324:, which is the tendency for people to overestimate the extent to which others share the same views. This bias has been cited as supporting the first two tenets of naïve realism. In the study, students were asked whether they would wear a sandwich-board sign, which said "Eat At Joe's" on it, around campus. Then they were asked to indicate whether they thought other students were likely to wear the sign, and what they thought about students who were either willing to wear it or not. The researchers found that students who agreed to wear the sign thought that the majority of students would wear the sign, and they thought that refusing to wear the sign was more revealing of their peers' personal attributes. Conversely, students who declined to wear the sign thought that most other students would also refuse, and that accepting the invitation was more revealing of certain personality traits.
374:. The game was introduced to subjects in one of two ways: it was either referred to as the "Wall Street Game" or as the "Community Game". The researchers found that students in the "Community Game" condition were twice as likely to cooperate, and that it did not seem to make a difference whether students were previously categorized as "cooperators" versus "defectors". This experiment demonstrated that the game's label exerted more power on how the students played the game than the subjects' personality traits. Furthermore, the study showed that the dorm advisors did not make sufficient allowances for
244:. According to Ichheiser, "We tend to resolve our perplexity arising out of the experience that other people see the world differently than we see it ourselves by declaring that these others, in consequence of some basic intellectual and moral defect, are unable to see things 'as they really are' and to react to them 'in a normal way'. We thus imply, of course, that things are in fact as we see them, and that our ways are the normal ways."
262:, or ways of looking at various issues. However, they are under the illusion that their judgments about the social world are objective. "This attitude, which has been aptly described as naive realism, sees no problem in the fact of perception or knowledge of the surroundings. Things are what they appear to be; they have just the qualities that they reveal to sight and touch," he wrote in his textbook
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345:, a massive killing of Palestinian refugees (Vallone, Lee Ross and Lepper, 1985). Researchers found that partisans from both sides perceived the coverage as being biased in favor of the opposite viewpoint, and believed that the people in charge of the news program held the ideological views of the opposite side.
423:. The students then were told that 70 to 80 percent of people fall prey to this bias. When asked about the accuracy of their self-assessments, 63 percent of the students argued that their ratings had been objective, while 13 percent of students indicated they thought their ratings had been too modest.
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students completed a questionnaire about various biases in social judgment. The participants indicated how susceptible they thought they were to these biases compared to the average student. The researchers found that the participants consistently believed that they were less likely to be biased than
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More empirical evidence for naïve realism came from psychologist
Elizabeth Newton's "musical tapping study" in 1990. For the study, participants were designated either as "tappers" or as "listeners". The tappers were told to tap out the rhythm of a well-known song, while the "listeners" were asked to
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The assumption that others' views are more extreme than they are, can create a barrier for conflict resolution. In a sidewalk survey conducted in the 1980s, pedestrians evaluated a nuclear arms' disarmament proposal (Stillinger et al., 1991). One group of participants was told that the proposal was
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When an individual does not share our views, the third tenet of naïve realism attributes this discrepancy to three possibilities. The individual either has been exposed to a different set of information, is lazy or unable to come to a rational conclusion, or is under a distorting influence such as
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watched a video of a heated football game between the two schools. Though they looked at the same footage, fans from both schools perceived the game very differently. The
Princeton students "saw" the Dartmouth team make twice as many infractions as their own team, and they also saw the team make
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and fellow psychologist Andrew Ward have outlined three interrelated assumptions, or "tenets", that make up naïve realism. They argue that these assumptions are supported by a long line of thinking in social psychology, along with several empirical studies. According to their model, people:
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their peers. In a follow-up study, students answered questions about their personal attributes (e.g. how considerate they were) compared to those of other students. The majority of students saw themselves as falling above average on most traits, which provided support for a
449:. For instance, in a study conducted by Robinson et al. in 1996, pro-life and pro-choice partisans greatly overestimated the extremity of the views of the opposite side, and also overestimated the influence of ideology on others in their own group.
370:, Liberman, and Samuels asked dorm resident advisors to nominate students to participate in a study, and to indicate whether those students were likely to cooperate or defect in the first round of the classic decision-making game called the
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twice as many infractions compared to what the
Dartmouth students saw. Dartmouth students viewed the game as being evenly-matched in violence, in which both sides were to blame. This study revealed that two groups perceived an event
466:. The researchers found that 90 percent of the participants who thought the proposal was from Reagan supported it, while only 44 percent in the Gorbachev group indicated their support. This provided support for a phenomenon called
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try to identify the song. While tappers expected that listeners would guess the tune around 50 percent of the time, the listeners were able to identify it only around 2.5 percent of the time. This provided support for a failure in
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according to their own needs and values, and make the assumption that those who interpret the event differently are biased. For a study in 1985, pro-Israeli and pro-Arab students were asked to watch real news coverage on the 1982
229:. In 1948, psychologists David Kretch and Richard Krutchfield argued that people perceive and interpret the world according to their "own needs, own connotations, own personality, own previously formed cognitive patterns".
91:, which is the idea that our senses allow us to perceive objects directly and without any intervening processes. Social psychologists in the mid-20th century argued against this stance and proposed instead that
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Fig. 1. Actual views (top), "circle's" perception of views (middle), "triangle's" perception of views (bottom). (Modeled after similar illustrations found in
Robinson et al., 1995, and Ross & Ward,
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bias or self-interest. This gives rise to a phenomenon called false polarization, which involves interpreting others' views as more extreme than they really are, and leads to a perception of greater
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Liberman, Varda; Samuels, Steven M.; Ross, Lee (2004). "The Name of the Game: Predictive Power of
Reputations versus Situational Labels in Determining Prisoner's Dilemma Game Moves".
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Naïve realism causes people to exaggerate differences between themselves and others. Psychologists believe that it can spark and exacerbate conflict, as well as create barriers to
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Robinson, Robert J.; Keltner, Dacher; Ward, Andrew; Ross, Lee (1995). "Actual versus assumed differences in construal: 'Naive realism' in intergroup perception and conflict".
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differences (see Fig. 1). People assume that they perceive the issue objectively, carefully considering it from multiple views, while the other side processes information in
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Vallone, Robert P.; Ross, Lee; Lepper, Mark R. (1985). "The hostile media phenomenon: Biased perception and perceptions of media bias in coverage of the Beirut massacre".
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Pronin, E., Puccio, C. T., & Ross, L. (2002). Understanding misunderstanding: Social psychological perspectives. In T. Gilovich, D. Griffin & D. Kahneman (Eds.),
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Ross, L., & Ward, A. (1996). Naive realism in everyday life: Implications for social conflict and misunderstanding. In T. Brown, E. S. Reed & E. Turiel (Eds.),
470:, which involves dismissing a concession from an adversary on the assumption that the concession is either motivated by self-interest or less valuable.
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Ross, Lee; Greene, David; House, Pamela (1977). "The "false consensus effect": An egocentric bias in social perception and attribution processes".
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Pronin, Emily; Gilovich, Thomas; Ross, Lee (2004). "Objectivity in the eye of the beholder: divergent perceptions of bias in self versus others".
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Expect that others will come to the same conclusions, so long as they are exposed to the same information and interpret it in a rational manner.
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Asch, S. E. (1940). "Studies in the
Principles of Judgments and Attitudes: II. Determination of Judgments by Group and by Ego Standards".
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on the side of the tappers, and an overestimation of the extent to which others would share in "hearing" the song as it was tapped.
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biases in others while failing to recognize the impact of bias on the self. In a study conducted by Pronin, Lin, and Ross (2002),
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Griffin, D., & Ross, L. (1991). Subjective construal, social inference, and human misunderstanding. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.),
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Keltner, Dacher; Robinson, Robert J. (1993). "Imagined
Ideological Differences in Conflict Escalation and Resolution".
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Pronin, Emily; Lin, Daniel Y.; Ross, Lee (2002). "The Bias Blind Spot: Perceptions of Bias in Self Versus Others".
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820:". International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. 1968. Retrieved November 17, 2015 from Encyclopedia.com
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Molouki, S., & Pronin, E. (2015). Self and other. In E. Borgida & J. A. Bargh (Eds.),
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Psychology of Legitimacy: Emerging Perspectives on Ideology, Justice, and Intergroup Relations
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Several prominent social psychologists have studied naïve realism experimentally, including
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50 Great Myths of
Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions About Human Behavior.
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History of Social
Psychology: Insights, Challenges, and Contributions to Theory and Application
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Lewin, Kurt (1939). "Field Theory and Experiment in Social Psychology: Concepts and Methods".
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Assume that others who do not share the same views must be ignorant, irrational, or biased.
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Ross, Lee (2014). "Barriers to agreement in the asymmetric Israeli–Palestinian conflict".
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Liberman, V.; et al. (2011). "Naïve realism and capturing the "wisdom of dyads"".
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Ross, L., & Ward, A. (1995). Psychological barriers to dispute resolution.
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Hastorf, Albert H.; Cantril, Hadley (1954). "They saw a game; a case study".
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that ... represent important, indeed foundational, contributions of
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Misunderstandings in Human Relations: A study in false social perception
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Believe that they see the world objectively and without bias.
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Naïve realism provides a theoretical basis for several other
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Reactive Devaluation in Negotiation and Conflict Resolution.
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Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment.
462:, while others thought the proposal came from Soviet leader
38:, and that people who disagree with us must be uninformed,
283:, which was published in a paper in 1954, students from
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One consequence of naïve realism is referred to as the
188:. Field theory proposes that a person's behavior is a
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and his colleagues in the 1990s. It is related to the
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demonstrates that partisans can view neutral events
658:(pp. 319–359). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
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19:For the view in the philosophy of perception, see
884:APA Handbook of Personality and Social Psychology
1145:Social Cognition: Understanding Self and Others
210:argued that children view the world through an
935:, Supplement to the September issue, pp. 1–72.
997:The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology
316:and colleagues provided early evidence for a
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1298:International Journal of Conflict Management
1067:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
768:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
705:An Introduction to the History of Psychology
236:expanded on this idea, noting how biases in
1161:Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
645:(pp. 103–135). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
102:, Andrew Ward, Dale Griffin, Emily Pronin,
1319:Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
1226:Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
1110:Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
656:Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
217:In the 1940s and 1950s, early pioneers in
190:function of the person and the environment
177:. Lewin's ideas were strongly informed by
1277:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
1242:Chichester, West Sussex; Wiley-Blackwell.
1040:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
800:Gestalt psychology. (2015). In
196:and thus distinct from physical reality.
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1386:Pinter & Martin Publishers.
947:The Journal of Social Psychology
732:Ross, L.; Lepper, M.; Ward, A.,
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332:A phenomenon referred to as the
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1210:Barriers to Conflict Resolution
888:Attitudes and Social Cognition.
254:who was also brought up in the
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832:American Journal of Sociology
738:Handbook of Social Psychology
677:An Introduction to Philosophy
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1368:10.1080/17467586.2014.970565
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1052:10.1016/0022-1031(77)90049-x
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300:of the event was blinded by
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890: Washington, DC: APA.
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72:The term, as it is used in
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312:A 1977 study conducted by
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511:List of cognitive biases
927:Ichheiser, G. (1949). "
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703:Hergenhahn, B. (2008).
349:"Musical tapping" study
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972:Asch, Solomon (1952).
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675:Nuttall, John (2002).
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308:False consensus effect
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744:Hoboken, N.J: Wiley.
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453:Reactive devaluation
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169:tradition in modern
1433:1990s introductions
1204:Ross, Lee (1995). "
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804:. Retrieved from
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596:False-belief task
586:Confirmation bias
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