465:, a Belgian physicist, who suggested that the evident expansion of the Universe in time required that the Universe, if contracted backwards in time, would continue to do so until it could contract no further. This would bring all the mass of the Universe to a single point, a "primeval atom", to a state before which time and space did not exist. Hoyle is credited with coining the term "Big Bang" during a 1949 BBC radio broadcast, saying that Lemaître's theory was "based on the hypothesis that all the matter in the universe was created in one big bang at a particular time in the remote past." It is popularly reported that Hoyle intended this to be pejorative, but Hoyle explicitly denied this and said it was just a striking image meant to highlight the difference between the two models. Lemaître's model was needed to explain the existence of deuterium and nuclides between helium and carbon, as well as the fundamentally high amount of helium present, not only in stars but also in interstellar space. As it happened, both Lemaître and Hoyle's models of nucleosynthesis would be needed to explain the elemental abundances in the universe.
1596:
772:
1591:{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{ll}{\ce {n^{0}->p+{}+e^{-}{}+{\overline {\nu }}_{e}}}&{\ce {p+{}+n^{0}->_{1}^{2}D{}+\gamma }}\\{\ce {^{2}_{1}D{}+p+->_{2}^{3}He{}+\gamma }}&{\ce {^{2}_{1}D{}+_{1}^{2}D->_{2}^{3}He{}+n^{0}}}\\{\ce {^{2}_{1}D{}+_{1}^{2}D->_{1}^{3}T{}+p+}}&{\ce {^{3}_{1}T{}+_{1}^{2}D->_{2}^{4}He{}+n^{0}}}\\{\ce {^{3}_{1}T{}+_{2}^{4}He->_{3}^{7}Li{}+\gamma }}&{\ce {^{3}_{2}He{}+n^{0}->_{1}^{3}T{}+p+}}\\{\ce {^{3}_{2}He{}+_{1}^{2}D->_{2}^{4}He{}+p+}}&{\ce {^{3}_{2}He{}+_{2}^{4}He->_{4}^{7}Be{}+\gamma }}\\{\ce {^{7}_{3}Li{}+p+->_{2}^{4}He{}+_{2}^{4}He}}&{\ce {^{7}_{4}Be{}+n^{0}->_{3}^{7}Li{}+p+}}\end{array}}}
257:
482:
1779:
fuses nuclei that themselves have equal numbers of protons and neutrons to produce nuclides which consist of whole numbers of helium nuclei, up to 15 (representing Ni). Such multiple-alpha-particle nuclides are totally stable up to Ca (made of 10 helium nuclei), but heavier nuclei with equal and even numbers of protons and neutrons are tightly bound but unstable. The quasi-equilibrium produces radioactive
486:
stellar-produced elements are: (1) an alternation of abundance of elements according to whether they have even or odd atomic numbers, and (2) a general decrease in abundance, as elements become heavier. Within this trend is a peak at abundances of iron and nickel, which is especially visible on a logarithmic graph spanning fewer powers of ten, say between logA=2 (A=100) and logA=6 (A=1,000,000).
1980:
501:
196:
38:
1751:, which inadvertently obscured Hoyle's 1954 theory. Further nucleosynthesis processes can occur, in particular the r-process (rapid process) described by the BFH paper and first calculated by Seeger, Fowler and Clayton, in which the most neutron-rich isotopes of elements heavier than nickel are produced by rapid absorption of free neutrons. The creation of free neutrons by
86:. Nucleosynthesis in stars and their explosions later produced the variety of elements and isotopes that we have today, in a process called cosmic chemical evolution. The amounts of total mass in elements heavier than hydrogen and helium (called 'metals' by astrophysicists) remains small (few percent), so that the universe still has approximately the same composition.
1786:, Cr, Fe, and Ni, which (except Ti) are created in abundance but decay after the explosion and leave the most stable isotope of the corresponding element at the same atomic weight. The most abundant and extant isotopes of elements produced in this way are Ti, Cr, and Fe. These decays are accompanied by the emission of gamma-rays (radiation from the nucleus), whose
1653:. It is responsible for the galactic abundances of elements from carbon to iron. Stars are thermonuclear furnaces in which H and He are fused into heavier nuclei by increasingly high temperatures as the composition of the core evolves. Of particular importance is carbon because its formation from He is a bottleneck in the entire process. Carbon is produced by the
1938:. These impacts fragment carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen nuclei present. The process results in the light elements beryllium, boron, and lithium in the cosmos at much greater abundances than they are found within solar atmospheres. The quantities of the light elements H and He produced by spallation are negligible relative to their primordial abundance.
1797:. Gamma-ray lines identifying Co and Co nuclei, whose half-lives limit their age to about a year, proved that their radioactive cobalt parents created them. This nuclear astronomy observation was predicted in 1969 as a way to confirm explosive nucleosynthesis of the elements, and that prediction played an important role in the planning for NASA's
2159:
369:, and by nucleosynthesis in exotic events such as neutron star collisions. Other nuclides, such as Ar, formed later through radioactive decay. On Earth, mixing and evaporation has altered the primordial composition to what is called the natural terrestrial composition. The heavier elements produced after the Big Bang range in
431:'s original work on nucleosynthesis of heavier elements in stars, occurred just after World War II. His work explained the production of all heavier elements, starting from hydrogen. Hoyle proposed that hydrogen is continuously created in the universe from vacuum and energy, without need for universal beginning.
2323:. He saw an analogy between the plutonium fission reaction and the newly discovered supernovae, and he was able to show that exploding super novae produced all of the elements in the same proportion as existed on Earth. He felt that he had accidentally fallen into a subject that would make his career.
1673:
The first direct proof that nucleosynthesis occurs in stars was the astronomical observation that interstellar gas has become enriched with heavy elements as time passed. As a result, stars that were born from it late in the galaxy, formed with much higher initial heavy element abundances than those
306:
could be formed, as this element requires a far higher product of helium density and time than were present in the short nucleosynthesis period of the Big Bang. That fusion process essentially shut down at about 20 minutes, due to drops in temperature and density as the universe continued to expand.
2122:
nuclides. This process happens when an energetic particle from radioactive decay, often an alpha particle, reacts with a nucleus of another atom to change the nucleus into another nuclide. This process may also cause the production of further subatomic particles, such as neutrons. Neutrons can also
409:
were created at the beginning of the universe, but no rational physical scenario for this could be identified. Gradually it became clear that hydrogen and helium are much more abundant than any of the other elements. All the rest constitute less than 2% of the mass of the Solar System, and of other
1778:
Explosive nucleosynthesis occurs too rapidly for radioactive decay to decrease the number of neutrons, so that many abundant isotopes with equal and even numbers of protons and neutrons are synthesized by the silicon quasi-equilibrium process. During this process, the burning of oxygen and silicon
1767:
was still small, that nonetheless contain their complement of r-process nuclei; thereby demonstrating that the metallicity is a product of an internal process. The r-process is responsible for our natural cohort of radioactive elements, such as uranium and thorium, as well as the most neutron-rich
1682:
star in 1952, by spectroscopy, provided the first evidence of nuclear activity within stars. Because technetium is radioactive, with a half-life much less than the age of the star, its abundance must reflect its recent creation within that star. Equally convincing evidence of the stellar origin of
477:
that was based on the unfractionated abundances of the non-volatile elements found within unevolved meteorites. Such a graph of the abundances is displayed on a logarithmic scale below, where the dramatically jagged structure is visually suppressed by the many powers of ten spanned in the vertical
468:
The goal of the theory of nucleosynthesis is to explain the vastly differing abundances of the chemical elements and their several isotopes from the perspective of natural processes. The primary stimulus to the development of this theory was the shape of a plot of the abundances versus the atomic
1804:
Other proofs of explosive nucleosynthesis are found within the stardust grains that condensed within the interiors of supernovae as they expanded and cooled. Stardust grains are one component of cosmic dust. In particular, radioactive Ti was measured to be very abundant within supernova stardust
1734:
except for a high abundance of the Si nuclei in the feverishly burning mix. This concept was the most important discovery in nucleosynthesis theory of the intermediate-mass elements since Hoyle's 1954 paper because it provided an overarching understanding of the abundant and chemically important
485:
Abundances of the chemical elements in the Solar System. Hydrogen and helium are most common, residuals within the paradigm of the Big Bang. The next three elements (Li, Be, B) are rare because they are poorly synthesized in the Big Bang and also in stars. The two general trends in the remaining
2040:
Tiny amounts of certain nuclides are produced on Earth by artificial means. Those are our primary source, for example, of technetium. However, some nuclides are also produced by a number of natural means that have continued after primordial elements were in place. These often act to create new
334:. These lighter elements in the present universe are therefore thought to have been produced through thousands of millions of years of cosmic ray (mostly high-energy proton) mediated breakup of heavier elements in interstellar gas and dust. The fragments of these cosmic-ray collisions include
420:
first suggested in 1920 that stars obtain their energy by fusing hydrogen into helium and raised the possibility that the heavier elements may also form in stars. This idea was not generally accepted, as the nuclear mechanism was not understood. In the years immediately before World War II,
260:
Periodic table showing the currently believed origins of each element. Elements from carbon up to sulfur may be made in stars of all masses by charged-particle fusion reactions. Iron group elements originate mostly from the nuclear-statistical equilibrium process in thermonuclear supernova
330:, and boron – which were found in the initial composition of the interstellar medium and hence the star. Interstellar gas therefore contains declining abundances of these light elements, which are present only by virtue of their nucleosynthesis during the Big Bang, and also
1821:
of binary neutron stars (BNSs) is now believed to be the main source of r-process elements. Being neutron-rich by definition, mergers of this type had been suspected of being a source of such elements, but definitive evidence was difficult to obtain. In 2017 strong evidence emerged, when
410:
star systems as well. At the same time it was clear that oxygen and carbon were the next two most common elements, and also that there was a general trend toward high abundance of the light elements, especially those with isotopes composed of whole numbers of helium-4 nuclei (
393:. The stability of atomic nuclei of different sizes and composition (i.e. numbers of neutrons and protons) plays an important role in the possible reactions among nuclei. Cosmic nucleosynthesis, therefore, is studied among researchers of astrophysics and nuclear physics ("
1729:
occurs in the energetic environment in supernovae, in which the elements between silicon and nickel are synthesized in quasiequilibrium established during fast fusion that attaches by reciprocating balanced nuclear reactions to Si. Quasiequilibrium can be thought of as
1965:
abundances and comparing those results with observed abundances. Isotope abundances are typically calculated from the transition rates between isotopes in a network. Often these calculations can be simplified as a few key reactions control the rate of other reactions.
469:
number of the elements. Those abundances, when plotted on a graph as a function of atomic number, have a jagged sawtooth structure that varies by factors up to ten million. A very influential stimulus to nucleosynthesis research was an abundance table created by
2041:
elements in ways that can be used to date rocks or to trace the source of geological processes. Although these processes do not produce the nuclides in abundance, they are assumed to be the entire source of the existing natural supply of those nuclides.
1763:. This promising scenario, though generally supported by supernova experts, has yet to achieve a satisfactory calculation of r-process abundances. The primary r-process has been confirmed by astronomers who had observed old stars born when galactic
265:), and by rapid neutron capture in the r-process, with origins being debated among rare supernova variants and compact-star collisions. Note that this graphic is a first-order simplification of an active research field with many open questions.
357:. These processes began as hydrogen and helium from the Big Bang collapsed into the first stars after about 500 million years. Star formation has been occurring continuously in galaxies since that time. The primordial nuclides were created by
458:, Fowler and Hoyle is a well-known summary of the state of the field in 1957. That paper defined new processes for the transformation of one heavy nucleus into others within stars, processes that could be documented by astronomers.
1657:
in all stars. Carbon is also the main element that causes the release of free neutrons within stars, giving rise to the s-process, in which the slow absorption of neutrons converts iron into elements heavier than iron and nickel.
1687:
stars. Observation of barium abundances some 20–50 times greater than found in unevolved stars is evidence of the operation of the s-process within such stars. Many modern proofs of stellar nucleosynthesis are provided by the
1850:
decays and cools. The first detection of the merger of a neutron star and black hole (NSBHs) came in July 2021 and more after but analysis seem to favor BNSs over NSBHs as the main contributors to heavy metal production.
2104:. This is not cluster decay, as the fission products may be split among nearly any type of atom. Thorium-232, uranium-235, and uranium-238 are primordial isotopes that undergo spontaneous fission. Natural technetium and
67:. After about 20 minutes, the universe had expanded and cooled to a point at which these high-energy collisions among nucleons ended, so only the fastest and simplest reactions occurred, leaving our universe containing
135:: from the ejection of elements produced during stellar nucleosynthesis; through explosive nucleosynthesis during the supernova explosion; and from the r-process (absorption of multiple neutrons) during the explosion.
1881:
Cosmic ray spallation process reduces the atomic weight of interstellar matter by the impact with cosmic rays, to produce some of the lightest elements present in the universe (though not a significant amount of
141:
are a recently discovered major source of elements produced in the r-process. When two neutron stars collide, a significant amount of neutron-rich matter may be ejected which then quickly forms heavy elements.
1661:
The products of stellar nucleosynthesis are generally dispersed into the interstellar gas through mass loss episodes and the stellar winds of low mass stars. The mass loss events can be witnessed today in the
756:
froze out to form protons and neutrons. Because of the very short period in which nucleosynthesis occurred before it was stopped by expansion and cooling (about 20 minutes), no elements heavier than
152:
impact nuclei and fragment them. It is a significant source of the lighter nuclei, particularly He, Be and B, that are not created by stellar nucleosynthesis. Cosmic ray spallation can occur in the
1704:. The measured isotopic compositions in stardust grains demonstrate many aspects of nucleosynthesis within the stars from which the grains condensed during the star's late-life mass-loss episodes.
565:
processes which are believed to be responsible for nucleosynthesis. The majority of these occur within stars, and the chain of those nuclear fusion processes are known as hydrogen burning (via the
1805:
grains at the time they condensed during the supernova expansion. This confirmed a 1975 prediction of the identification of supernova stardust (SUNOCONs), which became part of the pantheon of
3283:
730:
and certain types of radioactive decay, most of the mass of the isotopes in the universe are thought to have been produced in the Big Bang. The nuclei of these elements, along with some
3653:
2138:
nuclides. Cosmic rays continue to produce new elements on Earth by the same cosmogenic processes discussed above that produce primordial beryllium and boron. One important example is
434:
Hoyle's work explained how the abundances of the elements increased with time as the galaxy aged. Subsequently, Hoyle's picture was expanded during the 1960s by contributions from
2996:
Chakrabarti, S. K.; Jin, L.; Arnett, W. D. (1987). "Nucleosynthesis Inside Thick
Accretion Disks Around Black Holes. I – Thermodynamic Conditions and Preliminary Analysis".
2848:
2131:. For example, some stable isotopes such as neon-21 and neon-22 are produced by several routes of nucleogenic synthesis, and thus only part of their abundance is primordial.
3390:
109:
in the most massive stars. Products of stellar nucleosynthesis remain trapped in stellar cores and remnants except if ejected through stellar winds and explosions. The
3489:
Meneguzzi, M.; Audouze, J.; Reeves, H. (1971). "The
Production of the Elements Li, Be, B by Galactic Cosmic Rays in Space and Its Relation with Stellar Observations".
593:. These processes are able to create elements up to and including iron and nickel. This is the region of nucleosynthesis within which the isotopes with the highest
2465:
338:
and the stable isotopes of the light elements lithium, beryllium, and boron. Carbon was not made in the Big Bang, but was produced later in larger stars via the
3681:
3423:
2768:
2682:
2638:
1790:
can be used to identify the isotope created by the decay. The detection of these emission lines were an important early product of gamma-ray astronomy.
3163:
Arai, K.; Matsuba, R.; Fujimoto, S.; Koike, O.; Hashimoto, M. (2003). "Nucleosynthesis Inside
Accretion Disks Around Intermediate-mass Black Holes".
3052:
2172:
1696:, solid grains that have condensed from the gases of individual stars and which have been extracted from meteorites. Stardust is one component of
640:
Big Bang nucleosynthesis occurred within the first three minutes of the beginning of the universe and is responsible for much of the abundance of
3087:
2090:
is produced by alpha-decay, and the helium trapped in Earth's crust is also mostly non-primordial. In other types of radioactive decay, such as
764:) could be formed. Elements formed during this time were in the plasma state, and did not cool to the state of neutral atoms until much later.
3598:
3575:
3552:
3529:
3340:"A New Approach for Calculating the Alpha-Decay Half-Life for the Heavy and Super-heavy Elements and an Exact A Priori Result for Beyllium-8"
3108:; Ruffert, M.; Janka, H.-Th.; Hix, W. R. (2008). "Process Nucleosynthesis in Hot Accretion Disk Flows from Black Hole-Neutron Star Mergers".
2580:
2503:
1793:
The most convincing proof of explosive nucleosynthesis in supernovae occurred in 1987 when those gamma-ray lines were detected emerging from
2070:
produce many intermediate daughter nuclides before they too finally decay to isotopes of lead. The Earth's natural supply of elements like
1601:
385:). Synthesis of these elements occurred through nuclear reactions involving the strong and weak interactions among nuclei, and called
3253:
2431:
2027:
548:
243:
1775:(rapid proton) involves the rapid absorption of free protons as well as neutrons, but its role and its existence are less certain.
1755:
during the rapid compression of the supernova core along with the assembly of some neutron-rich seed nuclei makes the r-process a
2001:
522:
217:
3674:
2134:
Nuclear reactions due to cosmic rays. By convention, these reaction-products are not termed "nucleogenic" nuclides, but rather
1831:
2807:
2677:
2763:
2005:
526:
221:
2906:"The Relative Contribution to Heavy Metals Production from Binary Neutron Star Mergers and Neutron Star–Black Hole Mergers"
3421:
Hoyle, F. (1954). "On
Nuclear Reactions Occurring in Very Hot STARS. I. The Synthesis of Elements from Carbon to Nickel".
2519:
Clayton, D. D.; Fowler, W. A.; Hull, T. E.; Zimmerman, B. A. (1961). "Neutron
Capture Chains in Heavy Element Synthesis".
1798:
389:(including both rapid and slow multiple neutron capture), and include also nuclear fission and radioactive decays such as
1759:, and one that can occur even in a star of pure H and He. This is in contrast to the BFH designation of the process as a
609:, by a number of other processes. Some of those others include the r-process, which involves rapid neutron captures, the
59:(protons and neutrons) and nuclei. According to current theories, the first nuclei were formed a few minutes after the
3567:
3521:
2568:
2491:
2448:
2094:, larger species of nuclei are ejected (for example, neon-20), and these eventually become newly formed stable atoms.
3667:
3544:
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597:
per nucleon are created. Heavier elements can be assembled within stars by a neutron capture process known as the
3458:
3110:
2998:
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2812:
2598:
2381:
2342:
2222:
1886:). Most notably spallation is believed to be responsible for the generation of almost all of He and the elements
1726:
1721:
366:
124:
2324:
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3944:
1990:
1809:. Other unusual isotopic ratios within these grains reveal many specific aspects of explosive nucleosynthesis.
635:
511:
417:
358:
318:
A star formed in the early universe produces heavier elements by combining its lighter nuclei –
308:
206:
64:
3798:
1624:
566:
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3778:
3733:
2009:
1994:
1684:
1620:
590:
530:
515:
362:
225:
210:
98:
1649:
Stellar nucleosynthesis is the nuclear process by which new nuclei are produced. It occurs in stars during
753:
275:
3828:
3818:
3231:
2853:
2455:
1818:
586:
578:
439:
349: ≥ 6, carbon and heavier elements) requires the extreme temperatures and pressures found within
3045:
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1876:
331:
145:
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heavy elements is the large overabundances of specific stable elements found in stellar atmospheres of
752:
are considered to have been formed between 100 and 300 seconds after the Big Bang when the primordial
3823:
3813:
3500:
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3432:
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3302:
3223:
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are thought to have been produced in the Big Bang. The spallation process results from the impact of
1827:
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394:
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1935:
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1644:
618:
606:
462:
153:
138:
256:
3320:
3292:
3279:"Light element variations in globular clusters via nucleosynthesis in black hole accretion discs"
3259:
3213:
3145:
3119:
2953:
2917:
2744:
1839:
312:
176:
165:
27:
Process that creates new atomic nuclei from pre-existing nucleons, primarily protons and neutrons
3201:
164:, or on Earth in the atmosphere or in the ground. This contributes to the presence on Earth of
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1847:
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455:
451:
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435:
406:
2572:
2561:
2495:
2484:
2192:
2127:. These neutrons can then go on to produce other nuclides via neutron-induced fission, or by
2086:
in the time since the formation of the Earth. Little of the atmospheric argon is primordial.
3788:
3753:
3738:
3690:
3621:
3504:
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3440:
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3347:
3310:
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2359:
2288:
2271:
2239:
2124:
2055:
1780:
1752:
1663:
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2659:
1846:, and subsequently detected signals of numerous heavy elements such as gold as the ejected
3898:
3793:
3763:
3105:
3083:
3041:
2128:
1806:
1794:
1701:
110:
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3306:
3227:
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3011:
2931:
2825:
2781:
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2611:
2534:
2394:
2355:
2284:
2235:
261:
explosions. Elements beyond iron are made in high-mass stars with slow neutron capture (
3919:
3903:
3514:
2315:
Actually, before the war ended, he learned about the problem of spherical implosion of
1860:
1605:
594:
386:
311:, was the first type of nucleogenesis to occur in the universe, creating the so-called
90:
3186:
1941:
Beryllium and boron are not significantly produced by stellar fusion processes, since
481:
282:
as it cooled below two trillion degrees. A few minutes afterwards, starting with only
3938:
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2957:
2748:
2542:
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1744:
562:
411:
370:
52:
42:
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101:. Nuclear fusion reactions create many of the lighter elements, up to and including
3882:
2083:
1838:, along with a collaboration of many observatories around the world, detected both
179:
172:
94:
425:
first elucidated those nuclear mechanisms by which hydrogen is fused into helium.
3708:
2243:
2164:
2119:
2067:
2063:
2059:
1979:
1942:
1931:
1783:
1764:
1697:
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712:
500:
474:
195:
149:
31:
3626:
3609:
3245:
2940:
2905:
37:
17:
3859:
3713:
3480:
3453:
3412:
3385:
2849:"All the Gold in the Universe Could Come from the Collisions of Neutron Stars"
2636:
Clayton, D. D.; Nittler, L. R. (2004). "Astrophysics with
Presolar Stardust".
2364:
2337:
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2135:
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1748:
1717:
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652:
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470:
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may have been formed at this time, but the process stopped before significant
3635:
3339:
2949:
2402:
3854:
3846:
3838:
3803:
3718:
3590:
3346:. U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information.
3315:
3278:
2732:
2423:
2316:
2139:
1891:
1883:
1713:
1679:
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phase of low-mass star evolution, and the explosive ending of stars, called
1640:
1636:
1632:
757:
667:
614:
602:
598:
570:
382:
354:
327:
295:
262:
161:
157:
118:
114:
83:
2740:
2302:
2251:
461:
The Big Bang itself had been proposed in 1931, long before this period, by
298:(both with mass number 7) were formed, but hardly any other elements. Some
274:
It is thought that the primordial nucleons themselves were formed from the
2596:
Merrill, S. P. W. (1952). "Spectroscopic
Observations of Stars of Class".
3218:
2972:"Neutron star collisions are a "goldmine" of heavy elements, study finds"
2087:
2079:
2075:
1843:
1835:
1689:
697:
682:
335:
319:
279:
132:
68:
60:
3206:
Proceedings of the Ninth Marcel
Grossmann Meeting on General Relavitity
2884:
2058:. The nuclear decay of many long-lived primordial isotopes, especially
1962:
1887:
291:
287:
127:
within exploding stars is largely responsible for the elements between
80:
76:
56:
3359:
3027:
2379:
Suess, Hans E.; Urey, Harold C. (1956). "Abundances of the
Elements".
2293:
2266:
323:
303:
283:
128:
106:
72:
3659:
3351:
3202:"Nucleonsynthesis in Advective Accretion Disk Around Compact Object"
2217:
3452:
Burbidge, E. M.; Burbidge, G. R.; Fowler, W. A.; Hoyle, F. (1957).
3444:
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3141:
3019:
2922:
2833:
2789:
2703:
2619:
2336:
Burbidge, E. M.; Burbidge, G. R.; Fowler, W. A.; Hoyle, F. (1957).
2158:
3124:
2904:
Chen, Hsin-Yu; Vitale, Salvatore; Foucart, Francois (2021-10-01).
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761:
480:
299:
36:
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1842:
and electromagnetic signatures of a likely neutron star merger,
1823:
350:
102:
3663:
3652:– nucleosynthesis explained in terms of the nuclide chart, by
2142:, produced from nitrogen-14 in the atmosphere by cosmic rays.
1973:
494:
189:
30:"Nucleogenesis" redirects here. For the song by Vangelis, see
617:(sometimes known as the gamma process), which results in the
3204:. In Jantzen, R. T.; Ruffini, R.; Gurzadyan, V. G. (eds.).
1670:, of those with more than eight times the mass of the Sun.
3284:
Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters
2419:
From First Light to Reionization the End of the Dark Ages
841:
41:
Diagram illustration the creation of new elements by the
405:
The first ideas on nucleosynthesis were simply that the
2806:
Clayton, D. D.; Colgate, S. A.; Fishman, G. J. (1969).
2447:
Fields, B.D.; Molaro, P.; Sarkar, S. (September 2017).
2764:"Nucleosynthesis of Heavy Elements by Neutron Capture"
1961:
Theories of nucleosynthesis are tested by calculating
3072:
Nucleosynthesis in Accretion Disks Around Black Holes
2762:
Seeger, P. A.; Fowler, W. A.; Clayton, D. D. (1965).
1743:= 60). It replaced the incorrect although much cited
775:
2676:
Bodansky, D.; Clayton, D. D.; Fowler, W. A. (1968).
345:
The subsequent nucleosynthesis of heavier elements (
3912:
3891:
3868:
3777:
3697:
3516:
Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis
2563:
Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis
2554:
2552:
2486:
Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis
2114:. Naturally occurring nuclear reactions powered by
3513:
2678:"Nuclear Quasi-Equilibrium during Silicon Burning"
2560:
2483:
2078:is via this mechanism. The atmosphere's supply of
1590:
3391:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
3046:"Nucleosynthesis from Black Hole Accretion Disks"
2976:MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology
63:, through nuclear reactions in a process called
2808:"Gamma-Ray Lines from Young Supernova Remnants"
2671:
2669:
711:continues to be produced by stellar fusion and
75:. The rest is traces of other elements such as
2801:
2799:
2631:
2629:
3675:
3564:Cauldrons in the Cosmos: Nuclear Astrophysics
3386:"The Synthesis of the Elements from Hydrogen"
8:
1600:Chief nuclear reactions responsible for the
182:such as uranium, thorium, and potassium-40.
121:create heavier elements, from iron upwards.
97:, giving off energy in the process known as
3424:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
2769:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
2717:Clayton, D. D. (2007). "Hoyle's Equation".
2683:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
2639:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
2008:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
529:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
224:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
3888:
3682:
3668:
3660:
2123:be produced in spontaneous fission and by
2082:is due mostly to the radioactive decay of
1674:that had formed earlier. The detection of
3625:
3479:
3411:
3314:
3296:
3235:
3217:
3123:
2939:
2921:
2459:
2363:
2292:
2028:Learn how and when to remove this message
1855:Black hole accretion disk nucleosynthesis
1577:
1568:
1559:
1554:
1544:
1535:
1520:
1508:
1503:
1497:
1488:
1483:
1473:
1464:
1449:
1436:
1427:
1422:
1409:
1404:
1398:
1383:
1374:
1365:
1356:
1351:
1338:
1333:
1327:
1312:
1301:
1292:
1283:
1278:
1268:
1259:
1244:
1233:
1224:
1219:
1206:
1201:
1195:
1180:
1169:
1160:
1151:
1146:
1133:
1128:
1122:
1107:
1098:
1089:
1080:
1075:
1062:
1057:
1051:
1036:
1025:
1016:
1007:
1002:
989:
984:
978:
963:
952:
943:
938:
928:
919:
904:
891:
882:
877:
867:
858:
852:
847:
840:
835:
825:
819:
813:
804:
798:
785:
780:
776:
774:
549:Learn how and when to remove this message
278:around 13.8 billion years ago during the
244:Learn how and when to remove this message
171:On Earth new nuclei are also produced by
2267:"The Internal Constitution of the Stars"
2218:"The Internal Constitution of the Stars"
255:
93:light elements to heavier ones in their
3608:Arcones, A.; Thielemann, F. K. (2022).
2184:
2173:Extinct isotopes of superheavy elements
3338:Surdoval, Wayne; Berry, David (2021).
2660:10.1146/annurev.astro.42.053102.134022
601:or in explosive environments, such as
3614:The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review
7:
3562:Rolfs, C. E.; Rodney, W. S. (2005).
3454:"Synthesis of the Elements in Stars"
2338:"Synthesis of the Elements in Stars"
2006:adding citations to reliable sources
1945:has an extremely short half-life of
527:adding citations to reliable sources
222:adding citations to reliable sources
3541:Handbook of Isotopes in the Cosmos
2847:Stromberg, Joseph (16 July 2013).
1934:(mostly fast protons) against the
25:
3520:(Reprint ed.). Chicago, IL:
2910:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
2567:(Reprint ed.). Chicago, IL:
2490:(Reprint ed.). Chicago, IL:
1608:observed throughout the universe.
401:History of nucleosynthesis theory
3093:from the original on 2020-03-24.
3058:from the original on 2016-09-10.
2471:from the original on 2022-04-01.
2193:"DOE Explains...Nucleosynthesis"
2157:
1978:
1768:isotopes of each heavy element.
499:
194:
51:is the process that creates new
3650:The Valley of Stability (video)
2325:Autobiography William A. Fowler
1832:Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope
446:, followed by many others. The
2449:"23. Big-Bang Nucleosynthesis"
1970:Minor mechanisms and processes
1859:Nucleosynthesis may happen in
1551:
1480:
1419:
1348:
1275:
1216:
1143:
1072:
999:
935:
874:
791:
1:
3187:10.1016/S0375-9474(03)00856-X
3044:; Surman, R. (2 April 2007).
1799:Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory
2543:10.1016/0003-4916(61)90067-7
2108:are produced in this manner.
830:
3568:University of Chicago Press
3522:University of Chicago Press
2569:University of Chicago Press
2492:University of Chicago Press
2416:Stiavelli, Massimo (2009).
2244:10.1126/science.52.1341.233
1894:, and boron, although some
726:continue to be produced by
377: = 6 (carbon) to
175:, the decay of long-lived,
3971:
3627:10.1007/s00159-022-00146-x
3545:Cambridge University Press
3492:Astronomy and Astrophysics
3246:10.1142/9789812777386_0544
2044:These mechanisms include:
1874:
1735:elements between silicon (
1711:
1618:
633:
29:
3481:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547
3459:Reviews of Modern Physics
3200:Mukhopadhyay, B. (2018).
3111:The Astrophysical Journal
2999:The Astrophysical Journal
2813:The Astrophysical Journal
2599:The Astrophysical Journal
2382:Reviews of Modern Physics
2365:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547
2343:Reviews of Modern Physics
2265:Eddington, A. S. (1920).
2216:Eddington, A. S. (1920).
1727:Supernova nucleosynthesis
1722:Supernova nucleosynthesis
1708:Explosive nucleosynthesis
1700:and is frequently called
1534:
1463:
1397:
1326:
1258:
1194:
1121:
1050:
977:
918:
448:seminal 1957 review paper
367:supernova nucleosynthesis
125:Supernova nucleosynthesis
3610:"Origin of the elements"
3587:Nuclear Physics of Stars
2941:10.3847/2041-8213/ac26c6
2877:"GW170817 Press Release"
2403:10.1103/RevModPhys.28.53
1527:
1521:
1456:
1450:
1390:
1384:
1319:
1313:
1251:
1245:
1187:
1181:
1114:
1108:
1043:
1037:
970:
964:
911:
905:
636:Big Bang nucleosynthesis
630:Big Bang nucleosynthesis
418:Arthur Stanley Eddington
359:Big Bang nucleosynthesis
309:Big Bang nucleosynthesis
65:Big Bang nucleosynthesis
3734:Double electron capture
3539:Clayton, D. D. (2003).
3512:Clayton, D. D. (1983).
3505:1971A&A....15..337M
3413:10.1093/mnras/106.5.343
2733:10.1126/science.1151167
2652:2004ARA&A..42...39C
2559:Clayton, D. D. (1983).
2482:Clayton, D. D. (1983).
2118:give rise to so-called
1685:asymptotic giant branch
1678:in the atmosphere of a
1621:Stellar nucleosynthesis
1615:Stellar nucleosynthesis
363:stellar nucleosynthesis
99:stellar nucleosynthesis
3212:. pp. 2261–2262.
1592:
561:There are a number of
487:
440:Alastair G. W. Cameron
266:
45:
3589:. Weinheim, Germany:
3316:10.1093/mnrasl/sly169
3277:Breen, P. G. (2018).
2422:. Weinheim, Germany:
1877:Cosmic ray spallation
1871:Cosmic ray spallation
1593:
715:and trace amounts of
484:
478:scale of this graph.
332:cosmic ray spallation
259:
148:is a process wherein
146:Cosmic ray spallation
40:
3585:Iliadis, C. (2007).
3069:Frankel, N. (2017).
2002:improve this section
1813:Neutron star mergers
1655:triple-alpha process
1629:Triple-alpha process
773:
621:of existing nuclei.
607:neutron star mergers
523:improve this section
395:nuclear astrophysics
340:triple-alpha process
307:This first process,
218:improve this section
139:Neutron star mergers
3878:Photodisintegration
3799:Proton–proton chain
3769:Spontaneous fission
3749:Isomeric transition
3744:Internal conversion
3472:1957RvMP...29..547B
3437:1954ApJS....1..121H
3404:1946MNRAS.106..343H
3307:2018MNRAS.481L.110B
3228:2002nmgm.meet.2261M
3179:2003NuPhA.718..572A
3134:2008ApJ...679L.117S
3012:1987ApJ...313..674C
2932:2021ApJ...920L...3C
2826:1969ApJ...155...75C
2782:1965ApJS...11..121S
2727:(5858): 1876–1877.
2696:1968ApJS...16..299B
2612:1952ApJ...116...21M
2535:1961AnPhy..12..331C
2395:1956RvMP...28...53S
2356:1957RvMP...29..547B
2285:1920Natur.106...14E
2236:1920Obs....43..341E
2146:is another example.
2102:spontaneous fission
1936:interstellar medium
1788:spectroscopic lines
1645:photodisintegration
1625:Proton–proton chain
1602:relative abundances
1564:
1513:
1493:
1432:
1414:
1361:
1343:
1288:
1229:
1211:
1156:
1138:
1085:
1067:
1012:
994:
948:
887:
843:
619:photodisintegration
567:proton–proton chain
313:primordial elements
166:cosmogenic nuclides
154:interstellar medium
3384:Hoyle, F. (1946).
1957:Empirical evidence
1840:gravitational wave
1739:= 28) and nickel (
1732:almost equilibrium
1588:
1586:
1550:
1499:
1479:
1418:
1400:
1347:
1329:
1274:
1215:
1197:
1142:
1124:
1071:
1053:
998:
980:
934:
873:
824:
754:quark–gluon plasma
488:
276:quark–gluon plasma
267:
55:from pre-existing
46:
3932:
3931:
3928:
3927:
3759:Positron emission
3729:Double beta decay
3691:Nuclear processes
3600:978-3-527-40602-9
3577:978-0-226-72457-7
3554:978-0-521-82381-4
3543:. Cambridge, UK:
3531:978-0-226-10952-7
3166:Nuclear Physics A
3106:McLaughlin, G. C.
2978:. 25 October 2021
2582:978-0-226-10952-7
2522:Annals of Physics
2505:978-0-226-10952-7
2321:Manhattan project
2116:radioactive decay
2112:Nuclear reactions
2098:Radioactive decay
2056:daughter nuclides
2049:Radioactive decay
2038:
2037:
2030:
1848:degenerate matter
1761:secondary process
1664:planetary nebulae
1651:stellar evolution
1576:
1567:
1543:
1526:
1525:
1524:
1516:
1496:
1472:
1455:
1454:
1453:
1435:
1417:
1389:
1388:
1387:
1373:
1364:
1346:
1318:
1317:
1316:
1300:
1291:
1267:
1250:
1249:
1248:
1232:
1214:
1186:
1185:
1184:
1168:
1159:
1141:
1113:
1112:
1111:
1097:
1088:
1070:
1042:
1041:
1040:
1024:
1015:
997:
969:
968:
967:
951:
927:
910:
909:
908:
890:
866:
851:
838:
833:
812:
797:
784:
559:
558:
551:
444:Donald D. Clayton
436:William A. Fowler
407:chemical elements
381: = 94 (
254:
253:
246:
113:reactions of the
79:and the hydrogen
16:(Redirected from
3962:
3889:
3789:Deuterium fusion
3754:Neutron emission
3739:Electron capture
3684:
3677:
3670:
3661:
3639:
3629:
3604:
3581:
3558:
3535:
3519:
3508:
3485:
3483:
3448:
3417:
3415:
3371:
3370:
3368:
3366:
3335:
3329:
3328:
3318:
3300:
3274:
3268:
3267:
3239:
3221:
3219:astro-ph/0103162
3210:World Scientific
3197:
3191:
3190:
3160:
3154:
3153:
3127:
3118:(2): L117–L120.
3101:
3095:
3094:
3092:
3080:Lund Observatory
3077:
3066:
3060:
3059:
3057:
3050:
3038:
3032:
3031:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2984:
2983:
2968:
2962:
2961:
2943:
2925:
2901:
2895:
2894:
2892:
2891:
2875:Chu, J. (n.d.).
2872:
2866:
2865:
2863:
2861:
2844:
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2837:
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2794:
2793:
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2753:
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2333:
2327:
2313:
2307:
2306:
2296:
2294:10.1038/106014a0
2262:
2256:
2255:
2230:(1341): 233–40.
2213:
2207:
2206:
2204:
2203:
2189:
2167:
2162:
2161:
2125:neutron emission
2033:
2026:
2022:
2019:
2013:
1982:
1974:
1952:
1950:
1929:
1928:
1927:
1920:
1919:
1911:
1910:
1909:
1902:
1901:
1753:electron capture
1692:compositions of
1597:
1595:
1594:
1589:
1587:
1583:
1582:
1581:
1574:
1569:
1565:
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1139:
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1123:
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1103:
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1095:
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1084:
1079:
1068:
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1038:
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1029:
1022:
1017:
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1011:
1006:
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993:
988:
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953:
949:
947:
942:
933:
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920:
906:
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892:
888:
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881:
872:
871:
864:
859:
857:
856:
849:
844:
842:
839:
836:
834:
826:
820:
818:
817:
810:
805:
803:
802:
795:
790:
789:
782:
751:
749:
748:
740:
738:
737:
725:
723:
722:
710:
708:
707:
695:
693:
692:
680:
678:
677:
665:
663:
662:
650:
648:
647:
554:
547:
543:
540:
534:
503:
495:
463:Georges Lemaître
249:
242:
238:
235:
229:
198:
190:
21:
3970:
3969:
3965:
3964:
3963:
3961:
3960:
3959:
3955:Nuclear physics
3945:Nucleosynthesis
3935:
3934:
3933:
3924:
3908:
3899:Neutron capture
3887:
3870:
3864:
3781:nucleosynthesis
3780:
3773:
3764:Proton emission
3719:Gamma radiation
3700:
3693:
3688:
3646:
3607:
3601:
3584:
3578:
3566:. Chicago, IL:
3561:
3555:
3538:
3532:
3511:
3488:
3451:
3420:
3383:
3380:
3378:Further reading
3375:
3374:
3364:
3362:
3352:10.2172/1773479
3337:
3336:
3332:
3291:(1): L110–114.
3276:
3275:
3271:
3256:
3237:10.1.1.254.7490
3199:
3198:
3194:
3162:
3161:
3157:
3103:
3102:
3098:
3090:
3084:Lund University
3075:
3068:
3067:
3063:
3055:
3048:
3040:
3039:
3035:
2995:
2994:
2990:
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2887:
2874:
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2804:
2797:
2761:
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2716:
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2711:
2675:
2674:
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2634:
2627:
2595:
2594:
2590:
2583:
2558:
2557:
2550:
2518:
2517:
2513:
2506:
2481:
2480:
2476:
2468:
2461:10.1.1.729.1183
2451:
2446:
2445:
2441:
2434:
2415:
2414:
2410:
2378:
2377:
2373:
2335:
2334:
2330:
2314:
2310:
2279:(2653): 14–20.
2264:
2263:
2259:
2223:The Observatory
2215:
2214:
2210:
2201:
2199:
2191:
2190:
2186:
2181:
2163:
2156:
2153:
2129:neutron capture
2034:
2023:
2017:
2014:
1999:
1983:
1972:
1959:
1948:
1946:
1926:
1924:
1923:
1922:
1918:
1916:
1915:
1914:
1913:
1908:
1906:
1905:
1904:
1900:
1898:
1897:
1896:
1895:
1879:
1873:
1861:accretion disks
1857:
1815:
1807:presolar grains
1795:supernova 1987A
1757:primary process
1724:
1712:Main articles:
1710:
1702:presolar grains
1647:
1619:Main articles:
1617:
1612:
1611:
1610:
1609:
1598:
1585:
1584:
1573:
1540:
1518:
1469:
1446:
1445:
1381:
1370:
1309:
1308:
1297:
1264:
1242:
1177:
1176:
1165:
1105:
1094:
1033:
1032:
1021:
961:
924:
901:
900:
863:
848:
845:
809:
794:
781:
771:
770:
747:
745:
744:
743:
742:
736:
734:
733:
732:
731:
721:
719:
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706:
704:
703:
702:
701:
691:
689:
688:
687:
686:
676:
674:
673:
672:
671:
661:
659:
658:
657:
656:
646:
644:
643:
642:
641:
638:
632:
627:
591:silicon burning
555:
544:
538:
535:
520:
504:
493:
403:
290:, nuclei up to
272:
250:
239:
233:
230:
215:
199:
188:
111:neutron capture
49:Nucleosynthesis
35:
28:
23:
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18:Nucleosynthetic
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634:Main article:
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595:binding energy
587:oxygen burning
579:carbon burning
575:helium burning
557:
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492:
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456:G. R. Burbidge
452:E. M. Burbidge
412:alpha nuclides
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387:nuclear fusion
371:atomic numbers
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2433:9783527627370
2429:
2426:. p. 8.
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2092:cluster decay
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2047:
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2011:
2007:
2003:
1997:
1996:
1992:
1987:This section
1985:
1981:
1976:
1975:
1969:
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1964:
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1745:alpha process
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1607:
1606:atomic nuclei
1603:
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1269:
1261:
1255:
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1115:
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1081:
1076:
1063:
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990:
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981:
974:
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893:
883:
878:
868:
860:
853:
827:
821:
814:
806:
799:
786:
765:
763:
760:(or possibly
759:
755:
729:
714:
699:
684:
669:
654:
637:
629:
624:
622:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
563:astrophysical
553:
550:
542:
532:
528:
524:
518:
517:
513:
508:This section
506:
502:
497:
496:
490:
483:
479:
476:
472:
466:
464:
459:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
432:
430:
426:
424:
419:
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388:
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376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
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352:
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337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
316:
314:
310:
305:
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297:
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285:
281:
277:
269:
264:
258:
248:
245:
237:
227:
223:
219:
213:
212:
208:
203:This section
201:
197:
192:
191:
185:
183:
181:
180:radionuclides
178:
174:
169:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
140:
136:
134:
130:
126:
122:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
87:
85:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
53:atomic nuclei
50:
44:
43:alpha process
39:
33:
19:
3950:Astrophysics
3883:Photofission
3847:
3839:
3617:
3613:
3586:
3563:
3540:
3515:
3496:
3490:
3463:
3457:
3428:
3422:
3395:
3389:
3363:. Retrieved
3343:
3333:
3288:
3282:
3272:
3205:
3195:
3170:
3164:
3158:
3115:
3109:
3104:Surman, R.;
3099:
3071:
3064:
3036:
3003:
2997:
2991:
2980:. Retrieved
2975:
2966:
2913:
2909:
2899:
2888:. Retrieved
2870:
2858:. Retrieved
2852:
2842:
2817:
2811:
2773:
2767:
2757:
2724:
2718:
2712:
2687:
2681:
2646:(1): 39–78.
2643:
2637:
2603:
2597:
2591:
2562:
2526:
2520:
2514:
2485:
2477:
2442:
2418:
2411:
2389:(1): 53–74.
2386:
2380:
2374:
2347:
2341:
2331:
2311:
2276:
2270:
2260:
2227:
2221:
2211:
2200:. Retrieved
2196:
2187:
2100:may lead to
2084:potassium-40
2051:may lead to
2043:
2039:
2024:
2015:
2000:Please help
1988:
1960:
1940:
1880:
1858:
1816:
1803:
1792:
1777:
1770:
1760:
1756:
1740:
1736:
1731:
1725:
1672:
1660:
1648:
713:alpha decays
700:). Although
639:
583:neon burning
560:
545:
536:
521:Please help
509:
467:
460:
433:
427:
416:
404:
378:
374:
346:
344:
317:
273:
240:
231:
216:Please help
204:
173:radiogenesis
170:
144:
137:
123:
88:
48:
47:
3709:Alpha decay
3699:Radioactive
3499:: 337–359.
3173:: 572–574.
2854:Smithsonian
2165:Star portal
2120:nucleogenic
2068:thorium-232
2064:uranium-238
2060:uranium-235
1932:cosmic rays
1865:black holes
1765:metallicity
1698:cosmic dust
625:Major types
475:Harold Urey
326:, lithium,
150:cosmic rays
32:Albedo 0.39
3939:Categories
3860:rp-process
3834:Si burning
3824:Ne burning
3794:Li burning
3714:Beta decay
3298:1804.08877
2982:2021-12-23
2923:2107.02714
2890:2018-07-04
2202:2022-03-22
2197:Energy.gov
2179:References
2144:Iodine-129
2136:cosmogenic
2106:promethium
2053:radiogenic
2018:April 2021
1773:rp-process
1718:rp-process
1676:technetium
1668:supernovae
728:spallation
613:, and the
611:rp-process
603:supernovae
539:April 2021
471:Hans Suess
429:Fred Hoyle
423:Hans Bethe
391:beta decay
355:supernovae
234:April 2021
177:primordial
162:meteoroids
3871:processes
3855:p-process
3829:O burning
3819:C burning
3809:α process
3804:CNO cycle
3636:1432-0754
3591:Wiley-VCH
3264:118008078
3232:CiteSeerX
3125:0803.1785
2958:238198587
2950:2041-8205
2916:(1): L3.
2749:118423007
2573:Chapter 7
2496:Chapter 5
2456:CiteSeerX
2424:Wiley-VCH
2317:plutonium
2140:carbon-14
1989:does not
1953:seconds.
1892:beryllium
1884:deuterium
1749:BFH paper
1714:r-process
1680:red giant
1641:p-process
1637:s-process
1633:CNO cycle
1604:of light
1552:⟶
1481:⟶
1442:γ
1420:⟶
1349:⟶
1276:⟶
1239:γ
1217:⟶
1144:⟶
1073:⟶
1000:⟶
958:γ
936:⟶
897:γ
875:⟶
831:¯
828:ν
815:−
792:⟶
758:beryllium
668:deuterium
615:p-process
599:s-process
571:CNO cycle
510:does not
491:Processes
383:plutonium
328:beryllium
296:beryllium
263:s-process
205:does not
158:asteroids
119:s-process
115:r-process
84:deuterium
3913:Exchange
3850:-process
3842:-process
3814:Triple-α
3656:(France)
3620:(1): 1.
3365:17 April
3344:osti.gov
3325:54001706
3150:17114805
3088:Archived
3053:Archived
2860:27 April
2741:18096793
2466:Archived
2303:17747682
2252:17747682
2151:See also
2088:Helium-4
2080:argon-40
2076:polonium
1844:GW170817
1836:INTEGRAL
1694:stardust
1690:isotopic
698:helium-4
683:helium-3
336:helium-3
320:hydrogen
288:neutrons
280:Big Bang
270:Timeline
133:rubidium
69:hydrogen
61:Big Bang
57:nucleons
3892:Capture
3779:Stellar
3501:Bibcode
3468:Bibcode
3433:Bibcode
3431:: 121.
3400:Bibcode
3360:1773479
3303:Bibcode
3224:Bibcode
3175:Bibcode
3130:Bibcode
3078:(MSc).
3028:6468841
3008:Bibcode
3006:: 674.
2928:Bibcode
2885:Caltech
2822:Bibcode
2778:Bibcode
2776:: 121.
2720:Science
2692:Bibcode
2690:: 299.
2648:Bibcode
2608:Bibcode
2531:Bibcode
2391:Bibcode
2352:Bibcode
2319:in the
2281:Bibcode
2232:Bibcode
2010:removed
1995:sources
1963:isotope
1888:lithium
1781:isobars
1747:of the
685:), and
653:protium
569:or the
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