108:, who had been involved at all stages in the Association's Subcommittee and had been impressed by the science teaching he had seen in a tour of Russia. The hope was to improve British science teaching, and hence British industry, "by persuasion" where Russia had done so "by compulsion". In December the Nuffield Foundation agreed to fund the effort to improve science education in England and Wales, building on the Science Masters Association's work, but on its own terms, with an initial commitment of £250,000 for three working groups to develop outlines, textbooks, teachers' guides and classroom equipment for the teaching of physics, chemistry and biology to pupils aged 11–15, and the Minister of Education, Sir
178:. The teachers' guides outlining the class activities were explicitly described as "not a syllabus", but many teachers used them as a "bible". Particularly for physics, kits of apparatus for class experiments were developed in association with manufacturers; government money was readily available at the start of the project for schools to purchase equipment and improve their laboratories. Distinct Nuffield 'O' and 'A' level examinations were instituted, although they were originally intended only as a temporary measure.
133:. The initial focus on the course to 'O' level was extended to 'A' level and a Junior Science Project on primary school teaching was added by 1966; later in the 1960s Nuffield also began a Combined Science Project, a Secondary Science Project for pupils who would not take 'O' levels, the Nuffield Language Teaching Programme in modern languages, and programmes in mathematics, classics, and social studies. McGill died in March 1963 and was succeeded at the physics project by
166:: teaching "for understanding, not learning" in a manner that was both logical and based on experiments, with pupils "learning through doing", being 'a scientist for a day' and deriving scientific laws through 'guided discovery' rather than 'prov theory'. The project used an apocryphal Chinese proverb, "I listen and I forget, I see and I remember, I do and I understand" as a motto. Halliwell, the chemistry project organiser, has said that he was greatly influenced by Sir
66:
conference the previous year in
Hamburg and come away persuaded that science teaching, particularly in physics, needed to be brought up to date for the post-war atomic age and to become teaching "in and through science". Subject panels in physics, chemistry, biology and general science developed new
219:
Some early research suggested in particular that
Nuffield science was less suitable for girls than boys. This may be because girls reportedly dislike discovery teaching, but there are indications that teacher enthusiasm is more important, and a study in 1981 found no significant differences between
194:
provide a "grammar school education for all", and the first two years of
Nuffield physics and chemistry were found to be difficult even for able pupils. As a result, the Nuffield Combined Science course, derived from the three distinct science courses, was introduced in 1970 for pupils in the first
141:
was added as an assistant director of the foundation and coordinator of the project as a whole. In 1966 the development phase came to an end and teachers' guides, pupils' question books and other material were published in time for the school year starting in autumn 1967. Nuffield sponsored Area
223:
The fundamental criticism of the discovery approach as a whole is that it inaccurately presents science as "Sherlock Holmes in a white coat", with observation leading directly by induction to theory. A 1996 survey termed it "philosophically unsound and pedagogically unworkable"; children cannot
186:
Nuffield biology was not very popular. In chemistry and physics, the
Nuffield discovery approach was dominant by the 1970s and had a lasting influence, although more teachers used the materials than taught Nuffield science as the project developers had intended. At their peak of popularity, the
120:
For each of the three sciences, a working group was established headed by a full-time organiser, appointed for three years, and including a consultative committee of experts, and six or seven team leaders, expert teachers on one-year appointments who headed local groups of half a dozen science
280:
Another study in the same period analysed differences in familiarity and attitudes between "high adopters" and "low adopters" of
Nuffield chemistry; the percentage of "low adopters" 'using all or most' of the materials at the relevant level was in the 20s; Donnelly and Jenkins,
79:
in 1960. The Staff
Inspector for Science, R. A. R. Tricker, criticised the physics syllabus as overly theoretical and a year's practical trial of the material was conducted in 30 schools. The subcommittee then invited representatives from government and the Institutes of
248:
syllabus, published in 1963; Woolnough, pp. 95–96; and a
Scottish teachers' team developed the mechanics section for Nuffield physics; Jardine, pp. 172+. The Scottish Science for the 70s course was a rival to Nuffield Combined Science; Woolnough,
161:
Organisers were charged simply with creating "a coordinated set of materials, for use by teachers in any way they saw fit". The foundation also gave instructions to avoid public announcements or debates for two years. The approach taken in all three sciences was
203:
examination. Some teachers suggested that the practical work itself discouraged pupils from continuing with chemistry and physics after 'O' level. By the 1980s, with a greater emphasis on educating pupils of all abilities and the introduction of a
239:
Strictly speaking, the
Nuffield programme only applied to England and Wales; schools in Northern Ireland and Scotland were administered separately. However, immediately before joining the project Donald McGill had previously worked for the
262:
made a speech urging improvements to education so that
Britain would not be disadvantaged in the "white heat of the technological revolution"; cited in Alan Peacock, "The Emergence of Primary Science", in Amos and Boohan, eds.,
92:, where the consensus was that outside funding should be sought for a full process to develop curricula and teaching materials. The Nuffield Foundation had also been investigating the problem, and sponsored a meeting at
699:
According to research by R. B. Ingle in the early 1970s with a view to revising the chemistry materials, many chemistry teachers did not have time to read the handbook and simply used the
205:
154:
teachers' centres and specialist centres at teacher training institutions also provided training in
Nuffield methods; the project itself established the Centre for Science Education at
195:
two years of mixed-ability secondary schools; in 1980, 80% of schools were using this in some way. Its use of worksheets was emulated in other courses in the mid-1970s, such as the
356:, pp. 153–62, p. 153: "The new syllabus even included some physics since 1895. The latter came under criticism from HM Inspectorate as it suggested dogmatic teaching."
302:
28.3 (August 1984) 444–53, notes that the Physical Science Study Committee's reformed physics course in the United States had a similar focus on the most able students.
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224:
realistically reproduce the progression of scientific discovery. Another expert judged Nuffield to have incorporated some particularly "naive" versions of inductivism.
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212:, emphasis shifted from teaching theory to making science interesting and relevant and rewarding achievement. A revised version of Nuffield Combined Science,
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209:
142:
Committees, training of tutors to train teachers, television programmes on teaching Nuffield science, and two films showing actual chemistry classrooms:
155:
1086:"Reactions of Pupils to Nuffield Science Teaching Project Trial Materials in England at the Ordinary Level of the General Certificate of Education"
267:, pp. 71–81, p. 71. This was also an international concern, with science teaching reform in the US acquiring added impetus after
199:'s Insight to Science. In 1971 Nuffield Secondary Science was added; this was material from which teachers could develop a course for the Mode 3
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The project was developed primarily by academics and teachers in private and selective schools, in the context of the early objective of having
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Wellington, p. 56, citing D. Hodson, "Laboratory Work as Scientific Method: Three Decades of Confusion and Distortion",
1009:, pp. 276–97, p. 279, citing Judy Samuel, "Feminism and Science Teaching: Some Classroom Observations",
85:
1119:
220:
girls' and boys' performance on Nuffield 'O' levels, possibly because few teachers actually use "open-ended" methods.
631:
Sandra Amos and Richard Boohan, "The Changing Nature of Science Education", in Sandra Amos and Richard Boohan, eds.,
933:, ed. Jonathan Osborne and Justin Dillon, 2nd ed. Maidenhead / New York: McGraw Hill / The Open University, 2010,
170:, under whom he studied in the 1920s; another important influence was work in the United States, particularly the
58:) established a Science Teaching Subcommittee, later the Science and Education Subcommittee, led by its chairman,
187:
Nuffield 'O' and 'A' level examinations were still only taken by far fewer candidates than the traditional GCEs.
151:
558:
Rob Walker, "Getting Involved in Curriculum Research: A Personal History", in Martin Lawn and Len Barton, eds.,
122:
341:
101:
54:
In 1957, the Science Masters Association (later amalgamated with the Association of Women Science Teachers as
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42:. Although not intended as a curriculum, it gave rise to alternative national examinations, and its use of
163:
191:
443:
James F. Donnelly and Edgar W. Jenkins, "Guiding Teachers: The Nuffield Science Teaching Projects", in
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Social Pressures and Curriculum Innovation: A Study of the Nuffield Foundation Science Teaching Project
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Wonder and Delight: Essays in Science Education in honour of the life and work of Eric Rogers 1902–1990
130:
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39:
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Jerry Wellington, "Practical Work in Science: Time for a Re-Appraisal", in Amos and Boohan, eds.,
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17:
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Justin Dillon and Alex Manning, "Science Teachers, Science Teaching: Issues and Challenges", in
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teachers which would develop and test materials. The physics project was organised first, under
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562:, 1981, 2nd ed. Routledge Library Editions: Education 20, London / New York: Routledge, 2012,
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388:
349:
325:
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28.2, 115–35. The Sherlock Holmes descriptor is Wellington's own from an earlier paper.
35:
1039:
Rosalind Driver, "The Fallacy of Induction in Science Teaching", in Amos and Boohan, eds.,
725:, pp. 169–80, on development and testing of physics apparatus under Eric Rogers.
344:, "Eric Rogers and the Nuffield Physics Project", in Brenda Jennison and Jon Ogborn, eds.,
978:
Girls and Science: An International Study of Sex Differences in School Science Achievement
105:
258:
Concern for the competitiveness of British industry was widespread at the time; in 1963
134:
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1013:, pp. 247–56, and Jan Harding, "Sex Differences in Science Examinations",
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97:
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Jim Jardine, "Apparatus for the Inquiring Mind", in Jennison and Ogborn, eds.,
167:
1105:
Mathematics Curriculum: Issues, Trends, and Future Directions. 72nd Yearbook
838:
Joan Bliss, "Learning Science: Piaget and After", in Amos and Boohan, eds.,
34:
was a programme to develop a better approach to teaching science in British
1079:
1074:. Internal Report. Centre for Science Education, Chelsea College, 1978.
322:
Physics Teaching in Schools, 1960–85: Of People, Policy, and Power
1107:. Reston, Virginia: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2010.
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852:
783:
295:
268:
245:
63:
980:, IEA Monograph Studies 9, Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1978,
296:"Reform and the Physics Curriculum in Britain and the United States"
174:'s reformed physics course, with which Rogers had been involved at
112:, announced the plan in the House of Commons on 4 April 1962.
324:, Studies in Curriculum History 8, London/New York: Falmer, 1988,
1057:"The Introduction of New Science Curricula in England and Wales"
447:, London: Paul Chapman / Thousand Oaks, California: Sage, 2001,
703:, an example of how to construct a course; Waring, p. 214.
348:, Bristol/Philadelphia: Institute of Physics Publishing, 1994,
1001:, ed. Alison Kelly, Manchester: Manchester University, 1981,
997:
Alison Kelly, "Conclusion: Retrieving the Missing Half", in
931:
Good Practice in Science Teaching: What Research Has to Say
1092:
7.4 (December 1970) 283–302 (pdf, payment required).
842:, pp. 154–63, p. 155, citing a 1971 study.
216:, was published in 1986 reflecting this change in focus.
888:
Practical Work in Secondary Science: A Minds-On Approach
619:
Woolnough, pp. 103–04, with reference to physics.
853:"Enjoyment and Attainment in Secondary School Physics"
610:
Waring, pp. 131–32, with reference to chemistry.
1095:
David Rappaport. "The Nuffield Mathematics Project".
445:
Science Education: Policy, Professionalism and Change
208:
and replacement of the existing examinations by the
560:Rethinking Curriculum Studies: A Radical Approach
799:Woolnough, pp. 58–59, citing a 1976 study.
655:
653:
633:Teaching Science in Secondary Schools: A Reader
1099:71.6 (March 1971) 295–308; reprinted in
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999:The Missing Half: Girls and Science Education
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639:, London / New York: RoutledgeFalmer, 2002,
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784:"Process in Lower School Science Textbooks"
485:
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1162:Secondary education in the United Kingdom
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46:was influential in the 1960s and 1970s.
1157:Science education in the United Kingdom
1090:Journal of Research in Science Teaching
313:
232:
890:, London / New York: Continuum, 2011,
859:11.2 (1985) 123–32, p. 123.
385:A Biography of the Nuffield Foundation
1043:, pp. 133–39, p. 135.
77:Secondary Schools Examination Council
56:The Association for Science Education
7:
857:British Educational Research Journal
788:British Educational Research Journal
782:Douglas P. Newton and Richard Gott,
100:, in April 1961, and also consulted
1072:Girls and Science Education Project
663:, pp. 55–66, p. 56.
271:; Donnelly and Jenkins, p. 28.
158:, which was able to grant degrees.
75:levels which were presented to the
434:, pp. 2–3, 82–85.
125:; the chemistry project was under
25:
911:Woolnough, pp. 176–78.
790:15.3 (1989) 249–58, p. 258.
647:, pp. 3–21, p. 7.
62:, a physicist who had attended a
32:Nuffield Science Teaching Project
18:Nuffield Science Teaching Project
1120:"Background to Nuffield Science"
365:Woolnough, pp. 88–90.
244:and worked on their alternative
197:Inner London Education Authority
172:Physical Science Study Committee
129:, and the biology project under
755:Woolnough, pp. 54–55, 78.
104:, the senior science master at
96:hosted by the Head of Physics,
94:Battersea College of Technology
88:to a meeting in August 1961 at
1126:8.3 (1979) 223–37 (pdf).
1:
1028:Journal of Curriculum Studies
964:, 27 March 1975, p. 778.
242:Scottish Education Department
1061:Comparative Education Review
808:Donnelly and Jenkins, p. 34.
773:Donnelly and Jenkins, p. 37.
712:Woolnough, pp. 165–67.
601:Donnelly and Jenkins, p. 28.
501:Donnelly and Jenkins, p. 29.
477:Waring, pp. 86–87, 94.
300:Comparative Education Review
38:, under the auspices of the
1070:Jan Harding and Jan Craig.
956:"Is Science too Masculine?"
868:Woolnough, pp. 55–56.
817:Woolnough, pp. 33–36.
681:Woolnough, pp. 97–98.
510:Woolnough, pp. 96–98.
413:Woolnough, pp. 94–95.
116:History and characteristics
1178:
1067:(June 1974) 196–206.
570:, pp. 193–213,
537:Waring, pp. 195–203.
148:Chemistry by Investigation
1103:and Robert E. Reys, eds.
1097:Elementary School Journal
1017:, pp. 192–204.
426:, London: Methuen, 1979,
387:, London: Longman, 1972,
152:Local Education Authority
690:Woolnough, pp. 105, 107.
519:Lewis, pp. 156–57.
468:Clark, pp. 171–73.
455:, pp. 27–41,
404:Clark, pp. 170–71.
988:, pp. 14–15.
941:, pp. 6–19,
332:, pp. 87–88.
1065:What Do Children Know?
764:Amos and Boohan, p. 8.
27:Educational programmes
1152:Progressive education
192:comprehensive schools
1124:History of Education
1115:(CD-ROM attachment).
943:pp. 10–11
900:pp. 25–26
320:Brian E. Woolnough,
176:Princeton University
637:The Open University
206:national curriculum
144:Exploring Chemistry
40:Nuffield Foundation
1055:Bruce H. Choppin.
723:Wonder and Delight
44:discovery learning
1084:Dr. G. R. Meyer.
920:Woolnough, p. 60.
877:Woolnough, p. 59.
851:Anthony W. Pell,
829:Woolnough, p. 55.
746:Woolnough, p. 45.
737:Woolnough, p. 58.
383:Ronald W. Clark,
374:Woolnough, p. 93.
214:Nuffield 11 to 13
36:secondary schools
16:(Redirected from
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110:David Eccles
90:Barrow Court
67:syllabi for
53:
31:
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572:p. 193
249:p. 56.
139:John Maddox
98:Lewis Elton
1146:Categories
457:p. 27
309:References
283:p. 33
168:Percy Nunn
102:John Lewis
50:Background
1080:223106405
246:'O' grade
182:Reception
86:Chemistry
269:Sputnik
82:Physics
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150:. The
64:UNESCO
228:Notes
1109:ISBN
1076:OCLC
1003:ISBN
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641:ISBN
564:ISBN
449:ISBN
428:ISBN
389:ISBN
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326:ISBN
210:GCSE
146:and
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