97:, who had been involved at all stages in the Association's Subcommittee and had been impressed by the science teaching he had seen in a tour of Russia. The hope was to improve British science teaching, and hence British industry, "by persuasion" where Russia had done so "by compulsion". In December the Nuffield Foundation agreed to fund the effort to improve science education in England and Wales, building on the Science Masters Association's work, but on its own terms, with an initial commitment of £250,000 for three working groups to develop outlines, textbooks, teachers' guides and classroom equipment for the teaching of physics, chemistry and biology to pupils aged 11–15, and the Minister of Education, Sir
167:. The teachers' guides outlining the class activities were explicitly described as "not a syllabus", but many teachers used them as a "bible". Particularly for physics, kits of apparatus for class experiments were developed in association with manufacturers; government money was readily available at the start of the project for schools to purchase equipment and improve their laboratories. Distinct Nuffield 'O' and 'A' level examinations were instituted, although they were originally intended only as a temporary measure.
122:. The initial focus on the course to 'O' level was extended to 'A' level and a Junior Science Project on primary school teaching was added by 1966; later in the 1960s Nuffield also began a Combined Science Project, a Secondary Science Project for pupils who would not take 'O' levels, the Nuffield Language Teaching Programme in modern languages, and programmes in mathematics, classics, and social studies. McGill died in March 1963 and was succeeded at the physics project by
155:: teaching "for understanding, not learning" in a manner that was both logical and based on experiments, with pupils "learning through doing", being 'a scientist for a day' and deriving scientific laws through 'guided discovery' rather than 'prov theory'. The project used an apocryphal Chinese proverb, "I listen and I forget, I see and I remember, I do and I understand" as a motto. Halliwell, the chemistry project organiser, has said that he was greatly influenced by Sir
55:
conference the previous year in
Hamburg and come away persuaded that science teaching, particularly in physics, needed to be brought up to date for the post-war atomic age and to become teaching "in and through science". Subject panels in physics, chemistry, biology and general science developed new
208:
Some early research suggested in particular that
Nuffield science was less suitable for girls than boys. This may be because girls reportedly dislike discovery teaching, but there are indications that teacher enthusiasm is more important, and a study in 1981 found no significant differences between
183:
provide a "grammar school education for all", and the first two years of
Nuffield physics and chemistry were found to be difficult even for able pupils. As a result, the Nuffield Combined Science course, derived from the three distinct science courses, was introduced in 1970 for pupils in the first
130:
was added as an assistant director of the foundation and coordinator of the project as a whole. In 1966 the development phase came to an end and teachers' guides, pupils' question books and other material were published in time for the school year starting in autumn 1967. Nuffield sponsored Area
212:
The fundamental criticism of the discovery approach as a whole is that it inaccurately presents science as "Sherlock Holmes in a white coat", with observation leading directly by induction to theory. A 1996 survey termed it "philosophically unsound and pedagogically unworkable"; children cannot
175:
Nuffield biology was not very popular. In chemistry and physics, the
Nuffield discovery approach was dominant by the 1970s and had a lasting influence, although more teachers used the materials than taught Nuffield science as the project developers had intended. At their peak of popularity, the
109:
For each of the three sciences, a working group was established headed by a full-time organiser, appointed for three years, and including a consultative committee of experts, and six or seven team leaders, expert teachers on one-year appointments who headed local groups of half a dozen science
269:
Another study in the same period analysed differences in familiarity and attitudes between "high adopters" and "low adopters" of
Nuffield chemistry; the percentage of "low adopters" 'using all or most' of the materials at the relevant level was in the 20s; Donnelly and Jenkins,
68:
in 1960. The Staff
Inspector for Science, R. A. R. Tricker, criticised the physics syllabus as overly theoretical and a year's practical trial of the material was conducted in 30 schools. The subcommittee then invited representatives from government and the Institutes of
237:
syllabus, published in 1963; Woolnough, pp. 95–96; and a
Scottish teachers' team developed the mechanics section for Nuffield physics; Jardine, pp. 172+. The Scottish Science for the 70s course was a rival to Nuffield Combined Science; Woolnough,
150:
Organisers were charged simply with creating "a coordinated set of materials, for use by teachers in any way they saw fit". The foundation also gave instructions to avoid public announcements or debates for two years. The approach taken in all three sciences was
192:
examination. Some teachers suggested that the practical work itself discouraged pupils from continuing with chemistry and physics after 'O' level. By the 1980s, with a greater emphasis on educating pupils of all abilities and the introduction of a
228:
Strictly speaking, the
Nuffield programme only applied to England and Wales; schools in Northern Ireland and Scotland were administered separately. However, immediately before joining the project Donald McGill had previously worked for the
251:
made a speech urging improvements to education so that
Britain would not be disadvantaged in the "white heat of the technological revolution"; cited in Alan Peacock, "The Emergence of Primary Science", in Amos and Boohan, eds.,
81:, where the consensus was that outside funding should be sought for a full process to develop curricula and teaching materials. The Nuffield Foundation had also been investigating the problem, and sponsored a meeting at
688:
According to research by R. B. Ingle in the early 1970s with a view to revising the chemistry materials, many chemistry teachers did not have time to read the handbook and simply used the
194:
143:
teachers' centres and specialist centres at teacher training institutions also provided training in
Nuffield methods; the project itself established the Centre for Science Education at
184:
two years of mixed-ability secondary schools; in 1980, 80% of schools were using this in some way. Its use of worksheets was emulated in other courses in the mid-1970s, such as the
345:, pp. 153–62, p. 153: "The new syllabus even included some physics since 1895. The latter came under criticism from HM Inspectorate as it suggested dogmatic teaching."
291:
28.3 (August 1984) 444–53, notes that the Physical Science Study Committee's reformed physics course in the United States had a similar focus on the most able students.
1150:
213:
realistically reproduce the progression of scientific discovery. Another expert judged Nuffield to have incorporated some particularly "naive" versions of inductivism.
1145:
201:, emphasis shifted from teaching theory to making science interesting and relevant and rewarding achievement. A revised version of Nuffield Combined Science,
944:
198:
131:
Committees, training of tutors to train teachers, television programmes on teaching Nuffield science, and two films showing actual chemistry classrooms:
144:
1075:"Reactions of Pupils to Nuffield Science Teaching Project Trial Materials in England at the Ordinary Level of the General Certificate of Education"
256:, pp. 71–81, p. 71. This was also an international concern, with science teaching reform in the US acquiring added impetus after
188:'s Insight to Science. In 1971 Nuffield Secondary Science was added; this was material from which teachers could develop a course for the Mode 3
179:
The project was developed primarily by academics and teachers in private and selective schools, in the context of the early objective of having
1125:
65:
44:
271:
61:
57:
560:
445:
189:
1101:
995:
974:
927:
884:
633:
556:
441:
420:
381:
342:
318:
98:
888:
185:
160:
82:
1140:
230:
1015:
Wellington, p. 56, citing D. Hodson, "Laboratory Work as Scientific Method: Three Decades of Confusion and Distortion",
998:, pp. 276–97, p. 279, citing Judy Samuel, "Feminism and Science Teaching: Some Classroom Observations",
74:
1108:
209:
girls' and boys' performance on Nuffield 'O' levels, possibly because few teachers actually use "open-ended" methods.
620:
Sandra Amos and Richard Boohan, "The Changing Nature of Science Education", in Sandra Amos and Richard Boohan, eds.,
922:, ed. Jonathan Osborne and Justin Dillon, 2nd ed. Maidenhead / New York: McGraw Hill / The Open University, 2010,
159:, under whom he studied in the 1920s; another important influence was work in the United States, particularly the
47:) established a Science Teaching Subcommittee, later the Science and Education Subcommittee, led by its chairman,
176:
Nuffield 'O' and 'A' level examinations were still only taken by far fewer candidates than the traditional GCEs.
140:
547:
Rob Walker, "Getting Involved in Curriculum Research: A Personal History", in Martin Lawn and Len Barton, eds.,
111:
330:
90:
43:
In 1957, the Science Masters Association (later amalgamated with the Association of Women Science Teachers as
931:
31:. Although not intended as a curriculum, it gave rise to alternative national examinations, and its use of
152:
180:
432:
James F. Donnelly and Edgar W. Jenkins, "Guiding Teachers: The Nuffield Science Teaching Projects", in
413:
Social Pressures and Curriculum Innovation: A Study of the Nuffield Foundation Science Teaching Project
335:
Wonder and Delight: Essays in Science Education in honour of the life and work of Eric Rogers 1902–1990
119:
1074:
164:
115:
70:
625:
48:
28:
648:
Jerry Wellington, "Practical Work in Science: Time for a Re-Appraisal", in Amos and Boohan, eds.,
32:
918:
Justin Dillon and Alex Manning, "Science Teachers, Science Teaching: Issues and Challenges", in
110:
teachers which would develop and test materials. The physics project was organised first, under
1097:
1064:
991:
970:
923:
880:
629:
552:
551:, 1981, 2nd ed. Routledge Library Editions: Education 20, London / New York: Routledge, 2012,
437:
416:
377:
338:
314:
1019:
28.2, 115–35. The Sherlock Holmes descriptor is Wellington's own from an earlier paper.
24:
1028:
Rosalind Driver, "The Fallacy of Induction in Science Teaching", in Amos and Boohan, eds.,
714:, pp. 169–80, on development and testing of physics apparatus under Eric Rogers.
333:, "Eric Rogers and the Nuffield Physics Project", in Brenda Jennison and Jon Ogborn, eds.,
967:
Girls and Science: An International Study of Sex Differences in School Science Achievement
94:
247:
Concern for the competitiveness of British industry was widespread at the time; in 1963
123:
1134:
1002:, pp. 247–56, and Jan Harding, "Sex Differences in Science Examinations",
949:
248:
1089:
78:
127:
86:
710:
Jim Jardine, "Apparatus for the Inquiring Mind", in Jennison and Ogborn, eds.,
156:
1094:
Mathematics Curriculum: Issues, Trends, and Future Directions. 72nd Yearbook
827:
Joan Bliss, "Learning Science: Piaget and After", in Amos and Boohan, eds.,
23:
was a programme to develop a better approach to teaching science in British
1068:
1063:. Internal Report. Centre for Science Education, Chelsea College, 1978.
311:
Physics Teaching in Schools, 1960–85: Of People, Policy, and Power
1096:. Reston, Virginia: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2010.
1045:
841:
772:
284:
257:
234:
52:
969:, IEA Monograph Studies 9, Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1978,
285:"Reform and the Physics Curriculum in Britain and the United States"
163:'s reformed physics course, with which Rogers had been involved at
101:, announced the plan in the House of Commons on 4 April 1962.
313:, Studies in Curriculum History 8, London/New York: Falmer, 1988,
1046:"The Introduction of New Science Curricula in England and Wales"
436:, London: Paul Chapman / Thousand Oaks, California: Sage, 2001,
692:, an example of how to construct a course; Waring, p. 214.
337:, Bristol/Philadelphia: Institute of Physics Publishing, 1994,
990:, ed. Alison Kelly, Manchester: Manchester University, 1981,
986:
Alison Kelly, "Conclusion: Retrieving the Missing Half", in
920:
Good Practice in Science Teaching: What Research Has to Say
1081:
7.4 (December 1970) 283–302 (pdf, payment required).
831:, pp. 154–63, p. 155, citing a 1971 study.
205:, was published in 1986 reflecting this change in focus.
877:
Practical Work in Secondary Science: A Minds-On Approach
608:
Woolnough, pp. 103–04, with reference to physics.
842:"Enjoyment and Attainment in Secondary School Physics"
599:
Waring, pp. 131–32, with reference to chemistry.
1084:
David Rappaport. "The Nuffield Mathematics Project".
434:
Science Education: Policy, Professionalism and Change
197:
and replacement of the existing examinations by the
549:Rethinking Curriculum Studies: A Radical Approach
788:Woolnough, pp. 58–59, citing a 1976 study.
644:
642:
622:Teaching Science in Secondary Schools: A Reader
1088:71.6 (March 1971) 295–308; reprinted in
814:
812:
722:
720:
988:The Missing Half: Girls and Science Education
8:
961:
959:
628:, London / New York: RoutledgeFalmer, 2002,
616:
614:
773:"Process in Lower School Science Textbooks"
474:
472:
486:
484:
1151:Secondary education in the United Kingdom
543:
541:
35:was influential in the 1960s and 1970s.
1146:Science education in the United Kingdom
1079:Journal of Research in Science Teaching
302:
221:
879:, London / New York: Continuum, 2011,
848:11.2 (1985) 123–32, p. 123.
374:A Biography of the Nuffield Foundation
1032:, pp. 133–39, p. 135.
66:Secondary Schools Examination Council
45:The Association for Science Education
7:
846:British Educational Research Journal
777:British Educational Research Journal
771:Douglas P. Newton and Richard Gott,
89:, in April 1961, and also consulted
1061:Girls and Science Education Project
652:, pp. 55–66, p. 56.
260:; Donnelly and Jenkins, p. 28.
147:, which was able to grant degrees.
64:levels which were presented to the
423:, pp. 2–3, 82–85.
114:; the chemistry project was under
14:
900:Woolnough, pp. 176–78.
779:15.3 (1989) 249–58, p. 258.
636:, pp. 3–21, p. 7.
51:, a physicist who had attended a
21:Nuffield Science Teaching Project
1109:"Background to Nuffield Science"
354:Woolnough, pp. 88–90.
233:and worked on their alternative
186:Inner London Education Authority
161:Physical Science Study Committee
118:, and the biology project under
744:Woolnough, pp. 54–55, 78.
93:, the senior science master at
85:hosted by the Head of Physics,
83:Battersea College of Technology
77:to a meeting in August 1961 at
1115:8.3 (1979) 223–37 (pdf).
1:
1017:Journal of Curriculum Studies
953:, 27 March 1975, p. 778.
231:Scottish Education Department
1050:Comparative Education Review
797:Donnelly and Jenkins, p. 34.
762:Donnelly and Jenkins, p. 37.
701:Woolnough, pp. 165–67.
590:Donnelly and Jenkins, p. 28.
490:Donnelly and Jenkins, p. 29.
466:Waring, pp. 86–87, 94.
289:Comparative Education Review
27:, under the auspices of the
1059:Jan Harding and Jan Craig.
945:"Is Science too Masculine?"
857:Woolnough, pp. 55–56.
806:Woolnough, pp. 33–36.
670:Woolnough, pp. 97–98.
499:Woolnough, pp. 96–98.
402:Woolnough, pp. 94–95.
105:History and characteristics
1167:
1056:(June 1974) 196–206.
559:, pp. 193–213,
526:Waring, pp. 195–203.
137:Chemistry by Investigation
1092:and Robert E. Reys, eds.
1086:Elementary School Journal
1006:, pp. 192–204.
415:, London: Methuen, 1979,
376:, London: Longman, 1972,
141:Local Education Authority
679:Woolnough, pp. 105, 107.
508:Lewis, pp. 156–57.
457:Clark, pp. 171–73.
444:, pp. 27–41,
393:Clark, pp. 170–71.
977:, pp. 14–15.
930:, pp. 6–19,
321:, pp. 87–88.
1054:What Do Children Know?
753:Amos and Boohan, p. 8.
16:Educational programmes
1141:Progressive education
181:comprehensive schools
1113:History of Education
1104:(CD-ROM attachment).
932:pp. 10–11
889:pp. 25–26
309:Brian E. Woolnough,
165:Princeton University
626:The Open University
195:national curriculum
133:Exploring Chemistry
29:Nuffield Foundation
1044:Bruce H. Choppin.
712:Wonder and Delight
33:discovery learning
1073:Dr. G. R. Meyer.
909:Woolnough, p. 60.
866:Woolnough, p. 59.
840:Anthony W. Pell,
818:Woolnough, p. 55.
735:Woolnough, p. 45.
726:Woolnough, p. 58.
372:Ronald W. Clark,
363:Woolnough, p. 93.
203:Nuffield 11 to 13
25:secondary schools
1158:
1126:Official history
1033:
1030:Teaching Science
1026:
1020:
1013:
1007:
1004:The Missing Half
1000:The Missing Half
984:
978:
963:
954:
941:
935:
916:
910:
907:
901:
898:
892:
873:
867:
864:
858:
855:
849:
838:
832:
829:Teaching Science
825:
819:
816:
807:
804:
798:
795:
789:
786:
780:
769:
763:
760:
754:
751:
745:
742:
736:
733:
727:
724:
715:
708:
702:
699:
693:
686:
680:
677:
671:
668:
662:
659:
653:
650:Teaching Science
646:
637:
618:
609:
606:
600:
597:
591:
588:
582:
579:
573:
570:
564:
545:
536:
533:
527:
524:
518:
515:
509:
506:
500:
497:
491:
488:
479:
476:
467:
464:
458:
455:
449:
430:
424:
409:
403:
400:
394:
391:
385:
370:
364:
361:
355:
352:
346:
328:
322:
307:
292:
281:
275:
267:
261:
254:Teaching Science
245:
239:
226:
120:W. H. Dowdeswell
1166:
1165:
1161:
1160:
1159:
1157:
1156:
1155:
1131:
1130:
1122:
1090:Barbara J. Reys
1041:
1039:Further reading
1036:
1027:
1023:
1014:
1010:
985:
981:
964:
957:
942:
938:
917:
913:
908:
904:
899:
895:
874:
870:
865:
861:
856:
852:
839:
835:
826:
822:
817:
810:
805:
801:
796:
792:
787:
783:
770:
766:
761:
757:
752:
748:
743:
739:
734:
730:
725:
718:
709:
705:
700:
696:
687:
683:
678:
674:
669:
665:
660:
656:
647:
640:
619:
612:
607:
603:
598:
594:
589:
585:
580:
576:
571:
567:
546:
539:
535:Waring, p. 202.
534:
530:
525:
521:
517:Waring, p. 193.
516:
512:
507:
503:
498:
494:
489:
482:
477:
470:
465:
461:
456:
452:
431:
427:
410:
406:
401:
397:
392:
388:
371:
367:
362:
358:
353:
349:
329:
325:
308:
304:
300:
295:
282:
278:
268:
264:
246:
242:
227:
223:
219:
173:
145:Chelsea College
116:H. F. Halliwell
107:
95:Malvern College
41:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1164:
1162:
1154:
1153:
1148:
1143:
1133:
1132:
1129:
1128:
1121:
1120:External links
1118:
1117:
1116:
1105:
1082:
1071:
1057:
1040:
1037:
1035:
1034:
1021:
1008:
979:
965:Alison Kelly,
955:
936:
911:
902:
893:
875:Ian Abrahams,
868:
859:
850:
833:
820:
808:
799:
790:
781:
764:
755:
746:
737:
728:
716:
703:
694:
681:
672:
663:
661:Waring, p. 38.
654:
638:
610:
601:
592:
583:
581:Lewis, p. 156.
574:
572:Waring, p. 13.
565:
537:
528:
519:
510:
501:
492:
480:
478:Clark, p. 173.
468:
459:
450:
425:
404:
395:
386:
384:, p. 171.
365:
356:
347:
323:
301:
299:
296:
294:
293:
283:David Turner,
276:
262:
240:
220:
218:
215:
172:
169:
124:Eric M. Rogers
106:
103:
40:
37:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1163:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1138:
1136:
1127:
1124:
1123:
1119:
1114:
1110:
1107:Mary Waring.
1106:
1103:
1102:9780873536431
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1042:
1038:
1031:
1025:
1022:
1018:
1012:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
996:9780719007538
993:
989:
983:
980:
976:
975:9789122001829
972:
968:
962:
960:
956:
952:
951:
950:New Scientist
946:
940:
937:
933:
929:
928:9780335238590
925:
921:
915:
912:
906:
903:
897:
894:
890:
886:
885:9781847065032
882:
878:
872:
869:
863:
860:
854:
851:
847:
843:
837:
834:
830:
824:
821:
815:
813:
809:
803:
800:
794:
791:
785:
782:
778:
774:
768:
765:
759:
756:
750:
747:
741:
738:
732:
729:
723:
721:
717:
713:
707:
704:
698:
695:
691:
690:Sample Scheme
685:
682:
676:
673:
667:
664:
658:
655:
651:
645:
643:
639:
635:
634:9780415260718
631:
627:
623:
617:
615:
611:
605:
602:
596:
593:
587:
584:
578:
575:
569:
566:
562:
558:
557:9780415664653
554:
550:
544:
542:
538:
532:
529:
523:
520:
514:
511:
505:
502:
496:
493:
487:
485:
481:
475:
473:
469:
463:
460:
454:
451:
447:
443:
442:9781847876348
439:
435:
429:
426:
422:
421:9780416708004
418:
414:
411:Mary Waring,
408:
405:
399:
396:
390:
387:
383:
382:9780582364875
379:
375:
369:
366:
360:
357:
351:
348:
344:
343:9780750303156
340:
336:
332:
331:John L. Lewis
327:
324:
320:
319:9781850002024
316:
312:
306:
303:
297:
290:
286:
280:
277:
273:
266:
263:
259:
255:
250:
249:Harold Wilson
244:
241:
236:
232:
225:
222:
216:
214:
210:
206:
204:
200:
196:
191:
187:
182:
177:
170:
168:
166:
162:
158:
154:
153:inquiry-based
148:
146:
142:
138:
134:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
112:Donald McGill
104:
102:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
67:
63:
59:
54:
50:
49:Henry Boulind
46:
38:
36:
34:
30:
26:
22:
1112:
1093:
1085:
1078:
1060:
1053:
1049:
1029:
1024:
1016:
1011:
1003:
999:
987:
982:
966:
948:
947:, Feedback,
943:Mary Lewin,
939:
919:
914:
905:
896:
876:
871:
862:
853:
845:
836:
828:
823:
802:
793:
784:
776:
767:
758:
749:
740:
731:
711:
706:
697:
689:
684:
675:
666:
657:
649:
621:
604:
595:
586:
577:
568:
548:
531:
522:
513:
504:
495:
462:
453:
433:
428:
412:
407:
398:
389:
373:
368:
359:
350:
334:
326:
310:
305:
288:
279:
265:
253:
243:
224:
211:
207:
202:
178:
174:
149:
136:
132:
108:
99:David Eccles
79:Barrow Court
56:syllabi for
42:
20:
18:
561:p. 193
238:p. 56.
128:John Maddox
87:Lewis Elton
1135:Categories
446:p. 27
298:References
272:p. 33
157:Percy Nunn
91:John Lewis
39:Background
1069:223106405
235:'O' grade
171:Reception
75:Chemistry
258:Sputnik
71:Physics
1100:
1067:
1052:18.2,
994:
973:
926:
883:
632:
555:
440:
419:
380:
341:
317:
139:. The
53:UNESCO
217:Notes
1098:ISBN
1065:OCLC
992:ISBN
971:ISBN
924:ISBN
881:ISBN
630:ISBN
553:ISBN
438:ISBN
417:ISBN
378:ISBN
339:ISBN
315:ISBN
199:GCSE
135:and
73:and
60:and
19:The
190:CSE
62:'A'
58:'O'
1137::
1111:.
1077:.
1048:.
958:^
887:,
844:,
811:^
775:,
719:^
641:^
624:,
613:^
540:^
483:^
471:^
287:,
126:.
934:.
891:.
563:.
448:.
274:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.