2276:)) Retrieved June 13, 2021 (p.1):"..In an earlier paper, however, we pointed out that α particles are sometimes turned through very large angles..."(p.2):"..Professor Rutherford has recently developed a theory to account for the scattering of α particles through these large angles, the assumption being that the deflexions are the result of an intimate encounter of an α particle with a single atom of the matter traversed. In this theory an atom is supposed to consist of a strong positive or negative central charge concentrated within a sphere of less than about 3 × 10–12 cm. radius, and surrounded by electricity of the opposite sigh distributed throughout the remainder of the atom of about 10−8 cm. radius..."
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2322:..Geiger and an English-New Zealand student, E. Marsden, to study their scattering through thin metallic foils. In 1909, the two physicists observe that some alpha-particles are scattered backwards by thin platinum or gold foils (Geiger 1909)...It takes Rutherford one and a half years to understand this result. In 1911, he concludes that the atom contains a very small 'nucleus'...
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1881:, which provide the necessary conditions of high temperature, high neutron flux and ejected matter. These stellar conditions make the successive neutron captures very fast, involving very neutron-rich species which then beta-decay to heavier elements, especially at the so-called waiting points that correspond to more stable nuclides with closed neutron shells (magic numbers).
1907:
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each nucleus had, by comparing the nuclear mass with that of the protons and neutrons which composed it. Differences between nuclear masses were calculated in this way. When nuclear reactions were measured, these were found to agree with
Einstein's calculation of the equivalence of mass and energy to
1418:
With Yukawa's papers, the modern model of the atom was complete. The center of the atom contains a tight ball of neutrons and protons, which is held together by the strong nuclear force, unless it is too large. Unstable nuclei may undergo alpha decay, in which they emit an energetic helium nucleus,
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containing most of its mass, and consisting of heavy positively charged particles with embedded electrons in order to balance out the charge (since the neutron was unknown). As an example, in this model (which is not the modern one) nitrogen-14 consisted of a nucleus with 14 protons and 7 electrons
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had predicted that the alpha particles should come out of the foil with their trajectories being at most slightly bent. But
Rutherford instructed his team to look for something that shocked him to observe: a few particles were scattered through large angles, even completely backwards in some cases.
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in
Physics was awarded jointly to Becquerel, for his discovery and to Marie and Pierre Curie for their subsequent research into radioactivity. Rutherford was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908 for his "investigations into the disintegration of the elements and the chemistry of radioactive
1806:
it eventually became possible for common subatomic particles as we know them (neutrons, protons and electrons) to exist. The most common particles created in the Big Bang which are still easily observable to us today were protons and electrons (in equal numbers). The protons would eventually form
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to overcome the electrical repulsion between the nuclei in order to fuse them; therefore nuclear fusion can only take place at very high temperatures or high pressures. When nuclei fuse, a very large amount of energy is released and the combined nucleus assumes a lower energy level. The binding
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The discovery for which
Rutherford is most famous is that atoms have nuclei; ...had its beginnings in 1909...Geiger and Marsden published their anomalous result in July, 1909...The first public announcement of this new model of atomic structure seems to have been made on March 7, 1911, when
1701:, is the development of an economically viable method of using energy from a controlled fusion reaction. Nuclear fusion is the origin of the energy (including in the form of light and other electromagnetic radiation) produced by the core of all stars including our own Sun.
1818:
Some relatively small quantities of elements beyond helium (lithium, beryllium, and perhaps some boron) were created in the Big Bang, as the protons and neutrons collided with each other, but all of the "heavier elements" (carbon, element number 6, and elements of greater
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were active over 1.5 billion years ago. Measurements of natural neutrino emission have demonstrated that around half of the heat emanating from the Earth's core results from radioactive decay. However, it is not known if any of this results from fission chain reactions.
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have been characterized as unstable. These "radioisotopes" decay over time scales ranging from fractions of a second to trillions of years. Plotted on a chart as a function of atomic and neutron numbers, the binding energy of the nuclides forms what is known as the
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peaks around iron (56 nucleons). Since the creation of heavier nuclei by fusion requires energy, nature resorts to the process of neutron capture. Neutrons (due to their lack of charge) are readily absorbed by a nucleus. The heavy elements are created by either a
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who mentioned the equations in his Nobel address, and they were also known to Yukawa, Wentzel, Taketani, Sakata, Kemmer, Heitler, and Fröhlich who appreciated the content of Proca's equations for developing a theory of the atomic nuclei in
Nuclear Physics.
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decay, the energy from an excited nucleus may eject one of the inner orbital electrons from the atom, in a process which produces high speed electrons but is not beta decay and (unlike beta decay) does not transmute one element to another.
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were ejected from the atom with a continuous range of energies, rather than the discrete amounts of energy that were observed in gamma and alpha decays. This was a problem for nuclear physics at the time, because it seemed to indicate that
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is the reverse process to fusion. For nuclei heavier than nickel-62 the binding energy per nucleon decreases with the mass number. It is therefore possible for energy to be released if a heavy nucleus breaks apart into two lighter ones.
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particles, which explained the mass not due to protons. The neutron spin immediately solved the problem of the spin of nitrogen-14, as the one unpaired proton and one unpaired neutron in this model each contributed a spin of
2630:..It is suggested that, in 1910, the 'plum pudding model' was suddenly overturned by Rutherford's experiment. In fact, Rutherford had already formulated the nuclear model of the atom before the experiment was carried out..
1407:, mediated a force between all nucleons, including protons and neutrons. This force explained why nuclei did not disintegrate under the influence of proton repulsion, and it also gave an explanation of why the attractive
1601:
The most stable nuclei fall within certain ranges or balances of composition of neutrons and protons: too few or too many neutrons (in relation to the number of protons) will cause it to decay. For example, in
1724:. It is a highly asymmetrical fission because the four particles which make up the alpha particle are especially tightly bound to each other, making production of this nucleus in fission particularly likely.
2605:, "..In 1910, his investigations into the scattering of alpha rays and the nature of the inner structure of the atom which caused such scattering led to the postulation of his concept of the 'nucleus'..."
1727:
From several of the heaviest nuclei whose fission produces free neutrons, and which also easily absorb neutrons to initiate fission, a self-igniting type of neutron-initiated fission can be obtained, in a
1271:. In the Rutherford model of nitrogen-14, 20 of the total 21 nuclear particles should have paired up to cancel each other's spin, and the final odd particle should have left the nucleus with a net spin of
1771:
of the relevant isotope present in a certain space under certain conditions. The conditions for the smallest critical mass require the conservation of the emitted neutrons and also their slowing or
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at tissue paper and having it bounce off. The discovery, with
Rutherford's analysis of the data in 1911, led to the Rutherford model of the atom, in which the atom had a very small, very dense
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process occurs in thermally pulsing stars (called AGB, or asymptotic giant branch stars) and takes hundreds to thousands of years to reach the heaviest elements of lead and bismuth. The
2565:
1423:). After one of these decays the resultant nucleus may be left in an excited state, and in this case it decays to its ground state by emitting high-energy photons (gamma decay).
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predates this, an explanation of the source of the energy of radioactivity would have to wait for the discovery that the nucleus itself was composed of smaller constituents, the
1732:. Chain reactions were known in chemistry before physics, and in fact many familiar processes like fires and chemical explosions are chemical chain reactions. The fission or
2305:
1551:) or extreme neutron-to-proton ratios. Experimenters can create such nuclei using artificially induced fusion or nucleon transfer reactions, employing ion beams from an
1629:, which typically occurs in the heaviest nuclei, the radioactive element decays by emitting a helium nucleus (2 protons and 2 neutrons), giving another element, plus
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1598:. Stable nuclides lie along the bottom of this energy valley, while increasingly unstable nuclides lie up the valley walls, that is, have weaker binding energy.
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1672:, two low-mass nuclei come into very close contact with each other so that the strong force fuses them. It requires a large amount of energy for the strong or
1162:. In 1911–1912 Rutherford went before the Royal Society to explain the experiments and propound the new theory of the atomic nucleus as we now understand it.
1693:. The uncontrolled fusion of hydrogen into helium is known as thermonuclear runaway. A frontier in current research at various institutions, for example the
1154:
with experiments he and
Rutherford had done, passing alpha particles through air, aluminum foil and gold leaf. More work was published in 1909 by Geiger and
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a year later was an indication that the atom had internal structure. At the beginning of the 20th century the accepted model of the atom was J. J. Thomson's
4113:
2681:.. in 1911, Rutherford writes: "I have been working recently on scattering of alpha and beta particles and have devised a new atom to explain the results..
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Published in 1909, with the eventual classical analysis by
Rutherford published May 1911, the key preemptive experiment was performed during 1909, at the
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and partly from electrical repulsion of the protons. The liquid-drop model is able to reproduce many features of nuclei, including the general trend of
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1555:. Beams with even higher energies can be used to create nuclei at very high temperatures, and there are signs that these experiments have produced a
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Scipioni, R. (1999). "Isomorphism between non-Riemannian gravity and
Einstein–Proca–Weyl theories extended to a class of scalar gravity theories".
1229:. This was a particularly remarkable development since at that time fusion and thermonuclear energy, and even that stars are largely composed of
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1614:-16 atom (8 protons, 8 neutrons) within a few seconds of being created. In this decay a neutron in the nitrogen nucleus is converted by the
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2020:
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Rutherford, transmutation and the proton 8 May 2019 The events leading to Ernest
Rutherford's discovery of the proton, published in 1919"
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in the first three minutes after the Big Bang, and this helium accounts for most of the helium in the universe today (see
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1219:. At that time, the source of stellar energy was a complete mystery; Eddington correctly speculated that the source was
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in 1934) led physicists to collide nuclei and electrons at ever higher energies. This research became the science of
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try to solve the nuclear many-body problem from the ground up, starting from the nucleons and their interactions.
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Superimposed on this classical picture, however, are quantum-mechanical effects, which can be described using the
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Vuille, C.; Ipser, J.; Gallagher, J. (2002). "Einstein–Proca model, micro black holes, and naked singularities".
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Rutherford, E. (May 1911). "LXXIX. The scattering of α and β particles by matter and the structure of the atom".
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Much of current research in nuclear physics relates to the study of nuclei under extreme conditions such as high
1169:. Ernest Rutherford's assistant, Professor Johannes "Hans" Geiger, and an undergraduate, Marsden, performed an
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2586:: School of Physics and Astronomy – Particle Physics Research Centre, Retrieved 13 June 2021 "..by Rutherford.."
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suggested that there were no electrons in the nucleus — only protons and neutrons — and that neutrons were spin
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in which the atom was a positively charged ball with smaller negatively charged electrons embedded inside it.
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Energy is only released in fusion processes involving smaller atoms than iron because the binding energy per
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which is never observed to decay, amounting to a total of about 251 stable nuclides. However, thousands of
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Tucker, R. W; Wang, C (1997). "An Einstein–Proca-fluid model for dark matter gravitational interactions".
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had a more limited range than the electromagnetic repulsion between protons. Later, the discovery of the
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mingle with one another, rather than being segregated in triplets as they are in neutrons and protons.
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Haxel, Otto; Jensen, J. Hans D; Suess, Hans E (1949). "On the "Magic Numbers" in Nuclear Structure".
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of this kind, including other types of decays (usually beta decay) until a stable element is formed.
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3487:. Isao Tanihata, Hiroshi Toki, Toshitaka Kajino (eds.). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. 2020.
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3625:. The International Series of Monographs on Physics (2. ed.). Oxford: Calrendon Press (OUP).
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was actually due to a neutral particle of about the same mass as the proton, that he called the
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2493:"This Month in Physics History: May, 1911: Rutherford and the Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus"
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1315:(following a suggestion from Rutherford about the need for such a particle). In the same year
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evolved out of nuclear physics and the two fields are typically taught in close association.
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Annotated bibliography on nuclear physics from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
3583:. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 882. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
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Povh, Bogdan; Rith, Klaus; Scholz, Christoph; Zetsche, Frank; Rodejohann, Werner (2015).
3222:"Topological properties of a self-assembled electrical network via ab initio calculation"
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With the discovery of the neutron, scientists could at last calculate what fraction of
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played an important role of particle detectors and eventually lead to the discovery of
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and others. By the turn of the century, physicists had also discovered three types of
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The Laws of Deflexion of α Particles Through Large Angles \\ H. Geiger and E. Marsden
1941:
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of hydrogen into helium, liberating enormous energy according to Einstein's equation
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2393:"1911 John Ratcliffe and Ernest Rutherford (smoking) at the Cavendish Laboratory..."
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Other more exotic decays are possible (see the first main article). For example, in
1622:. The element is transmuted to another element, with a different number of protons.
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and their constituents and interactions, in addition to the study of other forms of
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hydrogen atoms. Almost all the neutrons created in the Big Bang were absorbed into
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Other more complicated models for the nucleus have also been proposed, such as the
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In the years that followed, radioactivity was extensively investigated, notably by
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like the Sun are powered by the fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus, two
1644:, a nucleus decays from an excited state into a lower energy state, by emitting a
1195:(21 total particles) and the nucleus was surrounded by 7 more orbiting electrons.
3765:, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Jim Al-Khalili, John Gribbin and Catherine Sutton (
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published "Retardation of the α Particle from Radium in passing through matter."
17:
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2902:"Alexandru Proca (1897–1955) and his equation of the massive vector boson field"
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J.M.Blatt and V.F.Weisskopf, Theoretical Nuclear Physics, Springer, 1979, VII.5
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The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
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and excitation energy. Nuclei may also have extreme shapes (similar to that of
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2736:"The Structure and Binding Energy of the Alpha Particle, the Helium 4 Nucleus"
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3446:. Graduate Texts in Physics. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
2336:"The Scattering of α and β Particles by Matter and the Structure of the Atom"
2261:, H. Geiger and E. Marsden, Roy. Soc. Proc. vol. LXXXII. p. 495 (1909), in,
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2074:"On the retardation of the α particle from radium in passing through matter"
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in 1929. By 1925 it was known that protons and electrons each had a spin of
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3403:. Undergraduate Texts in Physics. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
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Rutherford addressed the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society;...
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1515:" numbers of neutrons and protons are particularly stable, because their
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The study of the strong and weak nuclear forces (the latter explained by
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3346:"Nuclear Fission Confirmed as Source of More than Half of Earth's Heat"
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2291:"Physics and Radioactivity after the Discovery of Polonium and Radium"
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This article is about the study of atomic nuclei. For other uses, see
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or probability of them initiating another fission. In two regions of
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Eddington, A. S. (1920). "The Internal Constitution of the Stars".
1648:. The element is not changed to another element in the process (no
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In 1932 Chadwick realized that radiation that had been observed by
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Ernest Rutherford's biography at the American Institute of Physics
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plants and fission-type nuclear bombs, such as those detonated in
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For a neutron-initiated chain reaction to occur, there must be a
1764:, but they are much more likely to undergo decay by alpha decay.
1472:. This means that with some approximation it can be treated as a
1281:. Rasetti discovered, however, that nitrogen-14 had a spin of 1.
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4741:
4701:
4277:
4272:
3150:
Mayer, Maria Goeppert (1949). "On Closed Shells in Nuclei. II".
2412:"..that would become a classic technique of particle physics..."
1780:
1698:
1682:
1548:
1212:
1178:
1012:
1008:
901:
4128:
3776:
3276:
Not a typical example as it results in a "doubly magic" nucleus
1736:, using fission-produced neutrons, is the source of energy for
3443:
Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts
2549:
A History of Gamma-Ray Astronomy Including Related Discoveries
2272:(1913), (published subsequently online by – physics.utah.edu (
1160:
further greatly expanded work was published in 1910 by Geiger
1019:
The history of nuclear physics as a discipline distinct from
1351:
3743:
1802:
According to the theory, as the Universe cooled after the
1492:
with respect to mass number, as well as the phenomenon of
3110:
Proceedings of the Physico-Mathematical Society of Japan
2951:
G. A. Proca, Alexandre Proca.Oeuvre Scientifique Publiée
2566:
High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center
1835:. Progressively heavier elements are created during the
1245:
The Rutherford model worked quite well until studies of
1415:
showed it to have the properties of Yukawa's particle.
1359:
was the first to develop and report the massive vector
1340:
in the same direction, giving a final total spin of 1.
1058:, a Polish physicist whose maiden name was Sklodowska,
1173:
under Rutherford's supervision fired alpha particles (
3714:
3703:
American Physical Society Division of Nuclear Physics
3702:
2051:
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain
1526:, in which pairs of neutrons and protons interact as
1677:
energy per nucleon increases with mass number up to
1610:-16 atom (7 protons, 9 neutrons) is converted to an
1484:, the nucleus has an energy that arises partly from
5092:
5056:
4973:
4934:
4904:
4878:
4865:
4797:
4765:
4692:
4627:
4618:
4609:
4505:
4460:
4432:
4423:
4414:
4396:
4374:
4346:
4337:
4253:
4180:
4171:
4162:
4086:
4023:
3951:
3867:
3839:
3811:
2573:
Quantum Mechanics and Particle Scattering Lecture 1
1419:or beta decay, in which they eject an electron (or
1352:
Proca's equations of the massive vector boson field
1395:to explain how the nucleus holds together. In the
2900:Poenaru, Dorin N.; Calboreanu, Alexandru (2006).
2806:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2547:Leonard, P. and Gehrels, N. (November 28, 2009)
2306:International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
969:, is crucial in explaining the inner workings of
1150:expanded on this work in a communication to the
951:. Such applications are studied in the field of
3106:"On the Interaction of Elementary Particles. I"
2009:"Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence"
1633:. In many cases this process continues through
1559:from normal nuclear matter to a new state, the
1382:
3630:Blatt, John M.; Weisskopf, Victor F. (1979) .
2171:"On the diffuse reflection of the α-particles"
1094:was continuous rather than discrete. That is,
4140:
3788:
2559:National Aeronautics and Space Administration
2217:"The scattering of the α-particles by matter"
1391:proposed the first significant theory of the
859:
8:
3288:"The Workings of an Ancient Nuclear Reactor"
2257:H. Geiger and E. Marsden, PM, 25, 604 1913,
2121:"On the scattering of α-particles by matter"
1720:is in essence a special type of spontaneous
896:Nuclear physics should not be confused with
2802:"On the radiative equilibrium of the stars"
2642:
2640:
1207:anticipated the discovery and mechanism of
911:Discoveries in nuclear physics have led to
27:Field of physics that studies atomic nuclei
4875:
4871:
4624:
4615:
4429:
4420:
4343:
4177:
4168:
4147:
4133:
4125:
3795:
3781:
3773:
3665:Bethe, Hans A.; Morrison, Philip (2006) .
3400:The Basics of Nuclear and Particle Physics
3397:Belyaev, Alexander; Ross, Douglas (2021).
3071:Nuclear Physics B: Proceedings Supplements
2693:
2691:
2689:
2610:"Case studies from the history of physics"
2289:Radvanyi, Pierre (January–February 2011).
2284:
2282:
866:
852:
36:
3253:
3121:
3029:
2976:
2927:
2871:
2825:
2242:
2196:
2146:
2707:. cuny.manifoldapp.org CUNY's Manifold (
1468:A heavy nucleus can contain hundreds of
1442:, which describes the strong, weak, and
1383:Yukawa's meson postulated to bind nuclei
965:, the application of nuclear physics to
931:, industrial and agricultural isotopes,
1974:
1851:neutron capture process (the so-called
1090:in 1914 discovered that the beta decay
1070:emanating from atoms, which they named
39:
3993:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics
3619:Mott, N. F.; Massey, H. S. W. (1949).
3537:Bohr, Aage; Mottelson, Ben R (1998) .
3514:
2488:"...1909...a couple of years later..."
1217:The Internal Constitution of the Stars
1171:experiment in which Geiger and Marsden
2346:from the original on 12 February 2020
1122:. While the work on radioactivity by
7:
3356:from the original on 25 January 2023
1285:James Chadwick discovers the neutron
1199:Eddington and stellar nuclear fusion
3669:. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications.
3636:. New York, NY: Springer New York.
2647:Jariskog, Cecilia (December 2008).
1959:, web driven nuclear science portal
3580:Nuclear Reactions: An Introduction
3130:from the original on Nov 22, 2023.
2965:General Relativity and Gravitation
2851:Proceedings of the Royal Society A
2620:from the original on 22 April 2021
2527:. University of Alaska-Fairbanks.
2478:from the original on 18 April 2021
2334:Rutherford F.R.S., E. (May 1911).
2222:Proceedings of the Royal Society A
2176:Proceedings of the Royal Society A
2126:Proceedings of the Royal Society A
1618:into a proton, an electron and an
1585:Eighty elements have at least one
1440:standard model of particle physics
1438:, the crown jewel of which is the
1374:. Proca's equations were known to
1255:California Institute of Technology
1031:in 1896, made while investigating
25:
3577:Paetz gen. Schieck, Hans (2014).
3540:Nuclear Structure: (In 2 Volumes)
3312:10.1038/scientificamerican1105-82
3220:Stephenson, C.; et., al. (2017).
2671:from the original on 13 June 2021
2568:(HEASARC), Retrieved 13 June 2021
2531:from the original on 13 June 2021
2509:from the original on 13 June 2021
2443:from the original on 13 June 2021
2402:from the original on 1 April 2021
5191:
5084:Timeline of particle discoveries
2453:"experiment was conducted 1911"
2312:from the original on 9 July 2023
1905:
1891:
1877:-process is thought to occur in
1785:natural nuclear fission reactors
1237:), had not yet been discovered.
1138:Rutherford discovers the nucleus
833:
832:
819:
47:
32:Nuclear physics (disambiguation)
4114:Timeline of physics discoveries
3622:The Theory Of Atomic Collisions
3565:from the original on 2023-01-20
3344:Biello, David (July 18, 2011).
3326:from the original on 2009-02-27
3286:Meshik, A. P. (November 2005).
2098:from the original on 2022-03-31
2023:from the original on 2017-09-04
1023:, starts with the discovery of
975:origin of the chemical elements
1986:. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
1792:Production of "heavy" elements
915:in many fields. This includes
1:
3091:10.1016/s0920-5632(97)00399-x
2701:The Making of the Atomic Bomb
1503:, developed in large part by
5100:History of subatomic physics
3744:Nuclear Data Services – IAEA
2846:"The existence of a neutron"
2584:Queen Mary University London
2519:"..1909..published – 1911.."
1984:Nuclear and Particle Physics
1039:salts. The discovery of the
4078:Quantum information science
3633:Theoretical Nuclear Physics
3484:Handbook of Nuclear Physics
2709:City University of New York
2562:Goddard Space Flight Center
2460:CULTURE AND HISTORY FEATURE
2425:"The Rutherford Experiment"
2342:. 6. 21 May 1911: 669–688.
1775:so that there is a greater
613:High-energy nuclear physics
5234:
3909:Classical electromagnetism
3375:
3246:10.1038/s41598-017-01007-9
3123:10.11429/ppmsj1919.17.0_48
3048:10.1088/0264-9381/16/7/320
1795:
1574:
1453:
1288:
1186:He likened it to firing a
1082:radiation. Experiments by
929:magnetic resonance imaging
904:as a whole, including its
29:
5189:
4874:
3667:Elementary Nuclear Theory
3642:10.1007/978-1-4612-9959-2
3589:10.1007/978-3-642-53986-2
3493:10.1007/978-981-15-8818-1
3452:10.1007/978-3-662-46321-5
3417:10.1007/978-3-030-80116-8
3207:10.1103/PhysRev.75.1766.2
2800:Eddington, A. S. (1916).
2379:10.1080/14786440508637080
2092:10.1080/14786440609463525
1927:Neutron-degenerate matter
1913:Nuclear technology portal
5117:mathematical formulation
4712:Eta and eta prime mesons
4015:Condensed matter physics
3715:American Nuclear Society
2437:Florida State University
2007:Henri Becquerel (1896).
1813:Big Bang nucleosynthesis
1734:"nuclear" chain-reaction
1291:Discovery of the neutron
1167:University of Manchester
1101:energy was not conserved
4779:Double-charm tetraquark
3172:10.1103/PhysRev.75.1969
3104:Yukawa, Hideki (1935).
2995:10.1023/a:1015942229041
2953:, S.I.A.G., Rome, 1988.
2592:rutherford/biographical
2582:, p.9, pprc.qmul.ac.uk
2298:Chemistry International
1752:. Heavy nuclei such as
1748:, Japan, at the end of
1524:interacting boson model
1511:. Nuclei with certain "
1241:Studies of nuclear spin
1120:mass–energy equivalence
1118:formulated the idea of
124:Interacting boson model
4099:Nobel Prize in Physics
3961:Relativistic mechanics
3521:: CS1 maint: others (
3018:Class. Quantum Gravity
2873:10.1098/rspa.1932.0112
2767:The Scientific Monthly
2340:Philosophical Magazine
2244:10.1098/rspa.1910.0038
2198:10.1098/rspa.1909.0054
2148:10.1098/rspa.1908.0067
2079:Philosophical Magazine
1480:one. In the resulting
1450:Modern nuclear physics
1444:electromagnetic forces
1348:within 1% as of 1934.
1016:
992:
5176:Wave–particle duality
5166:Relativistic particle
4303:Electron antineutrino
4104:Philosophy of physics
2827:10.1093/mnras/77.1.16
2653:The nucleus and more"
2423:Davidson, Michael W.
1982:B. R. Martin (2006).
1650:nuclear transmutation
1309:Frédéric Joliot-Curie
998:
988:
937:materials engineering
511:High-energy processes
209:– equal all the above
107:Models of the nucleus
4406:Faddeev–Popov ghosts
4156:Particles in physics
4063:Mathematical physics
3732:Nuclear science wiki
3613:Classics or Historic
3543:. World Scientific.
2890:, December 13, 1946.
2614:Institute of Physics
2429:micro.magnet.fsu.edu
2042:Thomson, Joseph John
1947:Nuclear spectroscopy
1879:supernova explosions
1833:triple-alpha process
1695:Joint European Torus
1505:Maria Goeppert Mayer
1366:and a theory of the
1249:were carried out by
1177:) at a thin film of
1049:"plum pudding" model
963:Nuclear astrophysics
900:, which studies the
547:nuclear astrophysics
5181:Particle chauvinism
5124:Subatomic particles
4038:Atmospheric physics
3877:Classical mechanics
3805:branches of physics
3409:2021bnpp.book.....B
3386:Nuclear engineering
3350:Scientific American
3304:2005SciAm.293e..82M
3292:Scientific American
3238:2017NatSR...7..932B
3199:1949PhRv...75R1766H
3164:1949PhRv...75.1969M
3083:1997NuPhS..57..259T
3040:1999CQGra..16.2471S
2987:2002GReGr..34..689V
2929:10.1051/epn:2006504
2920:2006ENews..37e..24P
2864:1932RSPSA.136..692C
2818:1916MNRAS..77...16E
2779:1920SciMo..11..297E
2740:San Jose University
2698:Godenko, Lyudmila.
2235:1910RSPSA..83..492G
2189:1909RSPSA..82..495G
2139:1908RSPSA..81..174G
1825:proton–proton chain
1762:spontaneous fission
1657:internal conversion
1596:valley of stability
1581:Valley of stability
1501:nuclear shell model
1460:Nuclear shell model
1432:Fermi's interaction
953:nuclear engineering
529:Photodisintegration
452:Capturing processes
366:Spontaneous fission
359:Internal conversion
290:Valley of stability
285:Island of stability
119:Nuclear shell model
4094:History of physics
3761:2017-12-23 at the
3749:2021-03-18 at the
3737:2013-10-21 at the
3720:2008-12-02 at the
3708:2017-09-20 at the
3696:2016-07-30 at the
3226:Scientific Reports
2746:on 30 January 2020
2597:2023-06-03 at the
2578:2021-06-13 at the
2554:2021-06-13 at the
2523:Anderson, Ashley.
2274:University of Utah
2268:2019-05-01 at the
2070:Rutherford, Ernest
1561:quark–gluon plasma
1478:quantum-mechanical
1397:Yukawa interaction
1183:plum pudding model
1017:
993:
941:radiocarbon dating
826:Physics portal
620:Quark–gluon plasma
403:Radiogenic nuclide
5205:
5204:
5161:Massless particle
4969:
4968:
4965:
4964:
4930:
4929:
4793:
4792:
4605:
4604:
4601:
4600:
4553:Magnetic monopole
4501:
4500:
4392:
4391:
4333:
4332:
4313:Muon antineutrino
4298:Electron neutrino
4122:
4121:
4109:Physics education
4058:Materials science
4025:Interdisciplinary
3983:Quantum mechanics
3676:978-0-486-45048-3
3651:978-1-4612-9961-5
3598:978-3-642-53985-5
3558:978-981-02-3197-2
3461:978-3-662-46320-8
3426:978-3-030-80115-1
3382:Nuclear chemistry
3158:(12): 1969–1970.
2734:Watkins, Thayer.
2652:
2541:"1911 performed "
2461:
1993:978-0-470-01999-3
1952:Nuclear structure
1932:Nuclear chemistry
1783:, Gabon, Africa,
1760:may also undergo
1534:Ab initio methods
1509:J. Hans D. Jensen
1482:liquid-drop model
1464:Nuclear structure
1456:Liquid-drop model
1403:, later called a
1144:Ernest Rutherford
1103:in these decays.
1064:Ernest Rutherford
999:Since the 1920s,
876:
875:
562:
308:Radioactive decay
264:Nuclear stability
91:Nuclear structure
18:Nuclear scientist
16:(Redirected from
5225:
5195:
5171:Virtual particle
4942:Mesonic molecule
4876:
4872:
4717:Bottom eta meson
4625:
4616:
4588:W′ and Z′ bosons
4578:Sterile neutrino
4563:Majorana fermion
4430:
4421:
4344:
4323:Tau antineutrino
4178:
4169:
4149:
4142:
4135:
4126:
4048:Chemical physics
3988:Particle physics
3914:Classical optics
3797:
3790:
3783:
3774:
3769:, Jan. 10, 2002)
3680:
3661:
3659:
3658:
3626:
3608:
3606:
3605:
3573:
3571:
3570:
3526:
3520:
3512:
3510:
3509:
3471:
3469:
3468:
3436:
3434:
3433:
3366:
3365:
3363:
3361:
3341:
3335:
3334:
3332:
3331:
3283:
3277:
3274:
3268:
3267:
3257:
3217:
3211:
3210:
3182:
3176:
3175:
3147:
3141:
3138:
3132:
3131:
3125:
3101:
3095:
3094:
3077:(1–3): 259–262.
3066:
3060:
3059:
3033:
3024:(7): 2471–2478.
3013:
3007:
3006:
2980:
2960:
2954:
2948:
2942:
2941:
2931:
2907:Europhysics News
2897:
2891:
2884:
2878:
2877:
2875:
2858:(830): 692–708.
2838:
2832:
2831:
2829:
2797:
2791:
2790:
2762:
2756:
2755:
2753:
2751:
2742:. Archived from
2731:
2725:
2724:
2718:
2716:
2706:
2695:
2684:
2683:
2678:
2676:
2670:
2657:
2650:
2644:
2635:
2632:
2627:
2625:
2544:1911 discovers:
2540:
2538:
2536:
2518:
2516:
2514:
2487:
2485:
2483:
2459:
2452:
2450:
2448:
2427:. micro.magnet.
2419:
2413:
2411:
2409:
2407:
2389:
2383:
2382:
2373:(125): 669–688.
2362:
2356:
2355:
2353:
2351:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2319:
2317:
2295:
2286:
2277:
2255:
2249:
2248:
2246:
2229:(565): 492–504.
2209:
2203:
2202:
2200:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2150:
2133:(546): 174–177.
2113:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2103:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2038:
2032:
2031:
2029:
2028:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1979:
1915:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1901:
1896:
1895:
1616:weak interaction
1557:phase transition
1476:, rather than a
1474:classical system
1436:particle physics
1401:virtual particle
1339:
1338:
1334:
1328:
1327:
1323:
1280:
1279:
1275:
1270:
1269:
1265:
1262:
1205:Arthur Eddington
959:Particle physics
933:ion implantation
925:nuclear medicine
881:is the field of
868:
861:
854:
841:
836:
835:
828:
824:
823:
700:Skłodowska-Curie
560:
376:Neutron emission
144:' classification
96:Nuclear reaction
51:
37:
21:
5233:
5232:
5228:
5227:
5226:
5224:
5223:
5222:
5218:Nuclear physics
5208:
5207:
5206:
5201:
5185:
5139:Nuclear physics
5088:
5052:
4988:Davydov soliton
4961:
4926:
4900:
4861:
4789:
4761:
4688:
4597:
4497:
4456:
4410:
4388:
4370:
4329:
4249:
4158:
4153:
4123:
4118:
4082:
4068:Medical physics
4019:
3978:Nuclear physics
3947:
3941:Non-equilibrium
3863:
3835:
3807:
3801:
3763:Wayback Machine
3756:Nuclear Physics
3751:Wayback Machine
3739:Wayback Machine
3722:Wayback Machine
3710:Wayback Machine
3698:Wayback Machine
3687:
3677:
3664:
3656:
3654:
3652:
3629:
3618:
3615:
3603:
3601:
3599:
3576:
3568:
3566:
3559:
3536:
3533:
3513:
3507:
3505:
3503:
3481:
3478:
3476:Reference works
3466:
3464:
3462:
3439:
3431:
3429:
3427:
3396:
3393:
3388:
3374:
3369:
3359:
3357:
3343:
3342:
3338:
3329:
3327:
3285:
3284:
3280:
3275:
3271:
3219:
3218:
3214:
3187:Physical Review
3184:
3183:
3179:
3152:Physical Review
3149:
3148:
3144:
3139:
3135:
3103:
3102:
3098:
3068:
3067:
3063:
3015:
3014:
3010:
2962:
2961:
2957:
2949:
2945:
2899:
2898:
2894:
2888:, Nobel lecture
2885:
2881:
2842:Chadwick, James
2840:
2839:
2835:
2799:
2798:
2794:
2764:
2763:
2759:
2749:
2747:
2733:
2732:
2728:
2714:
2712:
2704:
2697:
2696:
2687:
2674:
2672:
2668:
2655:
2646:
2645:
2638:
2623:
2621:
2608:
2599:Wayback Machine
2580:Wayback Machine
2556:Wayback Machine
2534:
2532:
2522:
2512:
2510:
2505:(5). May 2006.
2491:
2481:
2479:
2456:
2446:
2444:
2422:
2420:
2416:
2405:
2403:
2391:
2390:
2386:
2364:
2363:
2359:
2349:
2347:
2333:
2332:
2328:
2315:
2313:
2293:
2288:
2287:
2280:
2270:Wayback Machine
2256:
2252:
2211:
2210:
2206:
2167:Marsden, Ernest
2161:
2160:
2156:
2115:
2114:
2110:
2101:
2099:
2086:(68): 134–146.
2068:
2067:
2063:
2040:
2039:
2035:
2026:
2024:
2006:
2005:
2001:
1994:
1981:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1967:
1911:
1906:
1904:
1897:
1890:
1887:
1800:
1798:nucleosynthesis
1794:
1722:nuclear fission
1716:The process of
1710:Nuclear fission
1707:
1705:Nuclear fission
1666:
1583:
1575:Main articles:
1573:
1563:, in which the
1494:nuclear fission
1486:surface tension
1466:
1454:Main articles:
1452:
1385:
1364:field equations
1357:Alexandru Proca
1354:
1336:
1332:
1331:
1325:
1321:
1320:
1317:Dmitri Ivanenko
1293:
1287:
1277:
1273:
1272:
1267:
1263:
1260:
1258:
1243:
1215:, in his paper
1201:
1175:helium 4 nuclei
1140:
1116:Albert Einstein
1086:in 1911 and by
1033:phosphorescence
1029:Henri Becquerel
990:Henri Becquerel
983:
921:nuclear weapons
879:Nuclear physics
872:
831:
818:
817:
810:
809:
645:
635:
634:
615:
605:
604:
549:
545:
542:Nucleosynthesis
534:
533:
512:
504:
503:
453:
445:
444:
418:
416:Nuclear fission
408:
407:
381:Proton emission
310:
300:
299:
265:
257:
256:
158:
145:
134:
133:
109:
41:Nuclear physics
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5231:
5229:
5221:
5220:
5210:
5209:
5203:
5202:
5198:Physics portal
5190:
5187:
5186:
5184:
5183:
5178:
5173:
5168:
5163:
5158:
5153:
5152:
5151:
5141:
5136:
5131:
5126:
5121:
5120:
5119:
5112:Standard Model
5109:
5108:
5107:
5096:
5094:
5090:
5089:
5087:
5086:
5081:
5079:Quasiparticles
5076:
5071:
5066:
5060:
5058:
5054:
5053:
5051:
5050:
5045:
5040:
5035:
5030:
5025:
5020:
5015:
5010:
5005:
5000:
4995:
4990:
4985:
4979:
4977:
4975:Quasiparticles
4971:
4970:
4967:
4966:
4963:
4962:
4960:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4944:
4938:
4936:
4932:
4931:
4928:
4927:
4925:
4924:
4919:
4914:
4908:
4906:
4902:
4901:
4899:
4898:
4893:
4888:
4882:
4880:
4869:
4863:
4862:
4860:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4848:
4847:
4842:
4837:
4832:
4827:
4822:
4812:
4807:
4801:
4799:
4795:
4794:
4791:
4790:
4788:
4787:
4782:
4771:
4769:
4767:Exotic hadrons
4763:
4762:
4760:
4759:
4754:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4698:
4696:
4690:
4689:
4687:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4660:
4659:
4654:
4649:
4644:
4633:
4631:
4622:
4613:
4607:
4606:
4603:
4602:
4599:
4598:
4596:
4595:
4593:X and Y bosons
4590:
4585:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4565:
4560:
4555:
4550:
4545:
4540:
4535:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4515:
4509:
4507:
4503:
4502:
4499:
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4485:
4480:
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4464:
4462:
4458:
4457:
4455:
4454:
4449:
4444:
4438:
4436:
4427:
4418:
4412:
4411:
4409:
4408:
4402:
4400:
4394:
4393:
4390:
4389:
4387:
4386:
4380:
4378:
4372:
4371:
4369:
4368:
4366:W and Z bosons
4363:
4358:
4352:
4350:
4341:
4335:
4334:
4331:
4330:
4328:
4327:
4326:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4259:
4257:
4251:
4250:
4248:
4247:
4242:
4237:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4220:Strange (quark
4217:
4212:
4207:
4202:
4197:
4192:
4186:
4184:
4175:
4166:
4160:
4159:
4154:
4152:
4151:
4144:
4137:
4129:
4120:
4119:
4117:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4101:
4096:
4090:
4088:
4084:
4083:
4081:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4029:
4027:
4021:
4020:
4018:
4017:
4012:
4011:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3974:
3973:
3968:
3957:
3955:
3949:
3948:
3946:
3945:
3944:
3943:
3938:
3931:Thermodynamics
3928:
3927:
3926:
3921:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3900:
3899:
3894:
3889:
3884:
3873:
3871:
3865:
3864:
3862:
3861:
3860:
3859:
3849:
3843:
3841:
3837:
3836:
3834:
3833:
3832:
3831:
3821:
3815:
3813:
3809:
3808:
3802:
3800:
3799:
3792:
3785:
3777:
3771:
3770:
3753:
3741:
3729:
3724:
3712:
3700:
3686:
3685:External links
3683:
3682:
3681:
3675:
3662:
3650:
3627:
3614:
3611:
3610:
3609:
3597:
3574:
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3529:
3528:
3527:
3501:
3477:
3474:
3473:
3472:
3460:
3437:
3425:
3392:
3389:
3378:Radiochemistry
3373:
3370:
3368:
3367:
3336:
3278:
3269:
3212:
3177:
3142:
3133:
3112:. 3rd Series.
3096:
3061:
3008:
2955:
2943:
2892:
2879:
2833:
2792:
2773:(4): 297–303.
2757:
2726:
2685:
2664:. p. 21.
2636:
2634:
2633:
2606:
2589:
2588:
2587:
2571:Rizvi, Eram –
2569:
2542:
2520:
2489:
2474:. 8 May 2019.
2472:IOP Publishing
2414:
2384:
2357:
2326:
2278:
2250:
2204:
2154:
2108:
2061:
2046:"Cathode Rays"
2033:
2013:Comptes Rendus
1999:
1992:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1965:
1960:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1937:Nuclear matter
1934:
1929:
1924:
1922:Isomeric shift
1918:
1917:
1916:
1902:
1899:Physics portal
1886:
1883:
1796:Main article:
1793:
1790:
1730:chain reaction
1706:
1703:
1674:nuclear forces
1670:nuclear fusion
1665:
1664:Nuclear fusion
1662:
1652:is involved).
1587:stable isotope
1572:
1569:
1490:binding energy
1451:
1448:
1384:
1381:
1376:Wolfgang Pauli
1372:nuclear forces
1353:
1350:
1345:binding energy
1301:Herbert Becker
1289:Main article:
1286:
1283:
1251:Franco Rasetti
1242:
1239:
1209:nuclear fusion
1200:
1197:
1156:Ernest Marsden
1139:
1136:
1088:James Chadwick
1021:atomic physics
1001:cloud chambers
982:
979:
898:atomic physics
891:nuclear matter
874:
873:
871:
870:
863:
856:
848:
845:
844:
843:
842:
829:
812:
811:
808:
807:
802:
797:
792:
787:
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772:
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752:
747:
742:
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732:
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687:
682:
677:
672:
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622:
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610:
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606:
603:
602:
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581:
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579:
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573:
568:
557:
556:
554:Nuclear fusion
550:
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531:
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346:
341:
340:
339:
334:
333:
332:
317:
311:
306:
305:
302:
301:
298:
297:
295:Stable nuclide
292:
287:
282:
277:
272:
270:Binding energy
266:
263:
262:
259:
258:
255:
254:
253:
252:
242:
237:
232:
226:
225:
211:
210:
203:
202:
186:
185:
173:
172:
160:
159:
146:
140:
139:
136:
135:
132:
131:
126:
121:
116:
110:
105:
104:
101:
100:
99:
98:
93:
88:
83:
81:Nuclear matter
78:
77:
76:
71:
61:
53:
52:
44:
43:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5230:
5219:
5216:
5215:
5213:
5200:
5199:
5194:
5188:
5182:
5179:
5177:
5174:
5172:
5169:
5167:
5164:
5162:
5159:
5157:
5156:Exotic matter
5154:
5150:
5147:
5146:
5145:
5144:Eightfold way
5142:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5134:Antiparticles
5132:
5130:
5127:
5125:
5122:
5118:
5115:
5114:
5113:
5110:
5106:
5103:
5102:
5101:
5098:
5097:
5095:
5091:
5085:
5082:
5080:
5077:
5075:
5072:
5070:
5067:
5065:
5062:
5061:
5059:
5055:
5049:
5046:
5044:
5041:
5039:
5036:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5026:
5024:
5021:
5019:
5016:
5014:
5011:
5009:
5006:
5004:
5001:
4999:
4996:
4994:
4991:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4981:
4980:
4978:
4976:
4972:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4939:
4937:
4933:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4910:
4909:
4907:
4903:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4883:
4881:
4877:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4864:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4817:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4805:Atomic nuclei
4803:
4802:
4800:
4796:
4786:
4783:
4780:
4776:
4773:
4772:
4770:
4768:
4764:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4737:Upsilon meson
4735:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4699:
4697:
4695:
4691:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4669:Lambda baryon
4667:
4665:
4662:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4639:
4638:
4635:
4634:
4632:
4630:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4608:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4576:
4574:
4571:
4569:
4566:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4528:Dual graviton
4526:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4510:
4508:
4504:
4493:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4465:
4463:
4459:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4439:
4437:
4435:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4425:Superpartners
4422:
4419:
4417:
4413:
4407:
4404:
4403:
4401:
4399:
4395:
4385:
4382:
4381:
4379:
4377:
4373:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4353:
4351:
4349:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4336:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4308:Muon neutrino
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4295:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4260:
4258:
4256:
4252:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4240:Bottom (quark
4238:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4228:
4226:
4223:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4188:
4187:
4185:
4183:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4170:
4167:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4150:
4145:
4143:
4138:
4136:
4131:
4130:
4127:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4091:
4089:
4085:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4073:Ocean physics
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4030:
4028:
4026:
4022:
4016:
4013:
4009:
4008:Modern optics
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3995:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3963:
3962:
3959:
3958:
3956:
3954:
3950:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3933:
3932:
3929:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3916:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3890:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3879:
3878:
3875:
3874:
3872:
3870:
3866:
3858:
3857:Computational
3855:
3854:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3845:
3844:
3842:
3838:
3830:
3827:
3826:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3816:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3798:
3793:
3791:
3786:
3784:
3779:
3778:
3775:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3748:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3736:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3719:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3707:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3695:
3692:
3689:
3688:
3684:
3678:
3672:
3668:
3663:
3653:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3634:
3628:
3624:
3623:
3617:
3616:
3612:
3600:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3581:
3575:
3564:
3560:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3541:
3535:
3534:
3530:
3524:
3518:
3504:
3502:9789811588181
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3485:
3480:
3479:
3475:
3463:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3444:
3438:
3428:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3401:
3395:
3394:
3390:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3371:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3340:
3337:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3282:
3279:
3273:
3270:
3265:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3216:
3213:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3181:
3178:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3146:
3143:
3137:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3100:
3097:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3065:
3062:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3032:
3031:gr-qc/9905022
3027:
3023:
3019:
3012:
3009:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2959:
2956:
2952:
2947:
2944:
2939:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2908:
2903:
2896:
2893:
2889:
2883:
2880:
2874:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2852:
2847:
2843:
2837:
2834:
2828:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2796:
2793:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2761:
2758:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2730:
2727:
2723:
2710:
2703:
2702:
2694:
2692:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2667:
2663:
2662:
2661:CERN Courrier
2654:
2643:
2641:
2637:
2631:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2593:
2590:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2574:
2570:
2567:
2563:
2560:
2557:
2553:
2550:
2546:
2545:
2543:
2530:
2526:
2521:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2499:
2494:
2490:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2468:
2463:
2455:
2454:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2433:Florida State
2430:
2426:
2418:
2415:
2401:
2397:
2394:
2388:
2385:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2361:
2358:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2330:
2327:
2323:
2311:
2307:
2304:(1). online:
2303:
2299:
2292:
2285:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2264:
2260:
2254:
2251:
2245:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2223:
2218:
2214:
2208:
2205:
2199:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2177:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2158:
2155:
2149:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2127:
2122:
2118:
2112:
2109:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2080:
2075:
2071:
2065:
2062:
2057:
2053:
2052:
2047:
2043:
2037:
2034:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2003:
2000:
1995:
1989:
1985:
1978:
1975:
1969:
1964:
1961:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1942:Nuclear model
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1919:
1914:
1903:
1900:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1882:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1821:atomic number
1816:
1814:
1810:
1805:
1799:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1777:cross-section
1774:
1770:
1769:critical mass
1765:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1738:nuclear power
1735:
1731:
1725:
1723:
1719:
1714:
1711:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1653:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1638:
1636:
1635:several steps
1632:
1628:
1623:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1599:
1597:
1592:
1588:
1582:
1578:
1577:Radioactivity
1571:Nuclear decay
1570:
1568:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1537:
1535:
1531:
1529:
1525:
1520:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1497:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1424:
1422:
1416:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1389:Hideki Yukawa
1380:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1362:
1358:
1349:
1346:
1341:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1297:Walther Bothe
1292:
1284:
1282:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1227:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1211:processes in
1210:
1206:
1203:Around 1920,
1198:
1196:
1193:
1189:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1163:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1152:Royal Society
1149:
1145:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1112:
1111:substances".
1109:
1104:
1102:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1045:J. J. Thomson
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1025:radioactivity
1022:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
997:
991:
987:
980:
978:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
917:nuclear power
914:
909:
907:
903:
899:
894:
892:
888:
887:atomic nuclei
885:that studies
884:
880:
869:
864:
862:
857:
855:
850:
849:
847:
846:
840:
830:
827:
822:
816:
815:
814:
813:
806:
803:
801:
798:
796:
793:
791:
788:
786:
783:
781:
778:
776:
773:
771:
768:
766:
763:
761:
758:
756:
753:
751:
748:
746:
743:
741:
738:
736:
733:
731:
728:
726:
723:
721:
718:
716:
713:
711:
708:
706:
703:
701:
698:
696:
693:
691:
688:
686:
683:
681:
678:
676:
673:
671:
668:
666:
663:
661:
658:
656:
653:
651:
648:
647:
644:
639:
638:
631:
628:
626:
623:
621:
618:
617:
614:
609:
608:
599:
596:
594:
591:
589:
586:
585:
583:
582:
577:
574:
572:
569:
567:
564:
563:
559:
558:
555:
552:
551:
548:
543:
538:
537:
530:
527:
523:
522:by cosmic ray
520:
519:
518:
515:
514:
508:
507:
498:
495:
493:
490:
489:
488:
485:
481:
478:
476:
473:
472:
471:
468:
464:
461:
460:
459:
456:
455:
449:
448:
441:
438:
434:
433:pair breaking
431:
430:
429:
426:
424:
421:
420:
417:
412:
411:
404:
401:
399:
398:Decay product
396:
394:
391:
389:
386:
385:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
371:Cluster decay
369:
367:
364:
360:
357:
355:
352:
351:
350:
347:
345:
342:
338:
335:
331:
328:
327:
326:
323:
322:
321:
318:
316:
313:
312:
309:
304:
303:
296:
293:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
267:
261:
260:
251:
248:
247:
246:
243:
241:
238:
236:
233:
231:
228:
227:
224:
220:
216:
215:Mirror nuclei
213:
212:
208:
205:
204:
201:
200:
197: −
196:
191:
188:
187:
184:
183:
178:
175:
174:
171:
170:
165:
162:
161:
157:
156:
151:
148:
147:
143:
138:
137:
130:
127:
125:
122:
120:
117:
115:
112:
111:
108:
103:
102:
97:
94:
92:
89:
87:
86:Nuclear force
84:
82:
79:
75:
72:
70:
67:
66:
65:
62:
60:
57:
56:
55:
54:
50:
46:
45:
42:
38:
33:
19:
5196:
5138:
4867:Hypothetical
4815:Exotic atoms
4684:Omega baryon
4674:Sigma baryon
4664:Delta baryon
4416:Hypothetical
4398:Ghost fields
4384:Higgs boson
4318:Tau neutrino
4210:Charm (quark
4033:Astrophysics
3977:
3847:Experimental
3766:
3666:
3655:. Retrieved
3632:
3621:
3602:. Retrieved
3579:
3567:. Retrieved
3549:10.1142/3530
3539:
3506:. Retrieved
3483:
3465:. Retrieved
3442:
3430:. Retrieved
3399:
3391:Introductory
3372:Bibliography
3358:. Retrieved
3349:
3339:
3328:. Retrieved
3298:(5): 82–91.
3295:
3291:
3281:
3272:
3229:
3225:
3215:
3193:(11): 1766.
3190:
3186:
3180:
3155:
3151:
3145:
3136:
3113:
3109:
3099:
3074:
3070:
3064:
3021:
3017:
3011:
2968:
2964:
2958:
2950:
2946:
2914:(5): 25–27.
2911:
2905:
2895:
2887:
2882:
2855:
2849:
2836:
2809:
2805:
2795:
2770:
2766:
2760:
2748:. Retrieved
2744:the original
2729:
2720:
2713:. Retrieved
2700:
2680:
2673:. Retrieved
2659:
2629:
2622:. Retrieved
2533:. Retrieved
2511:. Retrieved
2502:
2496:
2480:. Retrieved
2467:CERN Courier
2465:
2445:. Retrieved
2428:
2417:
2404:. Retrieved
2387:
2370:
2366:
2360:
2348:. Retrieved
2339:
2329:
2321:
2314:. Retrieved
2301:
2297:
2294:(electronic)
2258:
2253:
2226:
2220:
2213:Geiger, Hans
2207:
2183:(557): 495.
2180:
2174:
2163:Geiger, Hans
2157:
2130:
2124:
2117:Geiger, Hans
2111:
2100:. Retrieved
2083:
2077:
2064:
2055:
2049:
2036:
2025:. Retrieved
2016:
2012:
2002:
1983:
1977:
1874:
1870:
1864:
1859:
1853:
1848:
1841:
1817:
1801:
1766:
1750:World War II
1726:
1715:
1708:
1667:
1654:
1639:
1624:
1620:antineutrino
1600:
1584:
1538:
1532:
1521:
1519:are filled.
1498:
1467:
1428:Enrico Fermi
1425:
1417:
1409:strong force
1393:strong force
1386:
1355:
1342:
1294:
1247:nuclear spin
1244:
1224:
1216:
1202:
1164:
1141:
1113:
1105:
1060:Pierre Curie
1053:
1018:
967:astrophysics
957:
913:applications
910:
895:
878:
877:
440:Photofission
388:Decay energy
315:Alpha α
222:
218:
198:
194:
181:
168:
154:
40:
5149:Quark model
4917:Theta meson
4820:Positronium
4732:Omega meson
4727:J/psi meson
4657:Antineutron
4568:Dark photon
4533:Graviphoton
4492:Stop squark
4200:Down (quark
3936:Statistical
3852:Theoretical
3829:Engineering
3767:In Our Time
2651:ANNIVERSARY
2603:Nobel Prize
2019:: 420–421.
1839:of a star.
1718:alpha decay
1642:gamma decay
1627:alpha decay
1553:accelerator
1545:Rugby balls
1235:metallicity
1148:Hans Geiger
1128:Marie Curie
1108:Nobel Prize
1056:Marie Curie
949:archaeology
745:Oppenheimer
423:Spontaneous
393:Decay chain
344:K/L capture
320:Beta β
190:Isodiaphers
114:Liquid drop
4891:Heptaquark
4852:Superatoms
4785:Pentaquark
4775:Tetraquark
4757:Quarkonium
4647:Antiproton
4548:Leptoquark
4483:Neutralino
4245:antiquark)
4235:antiquark)
4230:Top (quark
4225:antiquark)
4215:antiquark)
4205:antiquark)
4195:antiquark)
4164:Elementary
4053:Geophysics
4043:Biophysics
3887:Analytical
3840:Approaches
3657:2023-02-22
3604:2023-04-04
3569:2023-04-19
3508:2023-05-31
3467:2024-05-27
3432:2023-02-19
3376:See also:
3360:25 January
3330:2014-01-04
3232:(1): 932.
2971:(5): 689.
2525:"Timeline"
2102:2019-07-01
2058:: 419–432.
2027:2010-09-21
1970:References
1963:QCD matter
1957:Nucleonica
1773:moderation
1697:(JET) and
1689:, and two
1604:beta decay
1181:foil. The
775:Strassmann
765:Rutherford
643:Scientists
598:Artificial
593:Cosmogenic
588:Primordial
584:Nuclides:
561:Processes:
517:Spallation
5129:Particles
5074:Particles
5033:Polariton
5023:Plasmaron
4993:Dropleton
4886:Hexaquark
4857:Molecules
4845:Protonium
4722:Phi meson
4707:Rho meson
4679:Xi baryon
4611:Composite
4447:Gravitino
4190:Up (quark
4003:Molecular
3904:Acoustics
3897:Continuum
3892:Celestial
3882:Newtonian
3869:Classical
3812:Divisions
3517:cite book
3116:: 48–57.
3003:118221997
2978:1406.0497
2938:123558823
2812:: 16–35.
1858:) or the
1837:evolution
1829:CNO cycle
1742:Hiroshima
1691:neutrinos
1687:positrons
1646:gamma ray
1370:field of
1142:In 1906,
1124:Becquerel
1114:In 1905,
1106:The 1903
1096:electrons
1084:Otto Hahn
1068:radiation
906:electrons
780:Świątecki
695:Pi. Curie
690:Fr. Curie
685:Ir. Curie
680:Cockcroft
655:Becquerel
576:Supernova
280:Drip line
275:p–n ratio
250:Borromean
129:Ab initio
5212:Category
5105:timeline
4957:R-hadron
4912:Glueball
4896:Skyrmion
4830:Tauonium
4543:Inflaton
4538:Graviton
4518:Curvaton
4488:Sfermion
4478:Higgsino
4473:Chargino
4434:Gauginos
4293:Neutrino
4278:Antimuon
4268:Positron
4263:Electron
4173:Fermions
3759:Archived
3747:Archived
3735:Archived
3718:Archived
3706:Archived
3694:Archived
3563:Archived
3531:Advanced
3354:Archived
3324:Archived
3320:16318030
3264:28428625
3128:Archived
2886:W. Pauli
2844:(1932).
2705:(E-Book)
2666:Archived
2618:Archived
2595:Archived
2576:Archived
2552:Archived
2529:Archived
2507:Archived
2498:APS News
2476:Archived
2441:Archived
2400:Archived
2396:Fermilab
2344:Archived
2310:Archived
2266:Archived
2215:(1910).
2169:(1909).
2119:(1908).
2096:Archived
2072:(1906).
2044:(1897).
2021:Archived
1885:See also
1867:-process
1856:-process
1831:and the
1809:helium-4
1804:Big Bang
1746:Nagasaki
1631:helium-4
1608:nitrogen
1591:isotopes
1547:or even
1470:nucleons
1421:positron
1413:pi meson
1387:In 1935
1231:hydrogen
1132:nucleons
1092:spectrum
1041:electron
1005:positron
973:and the
839:Category
740:Oliphant
725:Lawrence
705:Davisson
675:Chadwick
571:Big Bang
458:electron
428:Products
349:Isomeric
240:Even/odd
217: –
192:– equal
179:– equal
177:Isotones
166:– equal
152:– equal
150:Isotopes
142:Nuclides
64:Nucleons
5093:Related
5064:Baryons
5038:Polaron
5028:Plasmon
5003:Fracton
4998:Exciton
4952:Diquark
4947:Pomeron
4922:T meson
4879:Baryons
4840:Pionium
4825:Muonium
4752:D meson
4747:B meson
4652:Neutron
4637:Nucleon
4629:Baryons
4620:Hadrons
4583:Tachyon
4558:Majoron
4523:Dilaton
4452:Photino
4288:Antitau
4255:Leptons
4087:Related
3971:General
3966:Special
3824:Applied
3405:Bibcode
3300:Bibcode
3255:5430567
3234:Bibcode
3195:Bibcode
3160:Bibcode
3079:Bibcode
3056:6740644
3036:Bibcode
2983:Bibcode
2916:Bibcode
2860:Bibcode
2814:Bibcode
2775:Bibcode
2750:14 June
2715:13 June
2675:13 June
2624:13 June
2535:13 June
2513:13 June
2482:13 June
2447:13 June
2406:13 June
2350:13 June
2316:13 June
2231:Bibcode
2185:Bibcode
2135:Bibcode
1844:nucleon
1758:thorium
1754:uranium
1368:mesonic
1335:⁄
1324:⁄
1313:neutron
1276:⁄
1266:⁄
1253:at the
1192:nucleus
1037:uranium
981:History
945:geology
883:physics
795:Thomson
785:Szilárd
755:Purcell
735:Meitner
670:N. Bohr
665:A. Bohr
650:Alvarez
566:Stellar
470:neutron
354:Gamma γ
207:Isomers
164:Isobars
59:Nucleus
5069:Mesons
5018:Phonon
5013:Magnon
4935:Others
4905:Mesons
4798:Others
4694:Mesons
4642:Proton
4506:Others
4461:Others
4442:Gluino
4376:Scalar
4356:Photon
4339:Bosons
4182:Quarks
3998:Atomic
3953:Modern
3803:Major
3673:
3648:
3595:
3555:
3499:
3458:
3423:
3384:, and
3318:
3262:
3252:
3054:
3001:
2936:
2785:
2259:citing
1990:
1869:. The
1827:, the
1679:nickel
1612:oxygen
1565:quarks
1528:bosons
1517:shells
1462:, and
1226:E = mc
1221:fusion
1188:bullet
1158:, and
1078:, and
939:, and
837:
805:Wigner
800:Walton
790:Teller
720:Jensen
487:proton
230:Stable
5057:Lists
5048:Trion
5043:Roton
4983:Anyon
4810:Atoms
4573:Preon
4513:Axion
4468:Axino
4361:Gluon
4348:Gauge
3052:S2CID
3026:arXiv
2999:S2CID
2973:arXiv
2934:S2CID
2783:JSTOR
2669:(PDF)
2656:(PDF)
1862:, or
1860:rapid
1683:Stars
1681:-62.
1549:pears
1513:magic
1405:meson
1361:boson
1305:Irène
1233:(see
1213:stars
1080:gamma
1072:alpha
971:stars
770:Soddy
750:Proca
730:Mayer
710:Fermi
660:Bethe
235:Magic
5008:Hole
4835:Onia
4742:Kaon
4702:Pion
4273:Muon
3924:Wave
3819:Pure
3671:ISBN
3646:ISBN
3593:ISBN
3553:ISBN
3523:link
3497:ISBN
3456:ISBN
3421:ISBN
3362:2023
3316:PMID
3260:PMID
2787:6491
2752:2021
2717:2021
2677:2021
2626:2021
2537:2021
2515:2021
2484:2021
2449:2021
2408:2021
2352:2021
2318:2021
1988:ISBN
1849:slow
1781:Oklo
1756:and
1744:and
1699:ITER
1606:, a
1579:and
1541:spin
1507:and
1430:via
1307:and
1179:gold
1126:and
1076:beta
1013:kaon
1011:and
1009:muon
947:and
927:and
902:atom
760:Rabi
715:Hahn
625:RHIC
245:Halo
4283:Tau
3919:Ray
3638:doi
3585:doi
3545:doi
3489:doi
3448:doi
3413:doi
3308:doi
3296:293
3250:PMC
3242:doi
3203:doi
3168:doi
3118:doi
3087:doi
3044:doi
2991:doi
2924:doi
2868:doi
2856:136
2822:doi
2564::
2375:doi
2239:doi
2193:doi
2143:doi
2088:doi
2017:122
1815:).
1668:In
1640:In
1625:In
1043:by
1035:in
1027:by
943:in
935:in
630:LHC
544:and
5214::
3644:.
3591:.
3561:.
3551:.
3519:}}
3515:{{
3495:.
3454:.
3419:.
3411:.
3380:,
3352:.
3348:.
3322:.
3314:.
3306:.
3294:.
3290:.
3258:.
3248:.
3240:.
3228:.
3224:.
3201:.
3191:75
3189:.
3166:.
3156:75
3154:.
3126:.
3114:17
3108:.
3085:.
3075:57
3073:.
3050:.
3042:.
3034:.
3022:16
3020:.
2997:.
2989:.
2981:.
2969:34
2967:.
2932:.
2922:.
2912:37
2910:.
2904:.
2866:.
2854:.
2848:.
2820:.
2810:77
2808:.
2804:.
2781:.
2771:11
2769:.
2738:.
2719:.
2688:^
2679:.
2658:.
2639:^
2628:.
2616:.
2612:.
2601:,
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