
1796:
1665:
1242:
1039:
1005:
910:
872:
546:
526:
381:
324:
285:
192:
110:
46:
1207:
884:
2847:
2832:
2602:
2552:
2512:
2411:
2102:
2082:
2012:
1846:
1811:
1716:
788:
434:
343:
335:
308:
269:
200:
149:
120:
70:
54:
1831:
1253:
938:
The Practice of Diaspora: Literature, Translation, and the Rise of Black Internationalism
465:
Neither Césaire—who after returning to Martinique after his studies was elected mayor of
182:
414:
and a celebration of African history, traditions, and beliefs. Their literary style was
2867:
2732:
2722:
2662:
2597:
2567:
2537:
2502:
2492:
2383:
2348:
2097:
2057:
2047:
1916:
1911:
1901:
1891:
1826:
1786:
1695:
1629:
1554:
1306:
1144:
702:
466:
240:
124:
113:
being, asserting one's self and identity, and ideas of home, home-going and belonging.
31:
27:
2905:
2891:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2777:
2572:
2542:
2435:
2281:
2157:
2077:
2072:
2052:
2032:
2017:
1972:
1886:
1871:
1851:
1836:
1816:
1051:
922:
898:
698:
674:
509:
90:
86:
58:
1210:. Institute on Race, Health Care and the Law, The University of Dayton School of Law
2627:
2617:
2607:
2582:
2577:
2062:
1987:
1776:
1660:
1028:"Femme négritude: Jane Nardal, La Dépêche africaine, and the francophone new negro"
769:
646:
603:
415:
339:
316:
132:
2249:
1235:, "La Négritude et la 'Conscience raciale et révolution sociale' d'Aimé Césaire".
590:
was criticized by some Black writers during the 1960s as insufficiently militant.
210:
842:
2852:
2742:
2557:
2532:
2507:
1937:
1861:
1721:
1574:
1269:
960:"Négritude's Contretemps: The Coining and Reception of Aimé Césaire's Neologism"
876:
347:
119:
inspired the birth of many movements across the Afro-Diasporic world, including
98:
49:
during the 1930s, aimed at raising and cultivating "black consciousness" across
42:
2418:
810:"Vidéo. Qui était Paulette Nardal, mise à l'honneur ce mardi par Google ?"
327:
addressed the themes of "noireism", race relations and "double-consciousness".
2857:
2717:
2592:
2547:
2037:
1947:
1542:
1249:. ed. Léopold Senghor. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, p. xiv (1948).
1182:"Cheikh Thiam Appointed to Dean Post for the School of International Training"
1043:
753:
729:
450:
438:
277:
106:
62:
1505:
Négritude et nouveaux mondes—poésie noire: africaine, antillaise et malgache.
821:
2692:
2612:
2027:
2022:
1866:
1690:
1685:
1680:
569:
410:
273:
2886:
1009:
557:") that served as the introduction to a volume of francophone poetry named
1168:
914:
2762:
2727:
1781:
714:
405:
Each of the initiators had his own ideas about the purpose and styles of
512:
poet and National Assembly member. He had a militant style of defending
16:
Cultural and political movement developed by a francophone African elite
2872:
2697:
2667:
2363:
1130:
419:
284:. Black intellectuals have historically been proud of Haiti due to its
250:(On the Equality of Human Races), which was published as a rebuttal to
102:
82:
2245:
Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League
522:
Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache de langue française
380:
and acceptance of "double-apparantence", double-consciousness, in the
2787:
2481:
1741:
1700:
1446:
Contretemps: The Coining and Reception of Aimé Césaire's Neologism".
694:
were aware of discourse surrounding race and revolution from the US.
615:
251:
50:
2446:
1526:
Freedom time: Negritude, decolonization, and the future of the world
561:, compiled by Léopold Senghor. In this essay, Sartre characterizes
2637:
1587:
1073:
Black Orpheus, Transition, and Modern Cultural Awakening in Africa
1064:
The title subsequently inspired the name of the Nigerian magazine
718:
649:(1936–2017). Cheikh Thiam's book is the only book-length study of
237:
173:
1598:
1593:
1284:, vol. 2, no. 4, Taylor & Francis Group, 2000, pp. 8–17,
1032:
Souls: A Critical Journal of Black Politics, Culture, and Society
2587:
996:
Senghor, Léopold Sédar (1971). "Problématique de la Négritude".
176:
with fellow students Léopold Senghor and Léon Damas, as well as
163:
154:
is a constructed noun from the 1930s based upon the French word
2450:
1602:
621:
After a long period of silence there has been a renaissance of
500:
tended to be the most common, particularly during later years.
224:
suffix has been criticized, with Senghor noting that "the term
207:
as a valid strategy for resistance and for its use of the word
109:
stylistics, and in their work often explored the experience of
61:(known for having laid the theoretical basis of the movement),
1478:
Stovall, Tyler, "Aimé Césaire and the making of black Paris."
602:
The Nigerian dramatist, poet, and novelists Chinua Achebe and
732:
in his eponymous album "Négritude" but also before this one.
709:, a journalistic treatment of the legendary Ali vs. Foreman "
681:
and early abolitionist, is often said to have used the term "
53:
and its diaspora. Négritude gathers writers such as sisters
1117:
Maduakor, Obiajuru (1986). "Soyinka as a Literary Critic".
1421:
Irele, Abiola. "Négritude or black cultural nationalism."
1171:, English Department, University of California, Berkeley.
2218:
Pan-African Freedom Movement for East and Central Africa
1208:"An Early History – African American Mental Health"
686:
philosophy of Négritude during the 20th century. Still,
1541:
a documentary by Nathalie Fave and Jean-Baptiste Fave,
1428:
Le Baron, Bentley. "Négritude: A Pan-African Ideal?."
1093:
Identity Meets Nationality: Voices from the Humanities
2233:
Popular and Social League of the Great Sahara Tribes
449:
Césaire was a poet, playwright, and politician from
2331:
2300:
2262:
2145:
2124:
2115:
1930:
1769:
1760:
1709:
1643:
1636:
705:'s physical and psychological presence in his book
657:as a philosophy of art, and Jones' presentation of
364:was conceived. Paulette Nardal and the Haitian Dr.
1594:Césaire et l'introduction de la notion "négritude"
1247:Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache
559:Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache
584:), a strategy with a final goal of racial unity.
19:"Nigritude" redirects here. For the contest, see
576:issues to French intellectuals. In his opinion,
653:as philosophy. It develops Diagne's reading of
45:intellectuals, writers, and politicians in the
1411:, Africana Homestead Legacy Publishers, 2008,
1076:, University of California Press, 1986, p. 24.
553:philosophy in an essay called "Orphée Noir" ("
358:was often discussed and where the concept for
2462:
1614:
265:An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races
8:
1539:Négritude: Naissance et expansion du concept
841:Jansen, Jan C.; Osterhammel, Jürgen (2017).
533:into the broader intellectual conversation.
1569:, Amadou Ly, Youssoufa Bâ, Raphaël Ndiaye,
940:. Harvard University Press. pp. 20–38.
280:, and 20th-century American anthropologist
2469:
2455:
2447:
2121:
1766:
1640:
1621:
1607:
1599:
847:. Princeton University Press. p. 45.
2203:Organisation of African Trade Union Unity
1494:Negritude and Changing Africa: An Update,
1239:, No. 21, Automne 1980, pp. 119–130.
1186:The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education
679:United States Declaration of Independence
162:was a way of re-imagining the word as an
2163:All-African People's Revolutionary Party
1090:; Anderson, Jemima Asabea, eds. (2011).
565:as the opposite of colonial racism in a
350:. The Nardal sisters contributed to the
260:Essai sur l'inégalité des Races Humaines
1922:I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson
1507:Concord, Mass: Wayside Publishing, 1994
800:
518:Poètes d'expression française 1900–1945
1480:French Politics, Culture & Society
520:. Senghor would then go on to publish
7:
2198:International African Service Bureau
1514:(University of Chicago Press, 2005)
1489:(Ohio State University Press, 2014)
1026:Sharpley-Whiting, T. Denean (2000).
1021:
1019:
953:
951:
949:
947:
728:The word is also used by the rapper
529:for the anthology that would propel
172:, a magazine that he had started in
2927:Black (human racial classification)
2239:Rassemblement Démocratique Africain
1395:Eastern Washington University Press
572:and with it he helped to introduce
401:Development during the 20th century
2168:All-African Trade Union Federation
635:University of California, Berkeley
14:
2228:Pan Africanist Congress of Azania
1423:Journal of Modern African Studies
970:(4): 377–98 – via ProQuest.
2885:
2429:
2417:
2407:
2406:
2397:
2396:
723:Democratic Republic of the Congo
701:used the term to describe boxer
276:and developer of the concept of
2354:All-African Peoples' Conference
1498:Research in African Literatures
1455:Research in African Literatures
1262:Research in African Literatures
1119:Research in African Literatures
869:Research in African Literatures
844:Decolonization: A Short History
645:) who all continue the work of
248:De l'égalité des races humaines
1528:(Duke University Press, 2015).
1460:Sharpley-Whiting, T. Denean.
1339:Poètes d'expression française.
625:developed by scholars such as
1:
2917:African and Black nationalism
2379:United States of Latin Africa
2208:Organisation of African Unity
2137:African Leadership University
1466:University of Minnesota Press
981:Filostrat, Christian (2008).
936:Edwards, Brent Hayes (2003).
580:was an "anti-racist racism" (
2193:First Pan-African Conference
1545:, with the interventions of
1374:University of Virginia Press
1351:Mine de Rien, Poèmes inédits
1096:. African Books Collective.
897:Nielsen, Cynthia R. (2013).
749:Black Consciousness Movement
384:-speaking Caribbean region.
885:10.2979/reseafrilite.44.4.1
877:10.2979/reseafrilite.44.4.1
808:Lafon, Cathy (2021-12-10).
471:Loi de départementalisation
272:, the initiator of Haitian
2973:
2132:African Leadership Academy
25:
18:
2942:Latin American literature
2881:
2823:San Francisco Renaissance
2488:
2424:Pan-Africanism portal
2392:
2188:Economic Freedom Fighters
2178:Convention People's Party
2153:African Unification Front
1044:10.1080/10999940009362232
958:Reilly, Brian J. (2020).
429:movement was a result of
2344:African-American leftism
2093:Henry Sylvester Williams
1857:Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo
1379:Senghor, Léopold Sédar,
1368:Senghor, Léopold Sedar,
1321:Discourse on Colonialism
1302:Return to My Native Land
627:Souleymane Bachir Diagne
246:published an early work
135:often made reference to
97:intellectuals disavowed
2402:Pan-Africanism category
2374:United States of Africa
2369:Union of African States
2359:East African Federation
2308:Ethnic groups of Africa
2213:Pan African Association
1802:Jean-Jacques Dessalines
1748:United States of Africa
1563:Victor Emmanuel Cabrita
743:Black Skin, White Masks
2653:Generation of the '30s
2528:British Poetry Revival
2183:East African Community
1822:Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof
1671:Anti-Western sentiment
1448:Philological Quarterly
1407:Filostrat, Christian.
1282:Souls (Boulder, Colo.)
1206:Randall, Vernellia R.
1010:10.3917/presa.078.0003
964:Philological Quarterly
690:did claim that he and
397:belongs in that list.
371:La Revue du Monde Noir
361:La Revue du Monde Noir
307:'s writers, including
209:
148:
131:in the United States.
127:in the Caribbean, and
2703:Informationist poetry
2088:Frances Cress Welsing
1432:76.4 (1966): 267-276
1393:Spokane, Washington:
1337:Damas, Léon-Gontran,
1268:: 1–7, archived from
1088:Amfo, Nana Aba Appiah
985:. Africana Homestead.
915:10.1353/cal.2013.0084
688:Léopold Sédar Senghor
643:Ohio State University
592:Keorapetse Kgositsile
268:). Firmin influenced
75:Léopold Sédar Senghor
21:Nigritude ultramarine
2828:Scottish Renaissance
2523:Black Mountain poets
2270:Black Star of Africa
2223:Pan-African Congress
2173:Conseil de l'Entente
1953:Edward Wilmot Blyden
1877:Abdias do Nascimento
1842:Toussaint Louverture
1567:Nafissatou Dia Diouf
1543:first minutes online
1450:99.4 (2020): 377–98.
1425:3.3 (1965): 321–348.
1402:Secondary literature
1383:Paris: Grasset, 1988
1370:The Collected Poetry
1348:Damas, Léon-Gontan,
1325:Monthly Review Press
1237:Présence Francophone
1070:— see Peter Benson,
764:Black Power Movement
711:Rumble in the Jungle
290:Toussaint Louverture
2922:Africana philosophy
2768:New American Poetry
2518:Black Arts Movement
2498:Akhmatova's Orphans
2323:Conflicts in Africa
2313:Languages of Africa
2287:Pan-African colours
2008:Yosef Ben-Jochannan
1651:African nationalism
1571:Alioune Badara Bèye
1409:Negritude Agonistes
1391:Red Earth/Latérite.
1258:"O Brave New World"
1233:Christian Filostrat
759:Black Arts Movement
725:) in October 1974.
673:American physician
631:Columbia University
594:said that the term
582:racisme antiraciste
425:Motivation for the
418:and they cherished
282:Melville Herskovits
2947:Literary movements
2937:French West Africa
2843:Southern Agrarians
2738:Metaphysical poets
2678:Harlem Renaissance
2339:African philosophy
2318:Religion in Africa
2043:Zephania Mothopeng
1993:Amy Ashwood Garvey
1968:John Henrik Clarke
1958:Stokely Carmichael
1943:Molefi Kete Asante
1897:John Nyathi Pokela
1882:Gamal Abdel Nasser
1559:Jacqueline Lemoine
1549:, Racine Senghor,
1547:Amadou Lamine Sall
1482:27#3 (2009): 44–46
1457:44.4 (2013): 1-14.
1439:Reilly, Brian J. "
1363:Présence Africaine
1359:Leurres et lueurs.
998:Présence Africaine
677:, a signer of the
332:Harlem Renaissance
305:Harlem Renaissance
297:Harlem Renaissance
256:Arthur de Gobineau
129:black is beautiful
2899:
2898:
2892:Poetry portal
2688:Hungry generation
2683:Harvard Aesthetes
2658:Generation of '98
2648:Generation of '27
2623:The poets of Elan
2444:
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2436:Africa portal
2276:Le Marron Inconnu
2258:
2257:
2111:
2110:
1907:Ahmed Sékou Touré
1756:
1755:
1676:Black nationalism
1656:African socialism
1561:, Gérard Chenêt,
1503:Thompson, Peter,
1492:Thompson, Peter,
1417:978-0-9818939-2-1
1343:Editions du Seuil
1245:. "Orphée Noir".
1243:Sartre, Jean-Paul
1103:978-9988-647-96-4
854:978-1-4008-8488-9
663:lebensphilosophie
514:"black qualities"
189:Leonard Sainville
2964:
2932:French Caribbean
2890:
2889:
2803:Parnassian poets
2773:New Apocalyptics
2748:Modernist poetry
2563:Confessionalists
2553:Churchyard poets
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2399:
2292:Pan-African flag
2122:
2068:Randall Robinson
2003:Leonard Jeffries
1983:W. E. B. Du Bois
1978:Cheikh Anta Diop
1973:Martin R. Delany
1797:David Comissiong
1767:
1666:Anti-imperialism
1641:
1623:
1616:
1609:
1600:
1551:Lylian Kesteloot
1445:
1387:Tadjo, Véronique
1381:Ce que je crois.
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1169:"Donna V. Jones"
1166:
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1149:This Analog Life
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773:("Angolan-ness")
754:Black Surrealism
633:), Donna Jones (
547:Jean-Paul Sartre
527:Jean-Paul Sartre
479:
303:philosophy. The
286:slave revolution
193:Louis T. Achille
186:
178:Gilbert Gratiant
139:in his writing.
47:African diaspora
2972:
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2957:Postcolonialism
2912:1930s in Africa
2902:
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2848:Spasmodic poets
2833:Sicilian School
2783:New York School
2603:Dolce Stil Novo
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2388:
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2103:Omali Yeshitela
2083:Issa Laye Thiaw
2013:Maulana Karenga
1998:John G. Jackson
1926:
1847:Patrice Lumumba
1812:Muammar Gaddafi
1752:
1717:African century
1705:
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1485:Thiam, Cheikh.
1462:Negritude Women
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510:French Guianese
484:Leopold Senghor
473:
435:Leopold Senghor
403:
346:and her sister
344:Paulette Nardal
336:Langston Hughes
309:Langston Hughes
270:Jean Price-Mars
234:
201:Paulette Nardal
197:Aristide Maugée
180:
169:L'Étudiant noir
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121:Afro-Surrealism
71:Abdoulaye Sadji
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1555:Jean-Louis Roy
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2883:
2793:Objectivists
2757:
2753:The Movement
2618:Ego-Futurism
2608:Dymock poets
2583:Cyclic Poets
2578:Culteranismo
2274:
2237:
2063:Paul Robeson
1988:Frantz Fanon
1963:Aimé Césaire
1832:Modibo Keïta
1777:Dennis Akumu
1740:
1733:
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1661:Afrocentrism
1538:
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1289:Bibliography
1281:
1270:the original
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1261:
1246:
1236:
1212:. Retrieved
1201:
1190:. Retrieved
1188:. 2020-01-06
1185:
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1153:. Retrieved
1151:. 2013-08-05
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871:44.4: 1-14.
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825:. Retrieved
813:
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778:Authenticité
776:
770:Angolanidade
768:
741:
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692:Aimé Césaire
682:
672:
658:
654:
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647:Abiola Irele
639:Cheikh Thiam
622:
620:
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604:Wole Soyinka
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459:
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445:Aimé Césaire
444:
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431:Aimé Césaire
426:
424:
416:surrealistic
411:Heideggerian
406:
404:
393:
389:
386:
375:
369:
359:
355:
351:
340:Claude McKay
329:
317:Claude McKay
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247:
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221:
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208:
205:assimilation
167:
159:
155:
147:
146:
136:
133:Frantz Fanon
116:
115:
94:
67:Aimé Césaire
37:
36:
35:
2853:Sung poetry
2838:Sons of Ben
2763:Neotericism
2743:Misty Poets
2708:İkinci Yeni
2558:Conceptismo
2533:Cairo poets
2508:Auden Group
2125:Educational
1938:Marimba Ani
1862:Thabo Mbeki
1770:Politicians
1722:Black power
1575:Hamidou Dia
1533:Filmography
1214:21 December
1145:"Tigritude"
1125:(1): 1–38.
1038:(4): 8–17.
474: [
321:Alain Locke
181: [
99:colonialism
77:(the first
43:francophone
32:Antillanité
2906:Categories
2858:Surrealism
2813:Précieuses
2808:La Pléiade
2718:Lake Poets
2593:Deep image
2548:Chhayavaad
2038:Ali Mazrui
1948:Steve Biko
1762:Proponents
1227:References
1192:2020-06-01
1155:2018-10-09
827:2021-10-13
730:Youssoupha
713:" bout in
683:Negritude"
669:Other uses
504:Leon Damas
451:Martinique
439:Leon Damas
368:initiated
278:Indigenism
232:Influences
107:Surrealist
87:Léon Damas
63:Martinican
26:See also:
2863:Symbolism
2758:Négritude
2693:Imaginism
2673:The Group
2643:Gay Saber
2633:Fugitives
2613:Ecopoetry
2513:The Beats
2146:Political
2028:Malcolm X
2023:Fela Kuti
1867:Tom Mboya
1728:Négritude
1691:Sankarism
1686:Nkrumaism
1681:Garveyism
1441:Négritude
1052:146582416
923:162812806
822:1760-6454
814:Sud Ouest
707:The Fight
697:Novelist
659:Négritude
655:Négritude
651:Négritude
623:Négritude
608:Négritude
596:Négritude
588:Négritude
578:négritude
574:Négritude
570:dialectic
563:négritude
551:Négritude
545:In 1948,
541:Reception
531:Négritude
498:Négritude
494:Négritude
489:Négritude
460:Négritude
455:Négritude
427:Négritude
407:Négritude
394:Négritude
390:Négritude
366:Leo Sajou
356:Négritude
352:Négritude
334:, namely
301:Négritude
274:ethnology
236:In 1885,
226:négritude
160:Négritude
150:Négritude
143:Etymology
137:Négritude
117:Négritude
111:diasporic
95:Négritude
79:President
38:Négritude
2728:Marinism
2568:Créolité
2301:Dynamics
1782:Idi Amin
1710:Concepts
1644:Variants
1637:Ideology
1468:, 2002,
1309:, 1997,
1256:(1998),
1004:(2): 5.
903:Callaloo
736:See also
715:Kinshasa
606:opposed
567:Hegelian
437:'s, and
377:negrismo
125:Créolité
55:Paulette
28:Créolité
2873:Zutiste
2698:Imagism
2668:Goliard
2493:Acmeism
2478:Schools
2364:Kwanzaa
2332:Related
2263:Symbols
2250:ZANU–PF
1361:Paris:
1341:Paris:
1131:3819421
637:), and
614:, "the
422:ideas.
420:Marxist
382:Spanish
238:Haitian
103:Marxist
85:), and
83:Senegal
2798:Others
2788:Oberiu
2482:poetry
1931:Others
1742:Ujamaa
1735:Ubuntu
1701:Zikism
1518:
1472:
1444:'s
1434:online
1430:Ethics
1415:
1397:, 2006
1376:, 1998
1365:, 1960
1345:, 1947
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252:French
222:-itude
199:, and
51:Africa
2638:Garip
2628:Flarf
1127:JSTOR
1048:S2CID
919:S2CID
881:JSTOR
795:Notes
721:(now
719:Zaire
661:as a
478:]
342:, by
218:Nègre
211:nègre
185:]
174:Paris
156:nègre
65:poet
2588:Dada
1516:ISBN
1470:ISBN
1413:ISBN
1329:ISBN
1311:ISBN
1216:2008
1098:ISBN
849:ISBN
818:ISSN
612:Horn
433:'s,
348:Jane
338:and
323:and
295:The
164:emic
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2480:of
1496:in
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