1490:) layer surrounds the fuel kernel of ordinary TRISO particles to better manage the excess of reactivity. If the core is equipped both with TRISO and QUADRISO fuels, at beginning of life neutrons do not reach the fuel of the QUADRISO particles because they are stopped by the burnable poison. During reactor operation, neutron irradiation of the poison causes it to "burn up" or progressively transmute to non-poison isotopes, depleting this poison effect and leaving progressively more neutrons available for sustaining the chain-reaction. This mechanism compensates for the accumulation of undesirable neutron poisons which are an unavoidable part of the fission products, as well as normal fissile fuel "burn up" or depletion. In the generalized QUADRISO fuel concept the poison can eventually be mixed with the fuel kernel or the outer pyrocarbon. The QUADRISO concept was conceived at
46:
1044:) powder is compacted to cylindrical pellets and sintered at high temperatures to produce ceramic nuclear fuel pellets with a high density and well defined physical properties and chemical composition. A grinding process is used to achieve a uniform cylindrical geometry with narrow tolerances. Such fuel pellets are then stacked and filled into the metallic tubes. The metal used for the tubes depends on the design of the reactor. Stainless steel was used in the past, but most reactors now use a
38:
1270:
1521:-type reactors. This is a low-enriched uranium oxide fuel. The fuel elements in an RBMK are 3 m long each, and two of these sit back-to-back on each fuel channel, pressure tube. Reprocessed uranium from Russian VVER reactor spent fuel is used to fabricate RBMK fuel. Following the Chernobyl accident, the enrichment of fuel was changed from 2.0% to 2.4%, to compensate for control rod modifications and the introduction of additional absorbers.
1097:
2066:
1124:
1539:
1498:
61:
6425:
4562:
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1135:
1218:) pellets in zirconium alloy tubes, welded to zirconium alloy end plates. Each bundle weighs roughly 20 kilograms (44 lb), and a typical core loading is on the order of 4500â6500 bundles, depending on the design. Modern types typically have 37 identical fuel pins radially arranged about the long axis of the bundle, but in the past several different configurations and numbers of pins have been used. The
1112:
4586:
2382:
188:
3159:"The effect of fuel swelling on strains in the cladding of cylindrical fuel pins is analyzed. Simplifying assumptions are made to permit solutions for strain rates in terms of dimensionless parameters. The results of the analysis are presented in the form of equations and graphs which illustrate the volumetric swelling of the fuel and the strain rate of the fuel pin clad."
6413:
4598:
2368:
1707:
In addition information is gained which enables the users of fuel to assure themselves of its quality and it also assists in the development of new fuels. After major accidents the core (or what is left of it) is normally subject to PIE to find out what happened. One site where PIE is done is the ITU which is the EU centre for the study of highly radioactive materials.
6437:
4574:
1083:. Cladding prevents radioactive fission fragments from escaping the fuel into the coolant and contaminating it. Besides the prevention of radioactive leaks this also serves to keep the coolant as non-corrosive as feasible and to prevent reactions between chemically aggressive fission products and the coolant. For example, the highly reactive
1465:
2259:, as is done in the Sun and other stars, has also not been considered practical on Earth. Although the energy density of fusion fuel is even higher than fission fuel, and fusion reactions sustained for a few minutes have been achieved, utilizing fusion fuel as a net energy source remains only a theoretical possibility.
2176:
2304:
walls of a fusion chamber, making them radioactive. They cannot be confined by magnetic fields, because they are not electrically charged. This group consists of deuterium and helium-3. The products are all charged particles, but there may be significant side reactions leading to the production of neutrons.
1678:. The radiation hazard from spent nuclear fuel declines as its radioactive components decay, but remains high for many years. For example 10 years after removal from a reactor, the surface dose rate for a typical spent fuel assembly still exceeds 10,000 rem/hour, resulting in a fatal dose in just minutes.
1402:
stresses from processes (such as differential thermal expansion or fission gas pressure) at temperatures up to 1600 °C, and therefore can contain the fuel in the worst of accident scenarios in a properly designed reactor. Two such reactor designs are the prismatic-block gas-cooled reactor (such as the
2355:
Under reasonable assumptions, side reactions will result in about 0.1% of the fusion power being carried by neutrons. With 123 keV, the optimum temperature for this reaction is nearly ten times higher than that for the pure hydrogen reactions, the energy confinement must be 500 times better than that
2303:
Second-generation fuels require either higher confinement temperatures or longer confinement time than those required of first-generation fusion fuels, but generate fewer neutrons. Neutrons are an unwanted byproduct of fusion reactions in an energy generation context, because they are absorbed by the
1869:
where a small disc of fuel is placed in a furnace. After being heated to the required temperature one side of the disc is illuminated with a laser pulse, the time required for the heat wave to flow through the disc, the density of the disc, and the thickness of the disk can then be used to calculate
1706:
Post-Irradiation
Examination (PIE) is the study of used nuclear materials such as nuclear fuel. It has several purposes. It is known that by examination of used fuel that the failure modes which occur during normal use (and the manner in which the fuel will behave during an accident) can be studied.
2327:
Third-generation fusion fuels produce only charged particles in the primary reactions, and side reactions are relatively unimportant. Since a very small amount of neutrons is produced, there would be little induced radioactivity in the walls of the fusion chamber. This is often seen as the end goal
1194:
from affecting neutronics and thermal hydraulics of the reactor core. In modern BWR fuel bundles, there are either 91, 92, or 96 fuel rods per assembly depending on the manufacturer. A range between 368 assemblies for the smallest and 800 assemblies for the largest BWR in the U.S. form the reactor
1710:
Materials in a high-radiation environment (such as a reactor) can undergo unique behaviors such as swelling and non-thermal creep. If there are nuclear reactions within the material (such as what happens in the fuel), the stoichiometry will also change slowly over time. These behaviors can lead to
1582:
Sodium-bonded fuel consists of fuel that has liquid sodium in the gap between the fuel slug (or pellet) and the cladding. This fuel type is often used for sodium-cooled liquid metal fast reactors. It has been used in EBR-I, EBR-II, and the FFTF. The fuel slug may be metallic or ceramic. The sodium
860:
Liquid fuels contain dissolved nuclear fuel and have been shown to offer numerous operational advantages compared to traditional solid fuel approaches. Liquid-fuel reactors offer significant safety advantages due to their inherently stable "self-adjusting" reactor dynamics. This provides two major
1561:
Plate-type fuel has fallen out of favor over the years. Plate-type fuel is commonly composed of enriched uranium sandwiched between metal cladding. Plate-type fuel is used in several research reactors where a high neutron flux is desired, for uses such as material irradiation studies or isotope
1222:
bundle has 43 fuel elements, with two element sizes. It is also about 10 cm (4 inches) in diameter, 0.5 m (20 in) long and weighs about 20 kg (44 lb) and replaces the 37-pin standard bundle. It has been designed specifically to increase fuel performance by utilizing two
1168:
from the fuel to the cladding. There are about 179â264 fuel rods per fuel bundle and about 121 to 193 fuel bundles are loaded into a reactor core. Generally, the fuel bundles consist of fuel rods bundled 14Ă14 to 17Ă17. PWR fuel bundles are about 4 m (13 ft) long. In PWR fuel bundles,
2057:. The thermal atomic batteries on the other hand, convert the heat from the radioactive decay to electricity. These designs include thermionic converter, thermophotovoltaic cells, alkali-metal thermal to electric converter, and the most common design, the radioisotope thermoelectric generator.
1401:
to retain fission products at elevated temperatures and to give the TRISO particle more structural integrity, followed by a dense outer layer of PyC. TRISO particles are then encapsulated into cylindrical or spherical graphite pellets. TRISO fuel particles are designed not to crack due to the
1529:
CerMet fuel consists of ceramic fuel particles (usually uranium oxide) embedded in a metal matrix. It is hypothesized that this type of fuel is what is used in United States Navy reactors. This fuel has high heat transport characteristics and can withstand a large amount of expansion.
1160:(PWR) fuel consists of cylindrical rods put into bundles. A uranium oxide ceramic is formed into pellets and inserted into Zircaloy tubes that are bundled together. The Zircaloy tubes are about 1 centimetre (0.4 in) in diameter, and the fuel cladding gap is filled with
2255:(He). Many other elements can be fused together, but the larger electrical charge of their nuclei means that much higher temperatures are required. Only the fusion of the lightest elements is seriously considered as a future energy source. Fusion of the lightest atom, H
2267:
Deuterium and tritium are both considered first-generation fusion fuels; they are the easiest to fuse, because the electrical charge on their nuclei is the lowest of all elements. The three most commonly cited nuclear reactions that could be used to generate energy are:
533:
in 1946 to many test and research reactors. Metal fuels have the potential for the highest fissile atom density. Metal fuels are normally alloyed, but some metal fuels have been made with pure uranium metal. Uranium alloys that have been used include uranium aluminum,
1173:
are inserted through the top directly into the fuel bundle. The fuel bundles usually are enriched several percent in U. The uranium oxide is dried before inserting into the tubes to try to eliminate moisture in the ceramic fuel that can lead to corrosion and
1754:
and radiation damage of the lattice. The low thermal conductivity can lead to overheating of the center part of the pellets during use. The porosity results in a decrease in both the thermal conductivity of the fuel and the swelling which occurs during use.
965:
Molten salt fuels are mixtures of actinide salts (e.g. thorium/uranium fluoride/chloride) with other salts, used in liquid form above their typical melting points of several hundred degrees C. In some molten salt-fueled reactor designs, such as the
977:
Molten salt fuels were used in the LFTR known as the Molten Salt
Reactor Experiment, as well as other liquid core reactor experiments. The liquid fuel for the molten salt reactor was a mixture of lithium, beryllium, thorium and uranium fluorides:
2172:. This fuel provides phenomenally huge energy density, (a single gram of polonium-210 generates 140 watts thermal) but has limited use because of its very short half-life and gamma production, and has been phased out of use for this application.
1265:
Various other nuclear fuel forms find use in specific applications, but lack the widespread use of those found in BWRs, PWRs, and CANDU power plants. Many of these fuel forms are only found in research reactors, or have military applications.
768:
The high thermal conductivity and high melting point makes uranium carbide an attractive fuel. In addition, because of the absence of oxygen in this fuel (during the course of irradiation, excess gas pressure can build from the formation of
974:, the fuel salt is contained in fuel pins and the coolant is a separate, non-radioactive salt. There is a further category of molten salt-cooled reactors in which the fuel is not in molten salt form, but a molten salt is used for cooling.
861:
benefits: virtually eliminating the possibility of a runaway reactor meltdown, and providing an automatic load-following capability which is well suited to electricity generation and high-temperature industrial heat applications.
513:, the more plutonium is present in the spent fuel, but the available fissile plutonium is lower. Typically about one percent of the used fuel discharged from a reactor is plutonium, and some two thirds of this is fissile (c. 50%
764:
during their intense study in the 1960s and 1970s. Recently there has been a revived interest in uranium carbide in the form of plate fuel and most notably, micro fuel particles (such as tristructural-isotropic particles).
1663:. Also the fuel may well have cracked, swollen, and been heated close to its melting point. Despite the fact that the used fuel can be cracked, it is very insoluble in water, and is able to retain the vast majority of the
1367:
864:
In some liquid core designs, the fuel can be drained rapidly into a passively safe dump-tank. This advantage was conclusively demonstrated repeatedly as part of a weekly shutdown procedure during the highly successful
710:) to recover the initially used nitrogen. If the fuel could be processed in such a way as to ensure low contamination with non-radioactive carbon (not a common fission product and absent in nuclear reactors that don't
492:
reprocessed in a way that renders the plutonium in it usable for nuclear fuel but not for nuclear weapons. Reprocessing of spent commercial-reactor nuclear fuel has not been permitted in the United States due to
589:
launched its
Reduced Enrichment for Research Test Reactors program, which promoted reactor conversion to low-enriched uranium fuel. There are 35 TRIGA reactors in the US and an additional 35 in other countries.
5188:
910:) and causes structural occlusions in solid fuel elements (leading to the early replacement of solid fuel rods with over 98% of the nuclear fuel unburned, including many long-lived actinides). In contrast,
773:
or other gases) as well as the ability to complement a ceramic coating (a ceramic-ceramic interface has structural and chemical advantages), uranium carbide could be the ideal fuel candidate for certain
446:
which behaves similarly (though not identically) to the enriched uranium feed for which most nuclear reactors were designed. MOX fuel is an alternative to low enriched uranium (LEU) fuel used in the
3432:
Alrwashdeh, Mohammad; Alameri, Saeed A.; Alkaabi, Ahmed K. (2020). "Preliminary Study of a
Prismatic-Core Advanced High-Temperature Reactor Fuel Using Homogenization Double-Heterogeneous Method".
148:. Alternatively, if the nucleus absorbs the neutron without splitting, it creates a heavier nucleus with one additional neutron. Not all types of nuclear fuels create power from nuclear fission;
1350:
Magnox fuel incorporated cooling fins to provide maximum heat transfer despite low operating temperatures, making it expensive to produce. While the use of uranium metal rather than oxide made
1429:
project. The inclusion of the SiC as diffusion barrier was first suggested by D. T. Livey. The first nuclear reactor to use TRISO fuels was the Dragon reactor and the first powerplant was the
3056:
Alrwashdeh, Mohammad, and Saeed A. Alameri. "Preliminary neutronic analysis of alternative cladding materials for APR-1400 fuel assembly." Nuclear
Engineering and Design 384 (2021): 111486.
529:
Metal fuels have the advantage of a much higher heat conductivity than oxide fuels but cannot survive equally high temperatures. Metal fuels have a long history of use, stretching from the
3411:
Alameri, Saeed A.; Alrwashdeh, Mohammad (2021). "Preliminary three-dimensional neutronic analysis of IFBA coated TRISO fuel particles in prismatic-core advanced high temperature reactor".
1571:
481:
1994:
that produce low energy beta particles or sometimes alpha particles of varying energies. Low energy beta particles are needed to prevent the production of high energy penetrating
5376:
2424:
602:, the minor actinides produced by neutron capture of uranium and plutonium can be used as fuel. Metal actinide fuel is typically an alloy of zirconium, uranium, plutonium, and
1354:
more straightforward and therefore cheaper, the need to reprocess fuel a short time after removal from the reactor meant that the fission product hazard was severe. Expensive
4903:
2328:
of fusion research. He has the highest
Maxwellian reactivity of any 3rd generation fusion fuel. However, there are no significant natural sources of this substance on Earth.
1190:(BWR), the fuel is similar to PWR fuel except that the bundles are "canned". That is, there is a thin tube surrounding each bundle. This is primarily done to prevent local
5198:
1687:
6079:
2419:
837:
will make up only a small isotopic impurity in the overall carbon content and thus make the entirety of the carbon content unsuitable for non-nuclear uses but the
2128:. It has a half-life of 87.7 years, reasonable energy density, and exceptionally low gamma and neutron radiation levels. Some Russian terrestrial RTGs have used
2033:
There are two main categories of atomic batteries: thermal and non-thermal. The non-thermal atomic batteries, which have many different designs, exploit charged
695:
is a method of reprocessing that does not rely on nitric acid, but it has only been demonstrated in relatively small scale installations whereas the established
4883:
1096:
994:
of 705 °C in the experiment, but could have operated at much higher temperatures since the boiling point of the molten salt was in excess of 1400 °C.
581:
to occur. Most cores that use this fuel are "high leakage" cores where the excess leaked neutrons can be utilized for research. That is, they can be used as a
3562:
5205:
4636:
1048:
which, in addition to being highly corrosion-resistant, has low neutron absorption. The tubes containing the fuel pellets are sealed: these tubes are called
1591:
Accident tolerant fuels (ATF) are a series of new nuclear fuel concepts, researched in order to improve fuel performance under accident conditions, such as
3033:
2625:"New Experimental Data on Partial Pressures of Gas Phase Components over Uranium-Zirconium Carbonitrides at High Temperatures and Its Comparative Analysis"
4971:
2695:
574:
94:
of all practical fuel sources. The processes involved in mining, refining, purifying, using, and disposing of nuclear fuel are collectively known as the
2716:
3503:
5474:
1438:
1178:. The Zircaloy tubes are pressurized with helium to try to minimize pellet-cladding interaction which can lead to fuel rod failure over long periods.
1393:(FCVD). The four layers are a porous buffer layer made of carbon that absorbs fission product recoils, followed by a dense inner layer of protective
457:
Some concern has been expressed that used MOX cores will introduce new disposal challenges, though MOX is a means to dispose of surplus plutonium by
1617:
during an accident. This research is focused on reconsidering the design of fuel pellets and cladding, as well as the interactions between the two.
3675:
3318:
2671:
1990:(also called a nuclear battery or radioisotope battery) is a device which uses the radioactive decay to generate electricity. These systems use
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3169:
Nuclear
Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, US Department of Energy (15 January 2008) International Nuclear Safety Center (INSC)
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4339:
4014:
2087:
2081:
918:
dramatically and incinerates the vast majority of its own waste as part of the normal operational characteristics. A downside to letting the
157:
339:
is mixed with an organic binder and pressed into pellets. The pellets are then fired at a much higher temperature (in hydrogen or argon) to
5720:
3336:
2054:
1199:
699:
process is used commercially for about a third of all spent nuclear fuel (the rest being largely subject to a "once through fuel cycle").
347:
5637:
5713:
5183:
5148:
4481:
3532:
2998:"A Neutronics Study of the Initial Fuel Cycle Extension in APR-1400 Reactors: Examining Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Enrichment Design"
2599:
1759:
1311:
as fuel cladding. Working pressure varies from 6.9 to 19.35 bars (100.1 to 280.6 psi) for the steel pressure vessels, and the two
3481:
6335:
5919:
3556:
1596:
1123:
586:
3593:
1606:
Neutronics analyses were performed for the application of the new fuel-cladding material systems for various types of ATF materials.
1141:(also known as a fuel bundle) This fuel assembly is from a pressurized water reactor of the nuclear-powered passenger and cargo ship
4999:
4878:
2414:
1214:(CANDU) fuel bundles are about 0.5 metres (20 in) long and 10 centimetres (4 in) in diameter. They consist of sintered (UO
3249:
1111:
3644:
6229:
6094:
4629:
4422:
1850:
2912:
Zinkle, S.J.; Terrani, K.A.; Gehin, J.C.; Ott, L.J.; Snead, L.L. (May 2014). "Accident tolerant fuels for LWRs: A perspective".
6172:
6006:
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5608:
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5143:
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2148:; this isotope has a shorter half-life and a much lower energy density, but is cheaper. Early RTGs, first built in 1958 by the
967:
555:
474:
6162:
6011:
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866:
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compared to light water), however, some newer concepts call for low enrichment to help reduce the size of the reactors. The
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Two main modes of release exist, the fission products can be vaporised or small particles of the fuel can be dispersed.
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485:
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fuels other than oxides have the advantage of high heat conductivities and melting points, but they are more prone to
470:
3598:
1223:
different pin diameters. Current CANDU designs do not need enriched uranium to achieve criticality (due to the lower
1010:
or other uranium salt in water. Historically, AHRs have all been small research reactors, not large power reactors.
3603:
2832:
Alberto Talamo (July 2010) A novel concept of QUADRISO particles. Part II: Utilization for excess reactivity control
1938:
is defined as the time required for the non illuminated surface to experience half its final temperature rise then.
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5128:
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metal, and it goes down as the temperature goes up. Corrosion of uranium dioxide in water is controlled by similar
5774:
3292:
1762:
the thermal conductivity of uranium dioxide can be predicted under different conditions by a series of equations.
1370:
0.845 mm TRISO fuel particle which has been cracked, showing multiple layers that are coating the spherical kernel
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6099:
5708:
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3947:
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Cladding is the outer layer of the fuel rods, standing between the coolant and the nuclear fuel. It is made of a
1052:. The finished fuel rods are grouped into fuel assemblies that are used to build up the core of a power reactor.
577:, meaning that as the temperature of the core increases, the reactivity decreasesâso it is highly unlikely for a
542:(UZrH), and uranium zirconium carbonitride. Any of the aforementioned fuels can be made with plutonium and other
539:
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core. Each BWR fuel rod is backfilled with helium to a pressure of about 3 standard atmospheres (300 kPa).
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metal fuel with a non-oxidising covering to contain fission products. This material has the advantage of a low
1060:
634:
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escape instead of allowing it to capture neutrons converting it to the basically stable and chemically inert
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which reacts strongly with water, producing hydrogen, and which is among the more common fission products.
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6084:
5371:
4915:
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1374:
Tristructural-isotropic (TRISO) fuel is a type of micro-particle fuel. A particle consists of a kernel of
1175:
775:
501:
fuels except for Japan. Normally, with the fuel being changed every three years or so, about half of the
69:
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production, without the high temperatures seen in ceramic, cylindrical fuel. It is currently used in the
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Non-Destructive
Examination of SiC Nuclear Fuel Shell using X-Ray Fluorescence Microtomography Technique
3188:(2001) 413â422. A Laser Flash Apparatus for Thermal Diffusivity and Specific Heat Capacity Measurements
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1858:
1563:
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991:
606:. It can be made inherently safe as thermal expansion of the metal alloy will increase neutron leakage.
494:
466:
458:
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contains 82 of these units (in addition to its 3 main RTGs for power generation). The
Huygens probe to
184:
is much higher than that of the metal and because it cannot burn, being already in the oxidized state.
3168:
3068:"Neutronic Analysis of SiC/SiC Sandwich Cladding Design in APR-1400 under Normal Operation Conditions"
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Their function is to provide highly localised heating of sensitive equipment (such as electronics in
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109:
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1647:. In fuel which has been used at high temperature in power reactors it is common for the fuel to be
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for a considerably longer period than the existing fuel designs and prevent or delay the release of
6388:
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37:
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https://pubs.aip.org/aip/adv/article/9/7/075112/22584/Reactor-Monte-Carlo-RMC-model-validation-and
2573:
2548:(half life around two years) that are present in "fresh" spent nuclear fuel in non-trivial amounts
1242:
was originally designed for non-enriched fuel but since switched to slightly enriched fuel with a
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136:. In that case, the neutrons released go on to split more nuclei. This creates a self-sustaining
95:
3519:
2831:
2947:
Alhattawi, Nouf T.; Alrwashdeh, Mohammad; Alameri, Saeed A.; Alaleeli, Maitha M. (2023-08-15).
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designs operated at 24.8 and 27 bars (24.5 and 26.6 atm). Magnox alloy consists mainly of
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2522:). Besides those well-known middle to long-lived radioactive caesium isotopes there are other
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are capable of retaining the fuel mixture for significantly extended periods, which increases
782:. While the neutron cross section of carbon is low, during years of burnup, the predominantly
153:
3563:"The Use of Molybdenum-Based Ceramic-Metal (CerMet) Fuel for the Actinide Management in LWRs"
3539:
1595:(LOCA) or reaction-initiated accidents (RIA). These concerns became more prominent after the
1553:
uses plate-type fuel in a clover leaf arrangement. The blue glow around the core is known as
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required for the D-T reaction, and the power density will be 2500 times lower than for D-T.
1727:
1668:
1632:
1394:
1342:
It reacts with water, preventing long-term storage of spent fuel under water - such as in a
1296:
1269:
1254:
1191:
849:
669:
656:. Uranium nitride has a very high melting point. This fuel has the disadvantage that unless
645:
578:
498:
443:
274:
191:
The thermal conductivity of zirconium metal and uranium dioxide as a function of temperature
102:
65:
5924:
5764:
5703:
2065:
1433:. Currently, TRISO fuel compacts are being used in some experimental reactors, such as the
614:
Molten plutonium, alloyed with other metals to lower its melting point and encapsulated in
505:
is 'burned' in the reactor, providing about one third of the total energy. It behaves like
6252:
6182:
6142:
5669:
5596:
5424:
5410:
5334:
5309:
5155:
4948:
4840:
4805:
4683:
4673:
4566:
4547:
4461:
4228:
4143:
3999:
3989:
3974:
3932:
3837:
3787:
3738:
3648:
3507:
3485:
1784:
1719:
1675:
1672:
1475:
1449:
1442:
1441:
in Japan. In the United States, spherical fuel elements utilizing a TRISO particle with a
1398:
1382:
1375:
1343:
1304:
1239:
1165:
1064:
940:, is that it will quickly decay to the highly chemically reactive, long lived radioactive
915:
907:
757:
745:
741:
683:
to enable recovery of the N. It is likely that if the fuel was processed and dissolved in
603:
570:
551:
439:
355:
200:
141:
87:
5674:
702:
All nitrogen-fluoride compounds are volatile or gaseous at room temperature and could be
652:
produces. One advantage is that uranium nitride has a better thermal conductivity than UO
585:. TRIGA fuel was originally designed to use highly enriched uranium, however in 1978 the
3445:
2964:
2925:
6157:
6137:
6132:
6127:
5877:
5784:
5753:
5735:
5259:
5165:
5111:
5076:
5009:
4956:
4810:
4703:
4688:
4678:
4542:
4491:
4466:
4270:
4235:
4168:
4158:
4074:
4054:
4049:
4034:
4004:
3984:
3942:
3920:
3902:
3802:
3792:
3728:
3641:
2444:
2042:
2034:
1995:
1987:
1981:
1656:
1644:
1479:
1426:
1308:
1292:
1007:
890:
582:
208:
161:
145:
137:
91:
54:
50:
3253:
1538:
1497:
679:
needed for such a fuel would be so expensive it is likely that the fuel would require
60:
6457:
6322:
5613:
5019:
4860:
4590:
4449:
4409:
4373:
4329:
4255:
4218:
4136:
4059:
3827:
3822:
3775:
3755:
3461:
3358:
3286:
2387:
2106:
2038:
2027:
1999:
1917:
1743:
1609:
The aim of the research is to develop nuclear fuels that can tolerate loss of active
1211:
497:. All other reprocessing nations have long had nuclear weapons from military-focused
451:
204:
181:
149:
125:
2794:
1425:
TRISO fuel particles were originally developed in the United
Kingdom as part of the
1134:
17:
5888:
5024:
4966:
4893:
4845:
4346:
4290:
4240:
4044:
3817:
3750:
2240:
2234:
2222:
2154:
2130:
2099:
2046:
1991:
1652:
1614:
1514:
1483:
1084:
954:
852:
discharged from reactors where it was used as a moderator presents the same issue.
366:
113:
3557:
Thoria-based Cermet Nuclear Fuel: Sintered Microsphere Fabrication by Spray Drying
3453:
3424:
3364:
The Evolution of CANDU Fuel Cycles and their Potential Contribution to World Peace
3341:
2973:
2948:
2933:
1198:
3376:
2781:
Price, M. S. T. (2012). "The Dragon Project origins, achievements and legacies".
6299:
5946:
5536:
5043:
5014:
4351:
4317:
4191:
4181:
4124:
4107:
4092:
4039:
3937:
3393:
3101:"Chromium-Coated Zirconium Cladding Neutronics Impact for APR-1400 Reactor Core"
2881:"SiC and FeCrAl as Potential Cladding Materials for APR-1400 Neutronic Analysis"
2395:
2210:
2095:
1735:
1228:
1170:
1142:
942:
684:
661:
657:
622:
in the 1960s. LAMPRE experienced three separate fuel failures during operation.
308:
121:
117:
3398:
3203:
3010:
2997:
2845:"Development Status of Accident-tolerant Fuel for Light WaterReactors in Korea"
848:
concentration will be too low for use in nuclear batteries without enrichment.
4385:
4307:
4245:
4213:
4153:
3847:
3227:
2949:"Sensitivity neutronic analysis of accident tolerant fuel concepts in APR1400"
2861:
2844:
2768:"Dual Fluid Reactor â Variant with Liquid Metal Fissionable Material (DFR/ M)"
2363:
2023:
895:
152:
and some other isotopes are used to produce small amounts of nuclear power by
3019:
2982:
2650:
1456:, and Kairos Power is developing a 140 MWE nuclear reactor that uses TRISO.
6294:
5657:
5647:
4775:
4728:
4693:
4395:
4322:
4196:
4176:
4148:
4087:
3157:
Armin F. Lietzke (Jan 1970) Simplified Analysis of Nuclear Fuel Pin Swelling
2381:
2244:
2011:
1739:
1664:
1660:
1640:
1386:
1320:
1316:
1076:
1056:
878:
665:
435:
351:
340:
187:
132:, they frequently split, creating two daughter nuclei and two or three more
6152:
2206:
of plutonium-238. This heat is given off continuously for several decades.
369:
during normal operation in the core environment, a small percentage of the
970:(LFTR), this fuel salt is also the coolant; in other designs, such as the
573:) reactors. The TRIGA reactor uses UZrH fuel, which has a prompt negative
180:; the oxides are used rather than the metals themselves because the oxide
6383:
6177:
6026:
6021:
5961:
5630:
5558:
5541:
5526:
5501:
5244:
4733:
4131:
4112:
4097:
3797:
3363:
2710:"LAHDRA: Los Alamos Historical Document Retrieval and Assessment Project"
2256:
2252:
1723:
1453:
1430:
1068:
1045:
1023:
676:
615:
543:
422:
266:
105:
3034:"State-of-the-Art Report on Light Water Reactor Accident-Tolerant Fuels"
6352:
6304:
6167:
6147:
5546:
5521:
4961:
4850:
4792:
4780:
4758:
4723:
4265:
3807:
3296:
3117:
3100:
3084:
3067:
2897:
2880:
2641:
2624:
2585:
2282:
2273:
2248:
2015:
1904:
1766:
1751:
1636:
1610:
1487:
1328:
1324:
1219:
1087:
630:
281:
173:
133:
83:
31:
2808:
2175:
618:, was tested in two experimental reactors, LAMPRE I and LAMPRE II, at
546:
as part of a closed nuclear fuel cycle. Metal fuels have been used in
461:. Reprocessing of commercial nuclear fuel to make MOX was done in the
331:
which is then converted by heating with hydrogen or ammonia to form UO
5956:
5951:
5931:
5911:
5896:
5779:
5516:
5496:
5464:
4614:
3812:
3733:
3684:
2348:
2333:
2309:
2291:
2218:
2019:
2007:
2003:
1434:
1403:
1288:
1283:
1161:
1080:
1079:
with small amount of aluminium and other metals for the now-obsolete
510:
3533:"A Review of Fifty Years of Space Nuclear Fuel Development Programs"
1998:
radiation that would require heavy shielding. Radioisotopes such as
1464:
509:
and its fission releases a similar amount of energy. The higher the
5506:
6373:
6330:
5993:
5849:
5652:
5642:
2843:
Kim, Hyun-Gil; Yang, Jae-Ho; Kim, Weon-Ju; Koo, Yang-Hyun (2016).
2341:
2174:
2064:
1747:
1537:
1496:
1463:
1422:
that is attempting to reach even higher HTGR outlet temperatures.
1365:
1268:
1197:
1133:
1072:
873:
696:
566:
186:
177:
59:
44:
36:
3272:
343:
the solid. The aim is to form a dense solid which has few pores.
5854:
5743:
5553:
5511:
4186:
4119:
4102:
3770:
3620:
3066:
Alaleeli, Maithah; Alameri, Saeed; Alrwashdeh, Mohammad (2022).
2203:
2199:
1518:
1366:
1238:
in Argentina, a similar design to the CANDU but built by German
649:
6249:
5421:
5408:
4618:
3657:
1504:
1 â distancing armature; 2 â fuel rods shell; 3 â fuel tablets.
5827:
5691:
2124:
has become the most widely used fuel for RTGs, in the form of
1202:
CANDU fuel bundles, each about 50 cm long, 10 cm in diameter.
3496:
LANL webpage showing various stages of TRISO fuel production
1711:
new material properties, cracking, and fission gas release.
3202:. World Nuclear Association. September 2009. Archived from
2340:
Another potential aneutronic fusion reaction is the proton-
373:
in the fuel absorbs excess neutrons and is transmuted into
1418:(VHTRs), one of the six classes of reactor designs in the
3653:
3501:
Method to calculate the temperature profile in TRISO fuel
1385:
or UCO), which has been coated with four layers of three
1148:. Designed and built by the Babcock & Wilcox Company.
740:
is proposed for use in particularly long lived low power
714:) then fluoride volatility could be used to separate the
465:(England). As of 2015, MOX fuel is made in France at the
1769:
of the fuel can be related to the thermal conductivity.
1331:
capture cross-section, but has two major disadvantages:
893:
and is produced both directly and as a decay product of
2623:
Bulatov, G. S.; German, Konstantin E. (December 2022).
1799:) is related to the conductivity of the perfect phase (
1583:
bonding is used to reduce the temperature of the fuel.
1572:
University of Massachusetts Lowell Radiation Laboratory
413:
at the end of the 18 to 24 month fuel exposure period.
128:. When the unstable nuclei of these atoms are hit by a
3139:. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). 2021-06-23
2996:
Alrwashdeh, Mohammad; Alameri, Saeed A. (2023-05-08).
957:
and can be taken up by organisms in their metabolism.
405:
at initiation of the fuel use to a ratio of about 70%
1414:(HTGRs). These are also the basic reactor designs of
706:
from the other gaseous products (including recovered
648:
is often the fuel of choice for reactor designs that
569:
fuel is used in TRIGA (Training, Research, Isotopes,
350:
of uranium dioxide is very low compared with that of
3342:
Links to BWR photos from the nuclear tourist webpage
2425:
Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
1808:, no porosity) by the following equation. Note that
1291:(magnesium non-oxidising) reactors are pressurised,
6361:
6313:
6270:
6212:
6113:
6043:
5992:
5983:
5910:
5876:
5867:
5826:
5819:
5799:
5752:
5734:
5690:
5595:
5577:
5445:
5359:
5292:
5237:
5228:
5176:
5084:
5075:
5042:
4985:
4947:
4938:
4859:
4791:
4714:
4656:
4530:
4406:
4254:
4167:
4073:
3913:
3714:
1790:
Then the thermal conductivity of the porous phase (
1603:(LWR) fuels performance under accident conditions.
1323:and other metals—used in cladding unenriched
1129:
NRC photo of fresh fuel assemblies being inspected.
1117:
NRC photo of fresh fuel pellets ready for assembly.
172:For fission reactors, the fuel (typically based on
30:"Fuel rod" redirects here. Not to be confused with
5377:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
3394:CANDU Fuel and Reactor Specifics (Nuclear Tourist)
1688:Behavior of nuclear fuel during a reactor accident
668:would be generated from the nitrogen by the (n,p)
1738:), the precipitation of fission products such as
1335:It limits the maximum temperature, and hence the
1105:(NRC) photo of unirradiated (fresh) fuel pellets.
637:than oxide fuels and are not understood as well.
3099:Alrwashdeh, Mohammad; Alameri, Saeed A. (2022).
2879:Alrwashdeh, Mohammad; Alameri, Saeed A. (2022).
2420:Integrated Nuclear Fuel Cycle Information System
1967:For details see K. Shinzato and T. Baba (2001).
1358:facilities were required to address this issue.
876:gas, which normally acts as a neutron absorber (
401:accumulates the chain reaction shifts from pure
3599:List of reactors at INL and picture of ATR core
793:will undergo neutron capture to produce stable
2500:split will result in roughly 35 grams each of
2239:Fusion fuels are fuels to use in hypothetical
2202:of heat each, derived from the decay of a few
1696:Fuel behavior and post-irradiation examination
1631:Used nuclear fuel is a complex mixture of the
86:. Heat is created when nuclear fuel undergoes
6080:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
4630:
3669:
1812:is a term for the shape factor of the holes.
760:is in the form of pin-type fuel elements for
8:
1452:solid solution kernel are being used in the
488:to form an international partnership to see
108:elements that are capable of undergoing and
3182:Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry
3002:Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering
1022:(DFR) has a variant DFR/m which works with
691:with N would be diluted with the common N.
6246:
6057:
5989:
5873:
5823:
5816:
5592:
5418:
5405:
5234:
5081:
4944:
4653:
4637:
4623:
4615:
3676:
3662:
3654:
2489:are roughly 6%, meaning every kilogram of
1570:, and the nuclear research reactor at the
575:fuel temperature coefficient of reactivity
469:, and to a lesser extent in Russia at the
3116:
3083:
3009:
2972:
2896:
2860:
2640:
1439:high-temperature engineering test reactor
1410:(PBR). Both of these reactor designs are
64:Close-up of a replica of the core of the
3287:Picture showing handling of a PWR bundle
2600:"Uranium Fuel Cycle | nuclear-power.com"
1870:and determine the thermal conductivity.
1026:liquid metal alloys, e.g. U-Cr or U-Fe.
990:(72-16-12-0.4 mol%). It had a peak
477:fast breeder reactors and reprocessing.
393:has a higher neutron cross section than
303:
299:
295:
291:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
3491:Description of TRISO fuel for "pebbles"
2561:
2456:
1092:
826:produced by using uranium nitrate, the
538:, uranium silicon, uranium molybdenum,
265:This is then converted by heating with
6007:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
4296:Integrated gasification combined cycle
2694:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2687:
2098:from a radioisotope using an array of
1853:using the traditional methods such as
1397:(PyC), followed by a ceramic layer of
1389:materials deposited through fluidized
660:was used (in place of the more common
158:radioisotope thermoelectric generators
6012:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
4340:Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
4015:Quantum chromodynamics binding energy
2874:
2872:
2088:radioisotope thermoelectric generator
2082:Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
2061:Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
7:
6436:
4573:
3617:"General Atomics TRIGA fuel website"
3319:"Picture of a "canned" BWR assembly"
2055:radioisotope piezoelectric generator
1776:is the bulk density of the fuel and
1726:and burn-up. The burn-up results in
1682:Oxide fuel under accident conditions
6017:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
4597:
4482:World energy supply and consumption
3133:"Backgrounder on Radioactive Waste"
1760:International Nuclear Safety Center
4977:Positron-emission tomography (PET)
3642:Advanced fusion fuels presentation
3520:Conceptual Design of QUADRISO Fuel
2849:Nuclear Engineering and Technology
2580:(4th ed.). pp. 338â341.
1851:measuring the thermal conductivity
1783:is the theoretical density of the
1599:in Japan, in particular regarding
1597:Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
385:which in turn rapidly decays into
27:Material fuelling nuclear reactors
25:
5000:Neutron capture therapy of cancer
4899:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)
2415:Global Nuclear Energy Partnership
2198:(RHU) typically provides about 1
998:Aqueous solutions of uranyl salts
953:, which behaves similar to other
872:A liquid core is able to release
482:Global Nuclear Energy Partnership
207:solid. It can be made by heating
101:Most nuclear fuels contain heavy
6435:
6424:
6423:
6411:
6100:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
4596:
4584:
4572:
4561:
4560:
3337:Physical description of LWR fuel
3269:"Picture of a PWR fuel assembly"
2394:
2380:
2366:
1746:due to fission products such as
1257:higher than in natural uranium.
1122:
1110:
1095:
176:) is usually based on the metal
5189:Historical stockpiles and tests
3434:Nuclear Science and Engineering
3179:K. Shinzato and T. Baba (2001)
2795:10.1016/j.nucengdes.2011.12.024
2722:from the original on 2016-04-15
2677:from the original on 2016-10-21
1742:, the formation of fission gas
968:liquid fluoride thorium reactor
556:Experimental Breeder Reactor II
495:nonproliferation considerations
90:. Nuclear fuel has the highest
6090:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
4972:Single-photon emission (SPECT)
3370:"CANDU Fuel-Management Course"
3232:by Argonne National Laboratory
2742:"Liquid Fuel Nuclear Reactors"
2629:Journal of Nuclear Engineering
2184:Radioisotope heater unit (RHU)
1651:; often the fuel will contain
1513:RBMK reactor fuel was used in
1416:very-high-temperature reactors
1307:(i.e. unenriched) as fuel and
1153:Pressurized water reactor fuel
867:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment
620:Los Alamos National Laboratory
1:
6418:Nuclear technology portal
3454:10.1080/00295639.2019.1672511
3425:10.1016/j.anucene.2021.108551
2974:10.1016/j.jnucmat.2023.154487
2934:10.1016/j.jnucmat.2013.12.005
2299:Second-generation fusion fuel
2150:U.S. Atomic Energy Commission
1412:high temperature gas reactors
1212:Canada deuterium uranium fuel
1207:Canada deuterium uranium fuel
1103:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
1059:-resistant material with low
486:George W. Bush administration
6280:Field-reversed configuration
5890:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
3293:"Mitsubishi nuclear fuel Co"
2953:Journal of Nuclear Materials
2914:Journal of Nuclear Materials
2746:Forum on Physics and Society
2317:Third-generation fusion fuel
2263:First-generation fusion fuel
2051:optoelectric nuclear battery
2041:. These designs include the
1963:is the thickness of the disc
1702:Post Irradiation Examination
1502:RBMK reactor fuel rod holder
1362:Tristructural-isotropic fuel
1075:in modern constructions, or
1004:aqueous homogeneous reactors
756:Much of what is known about
6237:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
5184:States with nuclear weapons
3479:GT-MHR fuel compact process
3399:Candu Fuel Rods and Bundles
3354:CANDU Fuel pictures and FAQ
2578:Chemical Process Industries
2312:(14.68 MeV) + He (3.67 MeV)
2276:(14.07 MeV) + He (3.52 MeV)
2179:Photo of a disassembled RHU
1492:Argonne National Laboratory
484:was a U.S. proposal in the
471:Mining and Chemical Combine
6500:
6075:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
5199:Tests in the United States
3230:Plutonium Fuel Fabrication
3011:10.1007/s13369-023-07905-7
2320:
2285:(2.45 MeV) + He (0.82 MeV)
2232:
2187:
2079:
2043:direct charging generators
1979:
1722:is low; it is affected by
1699:
1685:
1624:
1281:
1236:Atucha nuclear power plant
1182:Boiling water reactor fuel
1033:
762:liquid metal fast reactors
420:
389:. The small percentage of
112:. The three most relevant
110:sustaining nuclear fission
29:
6405:
6260:
6200:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
6095:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
6060:
5902:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
5432:
5417:
5404:
4652:
4556:
4286:Fossil fuel power station
3948:Electric potential energy
3893:Thermodynamic temperature
3873:Thermodynamic free energy
3868:Thermodynamic equilibrium
3691:
2862:10.1016/j.net.2015.11.011
2374:Nuclear technology portal
2294:(3.02 MeV) + H (1.01 MeV)
2235:Fusion power § Fuels
2094:which converts heat into
1568:Idaho National Laboratory
1551:Idaho National Laboratory
1391:chemical vapor deposition
1158:Pressurized water reactor
1006:(AHRs) use a solution of
587:U.S. Department of Energy
540:uranium zirconium hydride
473:, India and Japan. China
82:to produce heat to power
6105:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
5721:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
5057:Electron-beam processing
4357:Concentrated solar power
3413:Annals of Nuclear Energy
2196:radioisotope heater unit
2190:Radioisotope heater unit
1971:Radioisotope decay fuels
1593:loss-of-coolant accident
1474:In QUADRISO particles a
1420:Generation IV initiative
1061:absorption cross section
140:that is controlled in a
6220:Organic nuclear reactor
5392:Nuclear power phase-out
5315:Nuclear decommissioning
5255:Reactor-grade plutonium
5005:Targeted alpha-particle
4884:Accidents and incidents
3898:Volume (thermodynamics)
3878:Thermodynamic potential
3781:Massâenergy equivalence
2402:Renewable energy portal
2243:reactors. They include
1730:being dissolved in the
1587:Accident tolerant fuels
1476:burnable neutron poison
1014:Liquid metals or alloys
889:is the strongest known
804:as well as radioactive
780:gas-cooled fast reactor
626:Non-oxide ceramic fuels
307:. This is then heated (
284:to form a solid called
144:, or uncontrolled in a
3853:Quantum thermodynamics
3843:Laws of thermodynamics
3724:Conservation of energy
3469:TRISO fuel descripciĂłn
3359:Basics on CANDU design
3200:"Nuclear Fusion Power"
2465:fission product yields
2180:
2077:
1865:, it is common to use
1558:
1505:
1471:
1371:
1319:with small amounts of
1274:
1261:Less-common fuel forms
1203:
1188:boiling water reactors
1176:hydrogen embrittlement
1149:
776:Generation IV reactors
725:produced by producing
704:fractionally distilled
273:. It can be made from
192:
80:nuclear power stations
72:
70:Institut Laue-Langevin
57:
42:
5382:Anti-nuclear movement
3970:Interatomic potential
3761:Energy transformation
2225:contains 35 devices.
2178:
2068:
1645:transplutonium metals
1564:Advanced Test Reactor
1547:Advanced Test Reactor
1541:
1500:
1467:
1369:
1272:
1201:
1137:
1030:Common physical forms
992:operating temperature
712:use it as a moderator
664:), a large amount of
552:fast breeder reactors
467:Marcoule Nuclear Site
365:While exposed to the
190:
63:
48:
40:
6469:Nuclear reprocessing
6290:Reversed field pinch
6085:Traveling-wave (TWR)
5569:Supercritical (SCWR)
5067:Gemstone irradiation
4418:Efficient energy use
4391:Airborne wind energy
4369:Solar thermal energy
4276:Electricity delivery
3888:Thermodynamic system
3833:Irreversible process
3250:"NEI fuel schematic"
2351:+ B â 3 He (8.7 MeV)
2092:electrical generator
1976:Radioisotope battery
1897:thermal conductivity
1867:Laser Flash Analysis
1716:thermal conductivity
1517:-designed and built
1352:nuclear reprocessing
912:molten-salt reactors
869:from 1965 to 1969.
727:carbon tetrafluoride
708:uranium hexafluoride
600:fast-neutron reactor
548:light-water reactors
463:Sellafield MOX Plant
448:light water reactors
381:rapidly decays into
362:of a metal surface.
348:thermal conductivity
278:uranium hexafluoride
78:is material used in
41:Nuclear fuel process
18:Nuclear reactor fuel
5455:Aqueous homogeneous
5250:Reprocessed uranium
4923:Safety and security
4440:Energy conservation
4362:Photovoltaic system
4335:Nuclear power plant
4020:Quantum fluctuation
3883:Thermodynamic state
3858:Thermal equilibrium
3446:2020NSE...194..163A
2965:2023JNuM..58254487A
2926:2014JNuM..448..374Z
2740:Hargraves, Robert.
2524:isotopes of caesium
2440:Reprocessed uranium
1926:thermal diffusivity
1601:light-water reactor
1555:Cherenkov radiation
1313:reinforced concrete
1040:Uranium dioxide (UO
972:stable salt reactor
693:Fluoride volatility
160:and other types of
130:slow-moving neutron
6474:Nuclear technology
6369:Dense plasma focus
5284:Actinide chemistry
4749:Isotope separation
4646:Nuclear technology
4477:Sustainable energy
4455:Energy development
4445:Energy consumption
4281:Energy engineering
3647:2016-04-15 at the
3506:2016-04-15 at the
3484:2006-03-06 at the
3118:10.3390/en15218008
3085:10.3390/en15145204
2898:10.3390/en15103772
2642:10.3390/jne3040022
2435:Nuclear fuel cycle
2181:
2090:(RTG) is a simple
2078:
2076:RTGs before launch
2030:have been tested.
1627:Spent nuclear fuel
1621:Spent nuclear fuel
1578:Sodium-bonded fuel
1559:
1506:
1472:
1408:pebble-bed reactor
1372:
1337:thermal efficiency
1275:
1253:content about 0.1
1225:neutron absorption
1204:
1192:density variations
1150:
1036:Active fuel length
1020:dual fluid reactor
687:that the nitrogen
531:Clementine reactor
490:spent nuclear fuel
450:which predominate
360:galvanic corrosion
286:ammonium diuranate
193:
96:nuclear fuel cycle
73:
58:
49:A graph comparing
43:
6479:Nuclear chemistry
6451:
6450:
6401:
6400:
6397:
6396:
6348:Magnetized-target
6245:
6244:
6208:
6207:
6039:
6038:
6035:
6034:
5979:
5978:
5863:
5862:
5795:
5794:
5400:
5399:
5355:
5354:
5224:
5223:
5211:Weapon-free zones
5038:
5037:
5030:Radiopharmacology
4612:
4611:
4379:Solar power tower
4025:Quantum potential
3863:Thermal reservoir
3766:Energy transition
2783:Nucl. Eng. Design
2430:Nuclear fuel bank
2323:Aneutronic fusion
2126:plutonium dioxide
1758:According to the
1469:QUADRISO Particle
1437:in China and the
1273:A Magnox fuel rod
1255:percentage points
1139:PWR fuel assembly
746:diamond batteries
742:nuclear batteries
550:and liquid metal
536:uranium zirconium
358:processes to the
280:by reacting with
154:radioactive decay
16:(Redirected from
6491:
6439:
6438:
6427:
6426:
6416:
6415:
6414:
6326:
6285:Levitated dipole
6255:
6247:
6195:Helium gas (GFR)
6058:
6053:
5990:
5874:
5824:
5817:
5812:
5811:
5593:
5589:
5588:
5427:
5419:
5411:Nuclear reactors
5406:
5305:High-level (HLW)
5235:
5082:
5062:Food irradiation
5052:Atomic gardening
4945:
4928:Nuclear meltdown
4754:Nuclear material
4744:Fissile material
4739:Fertile material
4654:
4639:
4632:
4625:
4616:
4600:
4599:
4588:
4576:
4575:
4564:
4563:
4538:Carbon footprint
4472:Renewable energy
4313:Hydroelectricity
4303:Geothermal power
3746:Energy condition
3678:
3671:
3664:
3655:
3631:
3629:
3628:
3619:. Archived from
3583:
3581:
3580:
3574:
3568:. Archived from
3567:
3553:
3551:
3550:
3544:
3538:. Archived from
3537:
3465:
3428:
3390:
3388:
3387:
3381:
3375:. Archived from
3374:
3333:
3331:
3330:
3321:. Archived from
3307:
3305:
3304:
3295:. Archived from
3283:
3281:
3280:
3271:. Archived from
3264:
3262:
3261:
3252:. Archived from
3233:
3215:
3214:
3212:
3211:
3196:
3190:
3177:
3171:
3166:
3160:
3154:
3148:
3147:
3145:
3144:
3129:
3123:
3122:
3120:
3096:
3090:
3089:
3087:
3063:
3057:
3054:
3048:
3047:
3045:
3044:
3038:www.oecd-nea.org
3030:
3024:
3023:
3013:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2976:
2944:
2938:
2937:
2920:(1â3): 374â379.
2909:
2903:
2902:
2900:
2876:
2867:
2866:
2864:
2840:
2834:
2829:
2823:
2822:
2820:
2819:
2805:
2799:
2798:
2778:
2772:
2771:
2764:
2758:
2757:
2755:
2753:
2737:
2731:
2730:
2728:
2727:
2721:
2714:
2706:
2700:
2699:
2693:
2685:
2683:
2682:
2676:
2669:
2661:
2655:
2654:
2644:
2620:
2614:
2613:
2611:
2610:
2596:
2590:
2589:
2570:R. Norris Shreve
2566:
2549:
2547:
2545:
2544:
2536:
2534:
2533:
2521:
2519:
2518:
2510:
2508:
2507:
2499:
2497:
2496:
2488:
2486:
2485:
2477:
2475:
2474:
2461:
2410:Fissile material
2404:
2399:
2398:
2390:
2385:
2384:
2376:
2371:
2370:
2369:
2336:+ He (12.86 MeV)
2171:
2169:
2168:
2161:
2160:
2147:
2145:
2144:
2137:
2136:
2123:
2121:
2120:
2113:
2112:
2014:have been used.
1728:fission products
1669:fission products
1633:fission products
1395:pyrolytic carbon
1381:fuel (sometimes
1252:
1250:
1249:
1126:
1114:
1099:
1065:thermal neutrons
952:
949:
948:
939:
937:
936:
928:
926:
925:
905:
902:
901:
888:
885:
884:
850:Nuclear graphite
847:
845:
844:
836:
834:
833:
825:
823:
822:
814:
812:
811:
803:
801:
800:
792:
790:
789:
739:
737:
736:
724:
722:
721:
610:Molten plutonium
520:
516:
508:
504:
499:research reactor
475:plans to develop
444:depleted uranium
434:, is a blend of
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
322:
321:
320:
306:
261:
222:
221:
220:
162:atomic batteries
114:fissile isotopes
66:research reactor
21:
6499:
6498:
6494:
6493:
6492:
6490:
6489:
6488:
6454:
6453:
6452:
6447:
6412:
6410:
6393:
6357:
6324:
6309:
6266:
6256:
6251:
6241:
6204:
6109:
6054:
6047:
6046:
6031:
5975:
5906:
5881:
5859:
5831:
5813:
5806:
5805:
5804:
5791:
5757:
5748:
5730:
5695:
5686:
5600:
5583:
5582:
5581:
5573:
5487:Natural fission
5441:
5440:
5428:
5423:
5413:
5396:
5372:Nuclear weapons
5351:
5310:Low-level (LLW)
5288:
5220:
5172:
5071:
5034:
4981:
4934:
4855:
4787:
4710:
4648:
4643:
4613:
4608:
4552:
4548:Waste-to-energy
4526:
4462:Energy security
4408:
4402:
4258:
4250:
4229:Natural uranium
4163:
4144:Mechanical wave
4075:Energy carriers
4069:
3909:
3838:Isolated system
3716:
3710:
3687:
3682:
3649:Wayback Machine
3638:
3626:
3624:
3615:
3612:
3590:
3588:Plate type fuel
3578:
3576:
3572:
3565:
3561:
3548:
3546:
3542:
3535:
3531:
3528:
3516:
3508:Wayback Machine
3486:Wayback Machine
3431:
3410:
3407:
3385:
3383:
3379:
3372:
3368:
3350:
3328:
3326:
3317:
3314:
3302:
3300:
3291:
3278:
3276:
3267:
3259:
3257:
3248:
3245:
3228:
3224:
3219:
3218:
3209:
3207:
3198:
3197:
3193:
3178:
3174:
3167:
3163:
3155:
3151:
3142:
3140:
3131:
3130:
3126:
3098:
3097:
3093:
3065:
3064:
3060:
3055:
3051:
3042:
3040:
3032:
3031:
3027:
2995:
2994:
2990:
2946:
2945:
2941:
2911:
2910:
2906:
2878:
2877:
2870:
2842:
2841:
2837:
2830:
2826:
2817:
2815:
2807:
2806:
2802:
2780:
2779:
2775:
2766:
2765:
2761:
2751:
2749:
2739:
2738:
2734:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2712:
2708:
2707:
2703:
2686:
2680:
2678:
2674:
2667:
2665:"Archived copy"
2663:
2662:
2658:
2622:
2621:
2617:
2608:
2606:
2598:
2597:
2593:
2568:
2567:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2552:
2543:
2541:
2540:
2539:
2538:
2532:
2530:
2529:
2528:
2527:
2517:
2515:
2514:
2513:
2512:
2506:
2504:
2503:
2502:
2501:
2495:
2493:
2492:
2491:
2490:
2484:
2482:
2481:
2480:
2479:
2473:
2471:
2470:
2469:
2468:
2462:
2458:
2453:
2400:
2393:
2386:
2379:
2372:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2325:
2319:
2301:
2265:
2251:(H) as well as
2237:
2231:
2215:CassiniâHuygens
2192:
2186:
2167:
2165:
2164:
2163:
2159:
2157:
2156:
2155:
2153:
2143:
2141:
2140:
2139:
2135:
2133:
2132:
2131:
2129:
2119:
2117:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2109:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2084:
2063:
1984:
1978:
1973:
1955:
1937:
1916:
1885:
1832:
1823:
1807:
1798:
1785:uranium dioxide
1782:
1720:uranium dioxide
1704:
1698:
1690:
1684:
1676:crystal lattice
1673:uranium dioxide
1659:metals such as
1629:
1623:
1589:
1580:
1536:
1534:Plate-type fuel
1527:
1511:
1462:
1446:
1379:
1364:
1356:remote handling
1344:spent fuel pool
1339:, of the plant.
1305:natural uranium
1303:reactors using
1286:
1280:
1263:
1248:
1246:
1245:
1244:
1243:
1217:
1209:
1184:
1166:heat conduction
1164:gas to improve
1155:
1130:
1127:
1118:
1115:
1106:
1100:
1081:Magnox reactors
1046:zirconium alloy
1043:
1038:
1032:
1016:
1000:
989:
985:
981:
963:
947:
945:
944:
943:
941:
935:
933:
932:
931:
930:
924:
922:
921:
920:
919:
916:fuel efficiency
908:fission product
900:
898:
897:
896:
894:
883:
881:
880:
879:
877:
858:
843:
841:
840:
839:
838:
832:
830:
829:
828:
827:
821:
819:
818:
817:
816:
810:
808:
807:
806:
805:
799:
797:
796:
795:
794:
788:
786:
785:
784:
783:
772:
758:uranium carbide
754:
752:Uranium carbide
735:
733:
732:
731:
730:
720:
718:
717:
716:
715:
655:
646:Uranium nitride
643:
641:Uranium nitride
628:
612:
604:minor actinides
596:
571:General Atomics
564:
527:
518:
514:
506:
502:
425:
419:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
356:electrochemical
338:
334:
330:
326:
319:
316:
315:
314:
312:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
272:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
219:
216:
215:
214:
212:
201:Uranium dioxide
198:
196:Uranium dioxide
170:
142:nuclear reactor
88:nuclear fission
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6497:
6495:
6487:
6486:
6481:
6476:
6471:
6466:
6456:
6455:
6449:
6448:
6446:
6445:
6433:
6421:
6406:
6403:
6402:
6399:
6398:
6395:
6394:
6392:
6391:
6386:
6381:
6379:Muon-catalyzed
6376:
6371:
6365:
6363:
6359:
6358:
6356:
6355:
6350:
6345:
6340:
6339:
6338:
6328:
6319:
6317:
6311:
6310:
6308:
6307:
6302:
6297:
6292:
6287:
6282:
6276:
6274:
6268:
6267:
6261:
6258:
6257:
6250:
6243:
6242:
6240:
6239:
6234:
6233:
6232:
6227:
6216:
6214:
6210:
6209:
6206:
6205:
6203:
6202:
6197:
6192:
6187:
6186:
6185:
6180:
6175:
6170:
6165:
6160:
6155:
6150:
6145:
6140:
6135:
6130:
6119:
6117:
6111:
6110:
6108:
6107:
6102:
6097:
6092:
6087:
6082:
6077:
6072:
6070:Integral (IFR)
6067:
6061:
6055:
6044:
6041:
6040:
6037:
6036:
6033:
6032:
6030:
6029:
6024:
6019:
6014:
6009:
6004:
5998:
5996:
5987:
5981:
5980:
5977:
5976:
5974:
5973:
5972:
5971:
5966:
5965:
5964:
5959:
5954:
5949:
5934:
5929:
5928:
5927:
5916:
5914:
5908:
5907:
5905:
5904:
5899:
5894:
5885:
5883:
5879:
5871:
5865:
5864:
5861:
5860:
5858:
5857:
5852:
5847:
5842:
5836:
5834:
5829:
5821:
5814:
5800:
5797:
5796:
5793:
5792:
5790:
5789:
5788:
5787:
5782:
5777:
5772:
5761:
5759:
5755:
5750:
5749:
5747:
5746:
5740:
5738:
5732:
5731:
5729:
5728:
5723:
5718:
5717:
5716:
5711:
5700:
5698:
5693:
5688:
5687:
5685:
5684:
5683:
5682:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5662:
5661:
5660:
5655:
5650:
5640:
5635:
5634:
5633:
5628:
5625:
5622:
5619:
5605:
5603:
5598:
5590:
5575:
5574:
5572:
5571:
5566:
5565:
5564:
5561:
5556:
5551:
5550:
5549:
5544:
5534:
5529:
5524:
5519:
5514:
5509:
5504:
5499:
5489:
5484:
5483:
5482:
5477:
5472:
5467:
5457:
5451:
5449:
5443:
5442:
5434:
5433:
5430:
5429:
5422:
5415:
5414:
5409:
5402:
5401:
5398:
5397:
5395:
5394:
5389:
5387:Uranium mining
5384:
5379:
5374:
5369:
5363:
5361:
5357:
5356:
5353:
5352:
5350:
5349:
5344:
5343:
5342:
5337:
5327:
5322:
5317:
5312:
5307:
5302:
5296:
5294:
5290:
5289:
5287:
5286:
5281:
5280:
5279:
5269:
5264:
5263:
5262:
5260:Minor actinide
5257:
5252:
5241:
5239:
5232:
5226:
5225:
5222:
5221:
5219:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5202:
5201:
5196:
5186:
5180:
5178:
5174:
5173:
5171:
5170:
5169:
5168:
5158:
5153:
5152:
5151:
5146:
5136:
5131:
5126:
5125:
5124:
5114:
5109:
5104:
5099:
5094:
5088:
5086:
5079:
5073:
5072:
5070:
5069:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5048:
5046:
5040:
5039:
5036:
5035:
5033:
5032:
5027:
5022:
5017:
5012:
5007:
5002:
4997:
4991:
4989:
4983:
4982:
4980:
4979:
4974:
4969:
4964:
4959:
4957:Autoradiograph
4953:
4951:
4942:
4936:
4935:
4933:
4932:
4931:
4930:
4920:
4919:
4918:
4908:
4907:
4906:
4896:
4891:
4886:
4881:
4876:
4871:
4865:
4863:
4857:
4856:
4854:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4797:
4795:
4789:
4788:
4786:
4785:
4784:
4783:
4778:
4773:
4772:
4771:
4766:
4751:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4720:
4718:
4712:
4711:
4709:
4708:
4707:
4706:
4701:
4691:
4686:
4681:
4679:Atomic nucleus
4676:
4671:
4666:
4660:
4658:
4650:
4649:
4644:
4642:
4641:
4634:
4627:
4619:
4610:
4609:
4607:
4606:
4594:
4582:
4570:
4557:
4554:
4553:
4551:
4550:
4545:
4543:Jevons paradox
4540:
4534:
4532:
4528:
4527:
4525:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4509:
4504:
4499:
4494:
4489:
4484:
4479:
4474:
4469:
4467:Energy storage
4464:
4459:
4458:
4457:
4447:
4442:
4437:
4436:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4414:
4412:
4404:
4403:
4401:
4400:
4399:
4398:
4393:
4383:
4382:
4381:
4376:
4366:
4365:
4364:
4359:
4349:
4344:
4343:
4342:
4337:
4327:
4326:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4305:
4300:
4299:
4298:
4293:
4283:
4278:
4273:
4271:Electric power
4268:
4262:
4260:
4252:
4251:
4249:
4248:
4243:
4238:
4233:
4232:
4231:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4200:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4179:
4173:
4171:
4169:Primary energy
4165:
4164:
4162:
4161:
4156:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4140:
4139:
4129:
4128:
4127:
4117:
4116:
4115:
4110:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4079:
4077:
4071:
4070:
4068:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3987:
3982:
3977:
3972:
3967:
3966:
3965:
3955:
3950:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3929:
3928:
3917:
3915:
3911:
3910:
3908:
3907:
3906:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3803:Entropic force
3800:
3793:Thermodynamics
3790:
3785:
3784:
3783:
3778:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3743:
3742:
3741:
3731:
3726:
3720:
3718:
3712:
3711:
3709:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3692:
3689:
3688:
3683:
3681:
3680:
3673:
3666:
3658:
3652:
3651:
3637:
3634:
3633:
3632:
3611:
3608:
3607:
3606:
3604:ATR plate fuel
3601:
3596:
3589:
3586:
3585:
3584:
3559:
3554:
3527:
3524:
3523:
3522:
3515:
3512:
3511:
3510:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3440:(2): 163â167.
3429:
3406:
3403:
3402:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3349:
3346:
3345:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3313:
3310:
3309:
3308:
3289:
3284:
3265:
3244:
3241:
3240:
3239:
3223:
3222:External links
3220:
3217:
3216:
3191:
3172:
3161:
3149:
3124:
3091:
3058:
3049:
3025:
2988:
2939:
2904:
2868:
2835:
2824:
2800:
2773:
2759:
2732:
2701:
2656:
2635:(4): 352â363.
2615:
2591:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2551:
2550:
2542:
2531:
2516:
2505:
2494:
2483:
2472:
2455:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2448:
2447:
2445:Uranium market
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2406:
2405:
2391:
2377:
2361:
2358:
2353:
2352:
2338:
2337:
2321:Main article:
2318:
2315:
2314:
2313:
2300:
2297:
2296:
2295:
2287:
2286:
2278:
2277:
2264:
2261:
2233:Main article:
2230:
2227:
2188:Main article:
2185:
2182:
2166:
2158:
2142:
2134:
2118:
2110:
2080:Main article:
2069:Inspection of
2062:
2059:
2039:beta particles
2024:promethium-147
1996:bremsstrahlung
1988:atomic battery
1982:Atomic battery
1980:Main article:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1965:
1964:
1957:
1956:
1953:
1935:
1929:
1928:
1920:
1912:
1907:
1899:
1890:
1889:
1881:
1859:Forbes' method
1847:
1846:
1828:
1819:
1803:
1794:
1780:
1700:Main article:
1697:
1694:
1686:Main article:
1683:
1680:
1657:platinum group
1625:Main article:
1622:
1619:
1588:
1585:
1579:
1576:
1535:
1532:
1526:
1523:
1510:
1507:
1480:europium oxide
1461:
1458:
1444:
1427:Dragon reactor
1377:
1363:
1360:
1348:
1347:
1340:
1293:carbon dioxide
1282:Main article:
1279:
1276:
1262:
1259:
1247:
1215:
1208:
1205:
1183:
1180:
1154:
1151:
1132:
1131:
1128:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1109:
1107:
1101:
1094:
1041:
1031:
1028:
1015:
1012:
1008:uranyl sulfate
999:
996:
987:
983:
979:
962:
959:
946:
934:
923:
899:
891:neutron poison
882:
857:
854:
842:
831:
820:
809:
798:
787:
770:
753:
750:
734:
719:
681:pyroprocessing
653:
642:
639:
627:
624:
611:
608:
595:
592:
583:neutron source
563:
560:
526:
523:
421:Main article:
418:
415:
336:
332:
328:
324:
317:
270:
263:
262:
217:
209:uranyl nitrate
205:semiconducting
197:
194:
169:
166:
146:nuclear weapon
138:chain reaction
92:energy density
55:binding energy
51:nucleon number
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6496:
6485:
6482:
6480:
6477:
6475:
6472:
6470:
6467:
6465:
6464:Nuclear fuels
6462:
6461:
6459:
6444:
6443:
6434:
6432:
6431:
6422:
6420:
6419:
6408:
6407:
6404:
6390:
6387:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6372:
6370:
6367:
6366:
6364:
6360:
6354:
6351:
6349:
6346:
6344:
6341:
6337:
6336:electrostatic
6334:
6333:
6332:
6329:
6327:
6321:
6320:
6318:
6316:
6312:
6306:
6303:
6301:
6298:
6296:
6293:
6291:
6288:
6286:
6283:
6281:
6278:
6277:
6275:
6273:
6269:
6265:
6259:
6254:
6248:
6238:
6235:
6231:
6228:
6226:
6223:
6222:
6221:
6218:
6217:
6215:
6211:
6201:
6198:
6196:
6193:
6191:
6188:
6184:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6174:
6171:
6169:
6166:
6164:
6161:
6159:
6156:
6154:
6151:
6149:
6146:
6144:
6141:
6139:
6136:
6134:
6131:
6129:
6126:
6125:
6124:
6121:
6120:
6118:
6116:
6115:Generation IV
6112:
6106:
6103:
6101:
6098:
6096:
6093:
6091:
6088:
6086:
6083:
6081:
6078:
6076:
6073:
6071:
6068:
6066:
6065:Breeder (FBR)
6063:
6062:
6059:
6056:
6051:
6042:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5999:
5997:
5995:
5991:
5988:
5986:
5982:
5970:
5967:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5953:
5950:
5948:
5945:
5944:
5943:
5940:
5939:
5938:
5935:
5933:
5930:
5926:
5923:
5922:
5921:
5918:
5917:
5915:
5913:
5909:
5903:
5900:
5898:
5895:
5893:
5891:
5887:
5886:
5884:
5882:
5875:
5872:
5870:
5866:
5856:
5853:
5851:
5848:
5846:
5843:
5841:
5838:
5837:
5835:
5833:
5825:
5822:
5818:
5815:
5810:
5803:
5798:
5786:
5783:
5781:
5778:
5776:
5773:
5771:
5768:
5767:
5766:
5763:
5762:
5760:
5758:
5751:
5745:
5742:
5741:
5739:
5737:
5733:
5727:
5724:
5722:
5719:
5715:
5712:
5710:
5707:
5706:
5705:
5702:
5701:
5699:
5697:
5689:
5681:
5678:
5676:
5673:
5671:
5668:
5666:
5663:
5659:
5656:
5654:
5651:
5649:
5646:
5645:
5644:
5641:
5639:
5636:
5632:
5629:
5626:
5623:
5620:
5617:
5616:
5615:
5612:
5611:
5610:
5607:
5606:
5604:
5602:
5594:
5591:
5587:
5580:
5576:
5570:
5567:
5562:
5560:
5557:
5555:
5552:
5548:
5545:
5543:
5540:
5539:
5538:
5535:
5533:
5530:
5528:
5525:
5523:
5520:
5518:
5515:
5513:
5510:
5508:
5505:
5503:
5500:
5498:
5495:
5494:
5493:
5490:
5488:
5485:
5481:
5478:
5476:
5473:
5471:
5468:
5466:
5463:
5462:
5461:
5458:
5456:
5453:
5452:
5450:
5448:
5444:
5439:
5438:
5431:
5426:
5420:
5416:
5412:
5407:
5403:
5393:
5390:
5388:
5385:
5383:
5380:
5378:
5375:
5373:
5370:
5368:
5367:Nuclear power
5365:
5364:
5362:
5358:
5348:
5347:Transmutation
5345:
5341:
5338:
5336:
5333:
5332:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5297:
5295:
5291:
5285:
5282:
5278:
5275:
5274:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5261:
5258:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5248:
5247:
5246:
5243:
5242:
5240:
5236:
5233:
5231:
5227:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5200:
5197:
5195:
5192:
5191:
5190:
5187:
5185:
5182:
5181:
5179:
5175:
5167:
5164:
5163:
5162:
5159:
5157:
5154:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5144:high-altitude
5142:
5141:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5134:Proliferation
5132:
5130:
5127:
5123:
5120:
5119:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5100:
5098:
5095:
5093:
5090:
5089:
5087:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5074:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5049:
5047:
5045:
5041:
5031:
5028:
5026:
5023:
5021:
5020:Brachytherapy
5018:
5016:
5013:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4992:
4990:
4988:
4984:
4978:
4975:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4954:
4952:
4950:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4937:
4929:
4926:
4925:
4924:
4921:
4917:
4914:
4913:
4912:
4909:
4905:
4902:
4901:
4900:
4897:
4895:
4892:
4890:
4887:
4885:
4882:
4880:
4877:
4875:
4872:
4870:
4867:
4866:
4864:
4862:
4858:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4816:Cross section
4814:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4798:
4796:
4794:
4790:
4782:
4779:
4777:
4774:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4761:
4760:
4757:
4756:
4755:
4752:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4721:
4719:
4717:
4713:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4696:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4661:
4659:
4655:
4651:
4647:
4640:
4635:
4633:
4628:
4626:
4621:
4620:
4617:
4605:
4604:
4595:
4593:
4592:
4587:
4583:
4581:
4580:
4571:
4569:
4568:
4559:
4558:
4555:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4535:
4533:
4529:
4523:
4522:United States
4520:
4518:
4517:South America
4515:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4470:
4468:
4465:
4463:
4460:
4456:
4453:
4452:
4451:
4450:Energy policy
4448:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4438:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4420:
4419:
4416:
4415:
4413:
4411:
4405:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4388:
4387:
4384:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4374:Solar furnace
4372:
4371:
4370:
4367:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4354:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4341:
4338:
4336:
4333:
4332:
4331:
4330:Nuclear power
4328:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4310:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4297:
4294:
4292:
4289:
4288:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4263:
4261:
4257:
4256:Energy system
4253:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4239:
4237:
4234:
4230:
4227:
4226:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4209:Gravitational
4207:
4205:
4202:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4184:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4174:
4172:
4170:
4166:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4138:
4137:Hydrogen fuel
4135:
4134:
4133:
4130:
4126:
4123:
4122:
4121:
4118:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4105:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4080:
4078:
4076:
4072:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3964:
3961:
3960:
3959:
3958:Gravitational
3956:
3954:
3951:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3941:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3927:
3924:
3923:
3922:
3919:
3918:
3916:
3912:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3828:Heat transfer
3826:
3824:
3823:Heat capacity
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3795:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3776:Negative mass
3774:
3773:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3756:Energy system
3754:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3740:
3737:
3736:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3721:
3719:
3713:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3693:
3690:
3686:
3679:
3674:
3672:
3667:
3665:
3660:
3659:
3656:
3650:
3646:
3643:
3640:
3639:
3635:
3623:on 2005-12-23
3622:
3618:
3614:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3591:
3587:
3575:on 2006-03-19
3571:
3564:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3545:on 2005-12-30
3541:
3534:
3530:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3518:
3517:
3514:QUADRISO fuel
3513:
3509:
3505:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3483:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3409:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3382:on 2006-03-15
3378:
3371:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3325:on 2006-08-28
3324:
3320:
3316:
3315:
3311:
3299:on 2012-02-24
3298:
3294:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3275:on 2015-04-23
3274:
3270:
3266:
3256:on 2004-10-22
3255:
3251:
3247:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3231:
3226:
3225:
3221:
3206:on 2012-12-25
3205:
3201:
3195:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3183:
3176:
3173:
3170:
3165:
3162:
3158:
3153:
3150:
3138:
3134:
3128:
3125:
3119:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3095:
3092:
3086:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3062:
3059:
3053:
3050:
3039:
3035:
3029:
3026:
3021:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2992:
2989:
2984:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2943:
2940:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2908:
2905:
2899:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2875:
2873:
2869:
2863:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2839:
2836:
2833:
2828:
2825:
2814:
2810:
2804:
2801:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2777:
2774:
2769:
2763:
2760:
2748:. APS Physics
2747:
2743:
2736:
2733:
2718:
2711:
2705:
2702:
2697:
2691:
2673:
2666:
2660:
2657:
2652:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2619:
2616:
2605:
2604:Nuclear Power
2601:
2595:
2592:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2565:
2562:
2555:
2537:(stable) and
2525:
2466:
2460:
2457:
2450:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2407:
2403:
2397:
2392:
2389:
2388:Energy portal
2383:
2378:
2375:
2364:
2359:
2357:
2350:
2347:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2335:
2331:
2330:
2329:
2324:
2316:
2311:
2307:
2306:
2305:
2298:
2293:
2289:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2270:
2269:
2262:
2260:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2236:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2191:
2183:
2177:
2173:
2170:
2151:
2146:
2127:
2122:
2103:
2101:
2100:thermocouples
2097:
2093:
2089:
2083:
2075:
2073:
2067:
2060:
2058:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2031:
2029:
2028:technetium-99
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
2000:plutonium-238
1997:
1993:
1992:radioisotopes
1989:
1983:
1975:
1970:
1968:
1962:
1959:
1958:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1941:
1940:
1939:
1934:
1927:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1918:heat capacity
1915:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1892:
1891:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1873:
1872:
1871:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1831:
1827:
1822:
1818:
1815:
1814:
1813:
1811:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1793:
1788:
1786:
1779:
1775:
1770:
1768:
1763:
1761:
1756:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1712:
1708:
1703:
1695:
1693:
1689:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1653:nanoparticles
1650:
1649:heterogeneous
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1628:
1620:
1618:
1616:
1615:radionuclides
1612:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1586:
1584:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1533:
1531:
1524:
1522:
1520:
1516:
1508:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1470:
1466:
1460:QUADRISO fuel
1459:
1457:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1423:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1368:
1361:
1359:
1357:
1353:
1345:
1341:
1338:
1334:
1333:
1332:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1285:
1277:
1271:
1267:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1230:
1226:
1221:
1213:
1206:
1200:
1196:
1193:
1189:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1172:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1152:
1147:
1146:
1140:
1136:
1125:
1120:
1113:
1108:
1104:
1098:
1093:
1091:
1089:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1053:
1051:
1047:
1037:
1029:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1013:
1011:
1009:
1005:
997:
995:
993:
975:
973:
969:
960:
958:
956:
955:alkali metals
951:
917:
913:
909:
904:
892:
887:
875:
870:
868:
862:
855:
853:
851:
815:. Unlike the
781:
777:
766:
763:
759:
751:
749:
747:
743:
728:
713:
709:
705:
700:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
673:
671:
667:
663:
659:
651:
647:
640:
638:
636:
632:
625:
623:
621:
617:
609:
607:
605:
601:
594:Actinide fuel
593:
591:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
561:
559:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
532:
524:
522:
512:
500:
496:
491:
487:
483:
478:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
459:transmutation
455:
454:generation.
453:
452:nuclear power
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
424:
416:
414:
368:
363:
361:
357:
353:
349:
344:
342:
310:
287:
283:
279:
276:
268:
226:
225:
224:
210:
206:
202:
195:
189:
185:
183:
182:melting point
179:
175:
167:
165:
163:
159:
155:
151:
150:plutonium-238
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
126:plutonium-239
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
104:
99:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
71:
67:
62:
56:
52:
47:
39:
33:
19:
6440:
6428:
6409:
6389:Pyroelectric
6343:Laser-driven
6123:Sodium (SFR)
6050:fast-neutron
5889:
5435:
5325:Reprocessing
5206:WMD treaties
5025:Radiosurgery
4995:Fast-neutron
4967:Scintigraphy
4715:
4601:
4589:
4577:
4565:
4347:Oil refinery
4291:Cogeneration
4224:Nuclear fuel
4223:
4030:Quintessence
3818:Free entropy
3751:Energy level
3715:Fundamental
3625:. Retrieved
3621:the original
3577:. Retrieved
3570:the original
3547:. Retrieved
3540:the original
3437:
3433:
3416:
3412:
3384:. Retrieved
3377:the original
3327:. Retrieved
3323:the original
3301:. Retrieved
3297:the original
3277:. Retrieved
3273:the original
3258:. Retrieved
3254:the original
3229:
3208:. Retrieved
3204:the original
3194:
3185:
3181:
3175:
3164:
3152:
3141:. Retrieved
3136:
3127:
3111:(21): 8008.
3108:
3104:
3094:
3078:(14): 5204.
3075:
3071:
3061:
3052:
3041:. Retrieved
3037:
3028:
3001:
2991:
2956:
2952:
2942:
2917:
2913:
2907:
2891:(10): 3772.
2888:
2884:
2852:
2848:
2838:
2827:
2816:. Retrieved
2813:Kairos Power
2812:
2809:"Technology"
2803:
2786:
2782:
2776:
2762:
2750:. Retrieved
2745:
2735:
2724:. Retrieved
2704:
2679:. Retrieved
2659:
2632:
2628:
2618:
2607:. Retrieved
2603:
2594:
2577:
2574:Joseph Brink
2564:
2459:
2354:
2339:
2332:He + He â 2
2326:
2302:
2266:
2241:Fusion power
2238:
2229:Fusion fuels
2208:
2193:
2152:, have used
2104:
2085:
2071:
2047:betavoltaics
2032:
2012:strontium-90
1985:
1966:
1960:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1932:
1930:
1922:
1913:
1909:
1901:
1893:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1863:Searle's bar
1849:Rather than
1848:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1829:
1825:
1820:
1816:
1809:
1804:
1800:
1795:
1791:
1789:
1777:
1773:
1771:
1764:
1757:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1691:
1648:
1630:
1608:
1605:
1590:
1581:
1560:
1542:
1528:
1512:
1501:
1484:erbium oxide
1473:
1468:
1424:
1373:
1349:
1309:Magnox alloy
1287:
1264:
1210:
1185:
1171:control rods
1156:
1144:
1138:
1085:alkali metal
1054:
1049:
1039:
1017:
1001:
976:
964:
961:Molten salts
871:
863:
859:
856:Liquid fuels
778:such as the
767:
755:
701:
674:
644:
629:
613:
597:
565:
528:
479:
456:
431:
427:
426:
367:neutron flux
364:
345:
264:
199:
171:
100:
76:Nuclear fuel
75:
74:
6300:Stellarator
6264:confinement
6158:Superphénix
5985:Molten-salt
5937:VHTR (HTGR)
5714:HW BLWR 250
5680:R4 Marviken
5609:Pressurized
5579:Heavy water
5563:many others
5492:Pressurized
5447:Light water
5149:underground
5107:Disarmament
5015:Tomotherapy
5010:Proton-beam
4874:Power plant
4836:Temperature
4669:Engineering
4603:WikiProject
4423:Agriculture
4352:Solar power
4318:Tidal power
4192:Natural gas
4182:Fossil fuel
4125:Latent heat
4093:Electricity
3636:Fusion fuel
3526:CERMET fuel
3137:www.nrc.gov
2217:orbiter to
2211:outer space
2096:electricity
1837:/1 + (
1736:lanthanides
1671:within the
1525:CerMet fuel
1278:Magnox fuel
1229:heavy water
685:nitric acid
428:Mixed oxide
203:is a black
122:uranium-235
118:uranium-233
6458:Categories
6325:(acoustic)
5942:PBR (PBMR)
5330:Spent fuel
5320:Repository
5300:Fuel cycle
5267:Activation
5044:Processing
4911:Propulsion
4869:by country
4801:Activation
4386:Wind power
4308:Hydropower
4259:components
4214:Hydropower
4204:Geothermal
4154:Sound wave
4065:Zero-point
3995:Mechanical
3980:Ionization
3953:Electrical
3848:Negentropy
3729:Energetics
3627:2005-12-14
3610:TRIGA fuel
3579:2005-12-14
3549:2005-12-14
3405:TRISO fuel
3386:2005-12-17
3348:CANDU fuel
3329:2005-12-14
3303:2005-12-14
3279:2005-12-14
3260:2005-12-14
3210:2010-01-27
3143:2021-05-10
3043:2019-03-16
2959:: 154487.
2818:2023-09-13
2726:2013-11-11
2681:2016-06-04
2609:2023-11-03
2586:B000OFVCCG
2556:References
2344:reaction:
2074:spacecraft
2053:, and the
2008:curium-244
2004:curium-242
1855:Lees' disk
1841: â 1)
1833:(1 â
1643:, and the
1406:) and the
1067:, usually
1034:See also:
562:TRIGA fuel
554:, such as
525:Metal fuel
311:) to form
269:to form UO
240:· 6 H
168:Oxide fuel
6484:Actinides
6295:Spheromak
5994:Fluorides
5658:IPHWR-700
5653:IPHWR-540
5648:IPHWR-220
5437:Moderator
5117:Explosion
5092:Arms race
4879:Economics
4831:Reflector
4826:Radiation
4821:Generator
4776:Plutonium
4729:Deuterium
4694:Radiation
4664:Chemistry
4497:Australia
4433:Transport
4428:Computing
4396:Wind farm
4323:Wave farm
4197:Petroleum
4177:Bioenergy
4149:Radiation
4088:Capacitor
4010:Potential
3462:209983934
3020:2191-4281
2983:0022-3115
2789:: 60â68.
2651:2673-4362
2308:H + He â
2245:deuterium
2020:nickel-63
1945:= 0.1388
1765:The bulk
1740:palladium
1734:(such as
1665:actinides
1661:palladium
1641:plutonium
1566:(ATR) at
1509:RBMK fuel
1387:isotropic
1321:aluminium
1317:magnesium
1301:moderated
1295:âcooled,
1232:moderator
1227:in their
1077:magnesium
1057:corrosion
1050:fuel rods
544:actinides
436:plutonium
397:. As the
352:zirconium
6430:Category
6384:Polywell
6315:Inertial
6272:Magnetic
6027:TMSR-LF1
6022:TMSR-500
6002:Fuji MSR
5962:THTR-300
5802:Graphite
5665:PHWR KWU
5631:ACR-1000
5559:IPWR-900
5542:ACPR1000
5537:HPR-1000
5527:CPR-1000
5502:APR-1400
5293:Disposal
5245:Actinide
5238:Products
5097:Delivery
4940:Medicine
4769:depleted
4764:enriched
4734:Helium-3
4699:ionizing
4567:Category
4132:Hydrogen
4098:Enthalpy
4000:Negative
3990:Magnetic
3975:Internal
3933:Chemical
3798:Enthalpy
3717:concepts
3645:Archived
3504:Archived
3482:Archived
3312:BWR fuel
3243:PWR fuel
3105:Energies
3072:Energies
2885:Energies
2855:: 1â15.
2717:Archived
2690:cite web
2672:Archived
2576:(1977).
2467:of both
2360:See also
2290:H + H â
2281:H + H â
2272:H + H â
2257:hydrogen
2253:helium-3
2247:(H) and
1724:porosity
1543:ATR Core
1431:THTR-300
1297:graphite
1145:Savannah
1143:NS
1069:Zircaloy
1024:eutectic
689:enriched
677:nitrogen
670:reaction
635:swelling
616:tantalum
579:meltdown
432:MOX fuel
423:MOX fuel
409:and 30%
335:. The UO
309:calcined
275:enriched
267:hydrogen
244:O â UO
211:to form
134:neutrons
106:actinide
84:turbines
53:against
6442:Commons
6353:Z-pinch
6323:Bubble
6305:Tokamak
6168:FBR-600
6148:CFR-600
6143:BN-1200
5809:coolant
5736:Organic
5621:CANDU 9
5618:CANDU 6
5586:coolant
5547:ACP1000
5522:CAP1400
5460:Boiling
5425:Fission
5272:Fission
5216:Weapons
5156:Warfare
5139:Testing
5129:History
5122:effects
5077:Weapons
4987:Therapy
4962:RadBall
4949:Imaging
4841:Thermal
4806:Capture
4793:Neutron
4781:Thorium
4759:Uranium
4724:Tritium
4704:braking
4684:Fission
4674:Physics
4657:Science
4579:Commons
4407:Use and
4266:Biomass
4236:Radiant
4083:Battery
4055:Thermal
4050:Surface
4035:Radiant
4005:Phantom
3985:Kinetic
3963:Binding
3943:Elastic
3926:Nuclear
3921:Binding
3808:Entropy
3706:Outline
3696:History
3442:Bibcode
3237:YouTube
3184:, Vol.
2961:Bibcode
2922:Bibcode
2752:14 July
2249:tritium
2213:). The
2072:Cassini
2016:Tritium
1905:density
1767:density
1752:krypton
1744:bubbles
1732:lattice
1637:uranium
1611:cooling
1488:carbide
1329:neutron
1325:uranium
1220:CANFLEX
1088:caesium
978:LiF-BeF
744:called
675:As the
631:Ceramic
440:natural
282:ammonia
174:uranium
103:fissile
68:at the
32:FuelRod
6253:Fusion
6213:Others
6153:Phénix
6138:BN-800
6133:BN-600
6128:BN-350
5957:HTR-PM
5952:HTR-10
5932:UHTREX
5897:Magnox
5892:(UNGG)
5785:Lucens
5780:KS 150
5517:ATMEA1
5497:AP1000
5480:Kerena
5360:Debate
5112:Ethics
5102:Design
5085:Topics
4916:rocket
4894:Fusion
4889:Policy
4851:Fusion
4811:Poison
4689:Fusion
4591:Portal
4512:Mexico
4507:Europe
4502:Canada
4487:Africa
4410:supply
4219:Marine
4108:Fossil
4060:Vacuum
3813:Exergy
3734:Energy
3685:Energy
3460:
3018:
2981:
2649:
2584:
2219:Saturn
2049:, the
2026:, and
1857:, the
1772:Where
1515:Soviet
1454:Xe-100
1435:HTR-10
1404:GT-MHR
1289:Magnox
1284:Magnox
1162:helium
517:, 15%
511:burnup
341:sinter
248:+ 2 NO
6374:Migma
6362:Other
6331:Fusor
6230:Piqua
6225:Arbus
6183:PRISM
5925:MHR-T
5920:GTMHR
5850:EGP-6
5845:AMB-X
5820:Water
5765:HWGCR
5704:HWLWR
5643:IPHWR
5614:CANDU
5475:ESBWR
5230:Waste
5194:Tests
5177:Lists
5161:Yield
4904:MMRTG
4861:Power
4531:Misc.
4241:Solar
4045:Sound
3914:Types
3788:Power
3739:Units
3701:Index
3573:(PDF)
3566:(PDF)
3543:(PDF)
3536:(PDF)
3458:S2CID
3380:(PDF)
3373:(PDF)
2720:(PDF)
2713:(PDF)
2675:(PDF)
2668:(PDF)
2526:like
2451:Notes
2342:boron
2223:Titan
2204:grams
2035:alpha
1861:, or
1748:xenon
1073:steel
906:as a
874:xenon
697:PUREX
598:In a
567:TRIGA
430:, or
323:and U
260:O (g)
256:+ 6 H
252:+ œ O
178:oxide
6190:Lead
6173:CEFR
6163:PFBR
6045:None
5855:RBMK
5840:AM-1
5770:EL-4
5744:WR-1
5726:AHWR
5670:MZFR
5638:CVTR
5627:AFCR
5554:VVER
5512:APWR
5507:APR+
5470:ABWR
5340:cask
5335:pool
5277:LLFP
5166:TNTe
4846:Fast
4716:Fuel
4492:Asia
4246:Wind
4187:Coal
4159:Work
4120:Heat
4103:Fuel
4040:Rest
3938:Dark
3903:Work
3771:Mass
3016:ISSN
2979:ISSN
2754:2018
2696:link
2647:ISSN
2582:ASIN
2511:and
2478:and
2463:The
2200:watt
2037:and
2010:and
1750:and
1714:The
1667:and
1545:The
1519:RBMK
1448:and
1063:for
1018:The
1002:The
982:-ThF
650:NASA
480:The
438:and
346:The
124:and
116:are
6262:by
6178:PFR
5969:PMR
5947:AVR
5869:Gas
5807:by
5775:KKN
5709:ATR
5624:EC6
5584:by
5532:EPR
5465:BWR
4113:Oil
3450:doi
3438:194
3421:doi
3417:163
3235:on
3113:doi
3080:doi
3006:doi
2969:doi
2957:582
2930:doi
2918:448
2893:doi
2857:doi
2791:doi
2787:251
2637:doi
1986:An
1954:1/2
1936:1/2
1931:If
1718:of
1655:of
1549:at
1486:or
1482:or
1399:SiC
1240:KWU
1186:In
1071:or
986:-UF
672:.
521:).
442:or
417:MOX
290:(NH
232:(NO
156:in
6460::
5912:He
5878:CO
5754:CO
5675:R3
3456:.
3448:.
3436:.
3419:.
3415:.
3186:64
3135:.
3109:15
3107:.
3103:.
3076:15
3074:.
3070:.
3036:.
3014:.
3004:.
3000:.
2977:.
2967:.
2955:.
2951:.
2928:.
2916:.
2889:15
2887:.
2883:.
2871:^
2853:48
2851:.
2847:.
2811:.
2785:.
2744:.
2715:.
2692:}}
2688:{{
2670:.
2645:.
2631:.
2627:.
2602:.
2572:;
2546:Cs
2535:Cs
2520:Cs
2509:Cs
2487:Cs
2476:Cs
2194:A
2162:Po
2138:Sr
2114:Pu
2102:.
2086:A
2045:,
2022:,
2018:,
2006:,
2002:,
1879:ÏC
1877:=
1824:=
1787:.
1781:td
1639:,
1635:,
1574:.
1494:.
1450:UC
1443:UO
1383:UC
1376:UO
950:Cs
938:Xe
927:Xe
886:Xe
748:.
729:.
558:.
519:Pu
515:Pu
503:Pu
411:Pu
399:Pu
391:Pu
387:Pu
383:Np
377:.
313:UO
288:,
228:UO
223:.
213:UO
164:.
120:,
98:.
6052:)
6048:(
5880:2
5832:O
5830:2
5828:H
5756:2
5696:O
5694:2
5692:H
5601:O
5599:2
5597:D
4638:e
4631:t
4624:v
3677:e
3670:t
3663:v
3630:.
3582:.
3552:.
3464:.
3452::
3444::
3427:.
3423::
3389:.
3332:.
3306:.
3282:.
3263:.
3213:.
3146:.
3121:.
3115::
3088:.
3082::
3046:.
3022:.
3008::
2985:.
2971::
2963::
2936:.
2932::
2924::
2901:.
2895::
2865:.
2859::
2821:.
2797:.
2793::
2770:.
2756:.
2729:.
2698:)
2684:.
2653:.
2639::
2633:3
2612:.
2588:.
2498:U
2349:p
2334:p
2310:p
2292:p
2283:n
2274:n
1961:L
1951:t
1949:/
1947:L
1943:α
1933:t
1923:α
1914:p
1910:C
1902:Ï
1894:λ
1887:α
1883:p
1875:λ
1845:)
1843:p
1839:s
1835:p
1830:o
1826:K
1821:f
1817:K
1810:s
1805:o
1801:K
1796:f
1792:K
1778:Ï
1774:Ï
1557:.
1478:(
1445:2
1378:X
1346:.
1299:-
1251:U
1216:2
1042:2
988:4
984:4
980:2
903:I
846:C
835:C
824:C
813:C
802:C
791:C
771:2
769:O
738:C
723:C
666:C
662:N
658:N
654:2
507:U
407:U
403:U
395:U
379:U
375:U
371:U
337:2
333:2
329:8
327:O
325:3
318:3
304:7
302:O
300:2
298:U
296:2
294:)
292:4
271:2
258:2
254:2
250:2
246:2
242:2
238:2
236:)
234:3
230:2
218:2
34:.
20:)
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