2046:
Athenaeus himself was killed. The
Antigonids had deployed no scouts, a failure that Diodorus ascribes to Athenaeus's failure to anticipate the rapidity of the Nabataean response. After the Nabataeans returned to their rock, they wrote a letter to Antigonus accusing Athenaeus and declaring that they had destroyed the Antigonid army in self-defence. Antigonus replied by blaming Athenaeus for acting unilaterally, intending to lull the Nabataeans into a false sense of security. But the Nabataeans, though pleased with Antigonus response, remained suspicious and established outposts on the edge of the mountains in preparation for future Antigonid attacks.
2162:'s account (whose description of Arabia derives ultimately from reports by 3rd century BC Ptolemaic officials) that the Nabataean kingship was old and traditional. In conclusion, Rachel Barkay states that "the Nabataean economy and political regime were in existence by the third century BC". The kingship of the Nabataeans was, in the view of Strabo, an effective one, where the Nabataean kingdom was "very well governed" and the king was "a man of the people". For more than four centuries the Nabataean kingdom dominated, politically and commercially, a large territory and was arguably the first Arab kingdom in the area.
2158:, provides further evidence. The relevant part of the Lithika section of the papyrus describes an Arabian cavalry of a certain Nabataean king, providing an early 3rd century BC reference to a Nabataean monarch. The word Nabataean stands alone beside a missing word that start with the letter M; one of the suggested words for filling the gap is the traditional name of Nabataean kings, Malichus. Furthermore, the anonymous Nabataean coins dated by Barkay to the second half of the 3rd century BC, found mainly in Nabataean territory, support such an early date of the Nabataean Kingdom. This is in line with
2070:"the rock" through its "single artificial approach", but the Nabataeans managed to repulse the invading force. A Nabataean called out to Demetrius pointing out that Antigonid aggression made no sense, for the land was semi-barren and the Nabataeans had no desire to be their slaves. Realizing his limited supplies and the determination of the Nabataean fighters, Demetrius eventually was forced to accept peace, and withdraw with hostages and gifts. Demetrius drew Antigonus's displeasure for the peace, but this was ameliorated by Demetrius's reports of
50:
2263:. This tribe was clearly not Nabataean, for they were identified as the sons of Amrai. In Bowersock's view, the interpretation of the evidence in the Books of Maccabees "illustrates the danger of assuming that any reference to Arabs in areas known to have been settled by the Nabataeans must automatically refer to them". But the picture is different, many Arab tribes in the region continued to be nomadic and moved in and out of the emerging Nabataean kingdom, and the Nabataeans, as well as invading armies and eventually the
1966:
306:
1933:'s generals, who had a first-hand encounter with the Nabataeans. Diodorus relates how the Nabataeans survived in a waterless desert and managed to defeat their enemies by hiding in the desert until the latter surrendered for lack of water. The Nabataeans dug cisterns that were covered and marked by signs known only to themselves. Diodorus wrote about how they were "exceptionally fond of freedom" and includes an account about unsuccessful raids that were initiated by
332:
2151:
existence of
Nabataean monarchy until the second century BC. This nameless Nabataean king perhaps could be linked with a reference from the Zenon archive (the second historical mention of the Nabataeans) to deliveries of grain to "Rabbel's men", Rabbel being a characteristically royal Nabataean name, it is thus possible to link Rabbel of the Zenon archive with the nameless king of Bosra's inscription, though it is highly speculative.
2050:
1866:
2426:
2290:
2187:
2310:
2119:
2085:, to extract bitumen from the Dead Sea. A force of 6000 Arabs sailing on reed rafts approached Hieronymus's troops and killed them with arrows. These Arabs were almost certainly Nabataeans. Antigonus thus lost all hope of generating revenue in that manner. The event is described as the first conflict caused by a Middle Eastern petroleum product.
2142:". Simultaneously, the Nabataeans had probably moved across the 'Araba to the west into the desert tracts of the Negev. In their early history, before establishing urban centers, the Nabataeans demonstrated on several occasions their impressive and well organized military prowess by successfully defending their territory against larger powers.
2041:
interpreted by some as the future city of "Petra", "rock" in Greek.) The
Antigonids attacked "the rock" in 312 BC while the Nabataeans were away trading; the inhabitants were taken by surprise and tonnes of spices and silver were looted. The Antigonids departed before nightfall and made camp to rest 200
2221:
mentions a
Nabataean king called Aretas; the date given by Starcky is not later than 150 BC. However, the dating is difficult. It has been claimed that the inscription dates to the 3rd century BC, based on the pre-Nabataean writing style, or somewhere in the 2nd century BC. Generally, the inscription
2069:
to warn of the approaching
Antigonid army. The Nabataeans dispersed their herds and possessions to guarded locations in harsh terrain - such as deserts and mountain tops - which would be difficult for the Antigonids to attack, and garrisoned "the rock" to defend what remained. The Antigonids attacked
2150:
tribe. The earliest evidence of
Nabataean kingship comes from a Nabataean inscription in the Hauran region, probably Bosra, which mentions a Nabataean king whose name was lost, dated by Stracky to the early third century BC. The dating is significant, since the available evidence does not attest the
2145:
The second phase saw the creation of the
Nabataean political state in the mid-3rd century BC. Kingship is regarded as a characteristic of a state and urban society. The Nabataean institution of kingship came about as a result of multiple factors, such as the indispensabilities of trade organization
2610:
The Zenon archive mentions
Dionysius, one of two Greek employees who sought an alternative career of selling women as sex slaves, he was once detained by the Nabataeans for a week during one of his expeditions. Considering what is known of the Nabtaean society's remarkable gender equality at later
2254:
seems to contradict a parallel account from the second book where a pastoral Arab tribe launched a surprise attack on the two brothers. Despite open contradiction between the two accounts, scholars tend to identify the plundering Arab tribe of the second book with the
Nabataeans in the first book.
2245:
report that Judas
Maccabeus and his brother Jonathan marched three days into the wilderness before encountering the Nabataeans in the Hauran, where they were settled in for at least a century. The Nabataeans treated them peacefully and told them of what happened to the Jews residing in the land of
2099:
Diodorus mentions that the Nabataeans had attacked merchant ships belonging to the Ptolemies in Egypt at an unspecified date, but were soon targeted by a larger force and "punished as they deserved". While it is unknown why the wealthy Nabataeans turned to piracy, one possible reason is that they
1884:
The literate Nabataeans left no lengthy historical texts. However, thousands of inscriptions have been found in their settlements, including graffiti and on minted coins. The Nabataeans appear in historical records from the fourth century BC, although there seems to be evidence of their existence
2170:
world. While the Nabataeans didn't attain observable characteristics of a Hellenistic state (i.e. monumental architecture) in their early period, similar to contemporary Seleucid Syria, the Milan papyrus speaks of their wealth and prestige in this period. In that respect, the Nabataeans must be
2045:
away, where they thought they would be safe from Nabataean counter-attack. The camp was attacked by 8000 pursuing Nabataean soldiers and - as Diodorus describes it - "all the 4000 foot-soldiers were slain, but of the 600 horsemen about fifty escaped, and of these the larger part were wounded";
2040:
Antigonus ordered one of his officers, Athenaeus, to raid the Nabataeans with 4000 infantry and 600 cavalry, and loot herds and processions. Athenaeus learned that, every year, the Nabataeans gathered for a festival, during which women, children, and elders were left at "a certain rock" (later
2133:
The Nabataean Arabs did not emerge as a political power suddenly; their rise instead went through two phases. The first phase was in the 4th century BC (ruled then by an elders' council), which was marked by the growth of Nabataean control over trade routes and various tribes and towns. Their
2209:
for "openly demonstrating pro-Ptolemaic stand" (in Hammond's view however, Aretas hoped to use Jason as a political bargaining counter with the Seleucids), arrested Jason. Or his imprisonment might have happened at a later date (167 BC), as a result of the established friendship between the
2205:, driven by his rival Menelaus, sought the protection of Aretas. Upon his arrival at the land of the Nabataeans, Aretas imprisoned Jason. It is not clear why or when that happened; his arrest by Aretas was either after he escaped Jerusalem, where Aretas, fearing the retaliation of
1913:
joined the failed revolt, and consequently lost significant territory and their privileged position in the frankincense trade, and were presumably replaced by the Nabataeans. It has been argued that the Persians lost interest in the former territory of the
2175:
2255:
They were evidently not Nabataeans, for good relations between the Maccabees and their "friends", the Nabataeans, continued to exist. The friendly relations between them is further emphasized by Jonathan's decision to send his brother
2451:
died. That might have prompted the official annexation of Nabatea to the Roman Empire, but the formal reasons and the exact manner of annexation are unknown. Some epigraphic evidence suggests a military campaign, commanded by
1774:
and moved with their herds to wherever they could find pasture and water. They became familiar with their area as seasons passed, and they struggled to survive during bad years when seasonal rainfall diminished.
2165:
The testimony of the 4th and 3rd century external accounts and local materialistic evidence demonstrate that the Nabataeans played a relatively substantial political and economic role in the sphere of the early
4096:
2373:
After the Nabataean victory over the Judaeans, the former were now at odds with the Seleucids, who were concerned about the increasing influence of the Nabataeans to the south of their territories. During the
5055:
5050:
1850:
Unlike the rest of the Arabian tribes, the Nabataeans later emerged as vital players in the region during their times of prosperity. However, their influence then faded, and the Nabataeans were forgotten.
2134:
presence in Transjordan by the end of the fourth century BC is guaranteed by Antigonus's operations in the region, and despite recent suggestions that there is no evidence of Nabataean occupation of the
2382:
waged war against the Nabataeans. Antiochus was slain during combat, and his army fled and perished in the desert from starvation. After Obodas's victories over the Judaeans and the Seleucids, he was
1646:
4089:
2494:, the local issue of coinage came to an end. There was no more building of sumptuous tombs, apparently because of a sudden change in political ways, such as an invasion by the neo-
2259:
to "lodge his baggage" with the Nabataeans until the battle with the Seleucids is over. Again, the Maccabean caravan suffered an attack by a murderer Arab tribe in the vicinity of
2138:
in the early period, the Zenon papyri firmly attest the penetration of the Hauran by the Nabataeans in the mid-third century BC beyond all doubt, and according to Bowersock, it "
1918:
after 400 BC, allowing the Nabataeans to gain prominence in that area. All of these changes would have allowed Nabataeans to control the frankincense trade from Dedan to Gaza.
3749:
Milik, J.T. (2003), "Appendice, inscription nabatéenne archaïque. Une bilingue arameo-grecque de 105/104 avant J.-C.", in J. Dentzer-Feydy; J.-M. Dentzer; P.-M. Blanc (eds.),
3668:
Jews, Idumaeans, and Ancient Arabs: Relations of the Jews in Eretz-Israel with the Nations of the Frontier and the Desert During the Hellenistic and Roman Era (332 BCE-70 CE)
2611:
time, it is likely that they were objecting to the treatment of women in their area, for whom they believed they were responsible in the course of maintaining law and order.
1639:
5075:
4082:
1786:, but their deities, language and script share nothing with those of southern Arabia. Another hypothesis argues that they came from the eastern coast of the peninsula.
2201:
as "the tyrant of the Arabs" (169-168 BC), is regarded as the first explicitly named king of the Nabataeans. His first appearance in history is in II Macc., where the
1819:
The Nabataeans might have originated from there and migrated west between the 6th and 4th centuries BC into northwestern Arabia and much of what is now modern-day
1724:
The Nabataean Kingdom controlled many of the trade routes of the region, amassing large wealth and drawing the envy of its neighbors. It stretched south along the
3767:
1632:
3961:. Vol. 2 of the International Conference, The World of the Herods and the Nabataeans, Held at the British Museum, 17–19 April 2001. Franz Steiner Verlag.
1831:, were associated by some with the Nabataeans because of the temptation to link their similar names. Another misconception is their identification with the
2317:
The Nabataeans were allies of the Maccabees during their struggles against the Seleucid monarchs. They then became rivals of their successors, the Judaean
2017:. The Nabataeans were distinguished from the other Arab tribes by wealth. The Nabataeans generated revenues from the trade caravans that transported
49:
2402:
1860:
1789:
The suggestion that they came from the Hejaz area is considered to be more convincing, as they share many deities with the ancient people there;
69:
3966:
3945:
3924:
3903:
3837:
3816:
3786:
3739:
3718:
3697:
3676:
3634:
3543:
3439:
3353:
3325:
2270:
The Nabataeans began to mint coins during the second century BC, revealing the extensive economic and political independence they enjoyed.
2413:, which conquered Egypt and annexed Hasmonean Judea. While the Nabataean kingdom managed to preserve its formal independence, it became a
4742:
2586:
2572:
in southern Arabia, and ran through Mada'in Saleh to Petra. From there, aromatics were distributed throughout the Mediterranean region.
2237:
had maintained a friendly relationship, the former had sympathized with the Maccabees, who were being mistreated by the Seleucids. The
5019:
2453:
1778:
The precise origin of the specific tribe of Arab nomads remains uncertain. One hypothesis locates their original homeland in today's
3655:
3420:
3384:
2690:
4058:
2146:
and war; the subsequent outcomes of the Greek expeditions on the Nabataeans played a role in the political centralization of the
2464:. It is clear that by 107 AD Roman legions were stationed in the area around Petra and Bosra, as is shown by a papyrus found in
5070:
5045:
4029:
1823:. Nabataeans have been falsely associated with other groups of people. A people called the "Nabaiti", who were defeated by the
598:
2214:, aimed to hand Jason to the Jews. "Either suggestion is feasible and so the riddle remains unresolved", according to Kasher.
281:
267:
253:
5065:
3462:
2106:
1278:
4106:
843:
3983:
Benjamin, Jesse. "Of Nubians and Nabateans: Implications of research on neglected dimensions of ancient world history."
4963:
4737:
1954:
1934:
773:
1739:
Nabataea remained an independent political entity from the mid-3rd century BC until it was annexed in AD 106 by the
4118:
2530:
2326:
1965:
3992:
Judaea and the Greco-Roman World In the Time of Herod In the Light of Archaeological Evidence: Acts of a Symposium
2362:. These territorial acquisitions threatened Nabataean trade interests in Gaza and in Damascus. The Nabataean King
2339:
before shipment to European markets, giving the Nabataeans considerable influence over the Gazans. Hasmonean King
4009:
1938:
2824:
5085:
2550:
2198:
2088:
The series of wars among the Greek generals ended in a dispute over the lands of modern-day Jordan between the
1522:
4048:
3731:
The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India
4221:
2581:
2251:
2054:
1268:
152:
4074:
2457:
2206:
2062:
1373:
1318:
2472:. Trade seems to have largely continued thanks to the Nabataeans' undiminished talent for trading. Under
2061:
The Antigonids' second attack was with an army of 4000 infantry and 4000 cavalry led by Antigonus's son,
4767:
4715:
4364:
3955:
Wenning, Robert (2007). "The Nabataeans in History (Before AD 106).". In Konstantinos D. Politis (ed.).
1363:
2273:
Petra was included in a list of major cities in the Mediterranean area to be visited by a notable from
2202:
1957:
have been able to enslave them, and... they never brought their attempts to a successful conclusion. -
4839:
4833:
4379:
3348:. Vol. 1. Trans. G. A. Williamson 1959. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin. p. 40.
2347:
2082:
1990:
1926:
1915:
1507:
1388:
1877:
was the last stop for caravans carrying spices before being shipped to European markets through the
4902:
4864:
4710:
2556:
Raqmu, now called Petra, was a wealthy trading town, located at a convergence of several important
1930:
1809:
1718:
1597:
913:
608:
4953:
3880:
3872:
3608:
3600:
3520:
2340:
1303:
1068:
953:
813:
538:
473:
125:
893:
1816:
as one of several rebellious Arab tribes in the region, suggests a connection between the two.
5060:
4943:
4651:
4126:
3962:
3941:
3935:
3920:
3899:
3864:
3833:
3812:
3782:
3776:
3761:
3735:
3714:
3708:
3693:
3672:
3651:
3630:
3620:
3592:
3539:
3458:
3452:
3435:
3416:
3380:
3349:
3321:
2686:
2491:
2461:
2318:
2100:
felt that their trade interests were threatened by the gradual understanding of the nature of
2089:
1794:
1783:
1664:
1413:
1258:
863:
503:
493:
483:
224:
192:
106:
3914:
3827:
3806:
3798:
Contextualizing the Nabataeans: A Critical Reassessment of Their History and Material Culture
3729:
3687:
3666:
3645:
3370:
4978:
4948:
4922:
4752:
4530:
4493:
3856:
3584:
3565:
2546:
2510:
2367:
2211:
2002:
1978:
1922:
1801:
1678:
1567:
1563:
1552:
1533:
1178:
1158:
1078:
873:
753:
678:
668:
618:
548:
448:
398:
112:
331:
5080:
5040:
4993:
4988:
4983:
4933:
4330:
4293:
4184:
3491:
The rise of the Nabataeans: sociopolitical developments in 4th and 3rd century BC Nabataea
2522:
2499:
2448:
1946:
1906:
1813:
1503:
1473:
1333:
1238:
1228:
1138:
1118:
1008:
943:
903:
883:
793:
718:
708:
658:
628:
568:
558:
438:
388:
165:
2096:
based in Syria. The conflict enabled the Nabataeans to extend their kingdom beyond Edom.
1989:
After Alexander the Great's death in 323 BC, his empire split among his generals. During
698:
4043:
5014:
4914:
4747:
4504:
4414:
4374:
4206:
4146:
2478:
2469:
2438:
2406:
2375:
2049:
2042:
2010:
1865:
1771:
1744:
1578:
1488:
1432:
1208:
1098:
1028:
728:
299:
2433:, at its greatest extent, showing the territory of Trajan's Nabataean conquests in red
2409:
supremacy over Nabataea. The Nabataean kingdom was slowly surrounded by the expanding
2405:
besieged Petra. The defeated king Aretas III paid a tribute to Scaurus and recognized
2277:, a sign of the significance of Nabataea in the ancient world. Petra was counted with
5034:
4819:
4663:
4429:
4288:
3884:
3612:
2561:
2487:
2379:
2155:
1974:
1898:
1458:
963:
823:
4625:
4458:
4918:
4910:
4631:
4499:
4482:
4389:
4325:
4136:
2569:
2430:
2414:
2410:
2264:
2066:
2034:
2018:
1878:
1836:
1828:
1740:
1462:
933:
688:
206:
3997:
Kropp, Andreas J. M. "Nabatean Petra: the royal palace and the Herod connection."
3956:
3893:
3624:
3554:
3533:
2676:
4782:
4693:
4683:
4539:
4468:
4399:
4394:
4271:
4246:
2557:
2336:
2301:, which reused elements of a temple built by the Nabataeans to commemorate king
2167:
1870:
1805:
1322:
1088:
998:
783:
638:
588:
17:
3751:
Hauran II: Les Installations de Sī 8 du Sanctuaire à l'Etablissement Viticole I
4938:
4870:
4851:
4668:
4436:
4266:
4176:
4131:
2682:
2398:
2383:
2289:
2278:
2256:
2238:
2122:
1970:
1902:
1886:
1761:
1714:
1608:
1248:
1218:
1048:
853:
418:
258:
137:
3868:
3707:
Levy, Thomas Evan; Daviau, P.M. Michele; Younker, Randall W. (16 June 2016).
3596:
3575:
Hammond, Philip C. (1959). "The Nabataean Bitumen Industry at the Dead Sea".
2397:
The kingdom seems to have reached its territorial zenith during the reign of
84:
71:
4998:
4928:
4856:
4794:
4787:
4762:
4678:
4673:
4544:
4515:
4409:
4369:
4231:
3376:
2526:
2425:
2332:
2234:
2227:
2186:
2179:
2174:
2093:
2014:
1593:
1548:
1518:
1443:
1428:
833:
803:
648:
408:
348:
286:
4698:
4587:
4563:
2482:
ignored most of the Nabatæan territory and ran northeast from Aila (modern
1925:
who lived around 30 BC. Diodorus refers accounts made 300 years earlier by
3710:
Crossing Jordan: North American Contributions to the Archaeology of Jordan
2366:
regained control of these areas after his forces defeated Jannaeus in the
2140:
establish these Arabs in one of the principal areas of subsequent splendor
4885:
4845:
4657:
4643:
4487:
4447:
4441:
4354:
4195:
4189:
4141:
3341:
2363:
2351:
2302:
2242:
2223:
2194:
2075:
2065:"the Besieger". The Nabataean scouts spotted the marching enemy and used
2057:. Roman copy from 1st century AD of a Greek original from 3rd century BC.
2026:
1910:
1832:
1812:
period, as well as a group with the name of "Nabatu" being listed by the
1733:
1377:
1148:
1108:
1058:
1018:
923:
578:
528:
428:
188:
3524:
2343:
besieged and occupied Gaza in 96 BC, murdering many of its inhabitants.
4973:
4772:
4604:
4573:
4511:
4463:
4419:
4384:
4320:
4256:
4251:
4211:
4201:
3876:
3604:
2506:
2473:
2309:
2250:. This peaceful meeting between the Nabataeans and two brothers in the
2118:
2101:
2071:
1921:
The first historical reference to the Nabataeans is by Greek historian
1890:
1844:
1840:
1824:
1767:
1725:
1537:
1447:
1417:
1352:
1198:
1188:
1168:
1128:
1038:
973:
763:
378:
132:
2513:, grew in importance and attracted the Arabian trade away from Petra.
1893:
must have been established before 363 B.C. after the failed revolt of
4958:
4890:
4880:
4875:
4814:
4809:
4721:
4688:
4614:
4568:
4549:
4477:
4404:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4335:
4305:
4299:
4276:
4166:
4161:
4151:
4110:
3754:
3567:
The History of the Israelites and Judæans: Philosophical and Critical
2538:
2444:
2359:
2322:
2274:
2260:
2247:
2233:
Around the same time, the Arab Nabataeans and the neighboring Jewish
2159:
2147:
2135:
2078:, a valuable commodity that was essential for the embalming process.
1994:
1820:
1612:
1492:
1348:
358:
272:
3860:
3775:
Mills, Watson E.; Bullard, Roger Aubrey; McKnight, Edgar V. (1990).
3588:
2394:, where inscriptions have been found referring to "Obodas the god".
2281:, which was considered to be a supreme city in the civilized world.
3556:
The Process of Nabataean Sedentarization: New Models and Approaches
4824:
4804:
4799:
4777:
4727:
4703:
4609:
4597:
4592:
4557:
4534:
4453:
4424:
4359:
4315:
4261:
4241:
2565:
2542:
2534:
2483:
2468:. The kingdom was annexed by the empire to become the province of
2465:
2391:
2387:
2308:
2298:
2294:
2218:
2185:
2173:
2126:
2117:
2030:
2022:
1982:
1964:
1950:
1894:
1874:
1864:
1779:
1729:
1582:
1337:
1307:
63:
2827:, Loeb Classical Library edition, 1954, accessed 27 December 2019
4757:
4732:
4581:
4525:
4520:
4310:
4283:
4236:
4226:
4216:
4156:
3092:
3090:
2495:
2355:
2029:
in today's Yemen, across the Arabian peninsula, passing through
1998:
1793:, the root consonant of the tribe's name, is found in the early
1477:
4078:
4619:
2986:
2984:
1702:
3937:
Dividing the Spoils: The War for Alexander the Great's Empire
3847:
Starcky, Jean (1955). "The Nabataeans: A Historical Sketch".
3689:
Images and Monuments of Near Eastern Dynasts, 100 BC - AD 100
3415:
Taylor, Jane; Petra; p.25-31; Aurum Press Ltd; London; 2005;
2313:
Aretas III on a Roman coin, depicted in a pose of submission
4015:
del Rio Sánchez, Francisco, and Juan Pedro Monferrer Sala.
2911:
2909:
2907:
2905:
2903:
2521:
The Nabataean Kingdom was situated between the Arabian and
2401:(87 to 62 BC). In 62 BC, a Roman army under the command of
1705:
1693:
3299:
3297:
3295:
3293:
3280:
3278:
3276:
2866:
2864:
2862:
2860:
2460:. Roman forces seem to have come from Syria and also from
2305:
and his victories against the Hasmoneans and the Seleucids
1885:
before that time. Aramaic ostraca finds indicate that the
3511:
Barkay, Rachel (2011). "The Earliest Nabataean Coinage".
3498:
Barkay, Rachel (2015). "NEW ASPECTS OF NABATAEAN COINS".
3434:
Teller, Matthew; Jordan; p.265; Rough Guides; Sept 2009;
2125:
was carved into rock by the Nabataeans in their capital,
1687:
5056:
States and territories disestablished in the 2nd century
5051:
States and territories established in the 3rd century BC
3626:
The Nabataeans -- their history, culture and archaeology
3150:
3148:
3065:
3063:
3061:
3059:
2926:
2924:
1993:
between Alexander's generals, Antigonus I conquered the
3215:
3213:
3211:
3123:
3121:
3119:
3117:
2971:
2969:
2967:
2965:
2963:
2835:
2833:
2717:
2715:
2713:
2711:
2709:
2645:
2643:
2641:
2639:
2637:
2635:
2633:
2631:
2629:
2627:
2321:, and a chief element in the disorders which invited
2104:
in the Red Sea from the third century BC onward (see
1736:, which it controlled for a short period (85–71 BC).
1684:
1681:
2769:
1699:
1690:
5007:
4901:
4642:
4175:
4117:
2226:of II Macc., or perhaps as suggested by others, to
1696:
220:
203:
185:
175:
161:
151:
143:
131:
121:
100:
59:
32:
2335:was the last stop for spices that were carried by
4017:Nabatu: The Nabataeans through their Inscriptions
3559:. Department of Anthropology, University of Utah.
3372:Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire
3139:
2007:the land of the Arabs who are called Nabataeans
1943:
3994:. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1996.
3190:
3096:
3002:
2990:
2670:
2668:
2666:
2664:
2662:
2660:
2658:
2564:which was based around the production of both
2346:Jannaeus then captured several territories in
2081:Antigonus sent an expedition, this time under
1766:The Nabataeans were one among several nomadic
27:Ancient Arab kingdom (3rd century BC – 106 AD)
4090:
2529:kingdom, and its south western neighbour was
2443:In 106 AD, during the reign of Roman emperor
1640:
8:
4068:showing the outposts that made up Hadrian's
3916:Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans
3647:The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus
2678:Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans
54:The Nabataean Kingdom at its greatest extent
4019:. Barcelona: University of Barcelona, 2005.
4097:
4083:
4075:
3800:(PhD). University of California, Berkeley.
3766:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2942:
2915:
2894:
2509:, for a time the capital of the breakaway
1647:
1633:
321:
48:
29:
3430:
3428:
3411:
3409:
3407:
3405:
3403:
3303:
3284:
3108:
3026:
3014:
2870:
2757:
2447:, the last king of the Nabataean kingdom
1997:, and this brought him to the borders of
5076:Political entities in the Land of Israel
3895:Near Eastern royalty and Rome, 100-30 BC
3178:
2424:
2288:
2048:
3728:McLaughlin, Raoul (11 September 2014).
3267:
3202:
3069:
2930:
2820:
2818:
2816:
2814:
2812:
2810:
2721:
2623:
2603:
2490:. A century later, during the reign of
324:
3759:
3255:
3243:
3219:
3166:
3154:
3127:
2975:
2954:
2882:
2839:
2808:
2806:
2804:
2802:
2800:
2798:
2796:
2794:
2792:
2790:
2781:
2745:
2733:
2649:
2154:A recent papyrological discovery, the
3934:Waterfield, Robin (11 October 2012).
3805:Salibi, Kamal S. (15 December 1998).
3686:Kropp, Andreas J. M. (27 June 2013).
3231:
3081:
3050:
3038:
2851:
2350:north of Nabataea, along the road to
2267:also, had to cope with these people.
202:
184:
174:
170:
150:
7:
3985:Journal of Asian and African Studies
2386:by his people. He was buried in the
2001:, just north of Petra. According to
325:Historical Arab states and dynasties
3320:. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
1953:and Persians, nor yet those of the
5020:Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions
4105:Ancient states and regions in the
3990:Fittschen, Klaus, and G Foerster.
2825:Diodorus Siculus, Book XIX, 95-100
2770:Mills, Bullard & McKnight 1990
2037:for shipment to European markets.
1861:Antigonid–Nabataean confrontations
25:
3489:Al-Abduljabbar, Abdullah (1995).
2525:. Its northern neighbour was the
2114:Creation of the Nabataean Kingdom
2009:" to his existing territories of
1713:), was a political state of the
1677:
746:Western dynasties and caliphates
330:
304:
279:
265:
251:
3898:. University of Toronto Press.
3451:Greenfield, Jonas Carl (2001).
3140:Levy, Daviau & Younker 2016
2541:, and it included the towns of
2293:Remains of Byzantine church at
2217:A Nabataean inscription in the
3778:Mercer Dictionary of the Bible
3369:Ball, Warwick (10 June 2016).
2533:. Its capital was the city of
2107:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
1869:Trading routes of the ancient
1804:dialect and the ones found in
1:
3796:Pearson, Jeffrey Eli (2011).
2417:under the influence of Rome.
1949:of old, nor the kings of the
4272:Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia
4049:Resources in other libraries
3832:. Harvard University Press.
3808:The Modern History of Jordan
3538:. Harvard University Press.
2190:Statue of a soldier in Petra
2171:considered a unique entity.
1770:Arab tribes that roamed the
3958:The World of the Nabataeans
3940:. Oxford University Press.
3781:. Mercer University Press.
3629:. P. Åström (S. vägen 61).
2685:. pp. 14, 17, 30, 31.
2005:, Antigonus sought to add "
466:Arab empires and caliphates
5102:
4006:Nabatean Archaeology Today
3892:Sullivan, Richard (1990).
3849:The Biblical Archaeologist
3829:The Middle East Under Rome
3577:The Biblical Archaeologist
3493:(PhD). Indiana University.
2681:. London, United Kingdom:
2436:
1858:
1800:Similarities between late
1782:, in the southwest of the
1759:
4044:Resources in your library
4010:New York University Press
3987:36, no. 4 (2001): 361–82.
2285:Nabataeans and Hasmoneans
230:
216:
171:
47:
42:
3826:Sartre, Maurice (2005).
3644:Healey, John F. (2001).
3570:. Trübner & Company.
3564:Groot, N. G. De (1879).
3532:Bowersock, Glen (1994).
3513:The Numismatic Chronicle
2199:Second Book of Maccabees
774:Umayyad state of Córdoba
205:• Conquered by the
3553:Bowes, Alan R. (1998).
2582:List of Nabataean kings
2403:Marcus Aemilius Scaurus
2252:First Book of Maccabees
2092:based in Egypt and the
2055:Demetrius I Poliorcetes
1905:of Salamis against the
5071:100s disestablishments
5046:160s BC establishments
4865:Luwian-Aramaean states
3665:Kasher, Aryeh (1988).
3316:Johnson, Paul (1987).
2560:. One of them was the
2434:
2314:
2306:
2207:Antiochus IV Epiphanes
2191:
2183:
2130:
2058:
2025:and other spices from
1986:
1963:
1881:
5066:Roman client kingdoms
4716:Neo-Babylonian Empire
4300:Canaanite city-states
3913:Taylor, Jane (2001).
3318:A History of the Jews
2675:Jane, Taylor (2001).
2486:) at the head of the
2428:
2354:, including northern
2327:intervention in Judea
2312:
2292:
2189:
2177:
2121:
2052:
2033:and ending up in the
1968:
1868:
1839:, the descendants of
1732:, up as far north as
1364:Sultanate of Zanzibar
1279:Mutawakkilite Kingdom
101:Common languages
43:3rd century BC–106 AD
4999:Tanukhid confederacy
4834:New Kingdom of Egypt
2378:, the Seleucid king
2083:Hieronymus of Cardia
1927:Hieronymus of Cardia
4711:Neo-Assyrian Empire
4494:Paleo-Syrian states
3191:Al-Abduljabbar 1995
3097:Al-Abduljabbar 1995
3003:Al-Abduljabbar 1995
2991:Al-Abduljabbar 1995
2384:worshipped as a god
2197:, mentioned in the
1931:Alexander the Great
1743:, which renamed it
1719:classical antiquity
341:Ancient Arab states
177:• Established
85:30.3286°N 35.4419°E
81: /
4954:Herodian Tetrarchy
3621:Hammond, Philip C.
2587:Nabataean language
2456:, the governor of
2435:
2341:Alexander Jannaeus
2315:
2307:
2192:
2184:
2131:
2059:
1987:
1882:
1406:Current monarchies
1069:Sharifate of Mecca
539:Emirate of Tbilisi
529:Emirate of Armenia
379:Kingdom of Osroene
225:Nabataean Denarius
126:Nabataean religion
5028:
5027:
4969:Nabataean Kingdom
4944:Hasmonean dynasty
4939:Ghassanid Kingdom
4652:Achaemenid Empire
4488:Ib'al Confederacy
4127:Kish civilization
4030:Library resources
4001:32 (2009): 43–59.
3968:978-3-515-08816-9
3947:978-0-19-993152-1
3926:978-1-86064-508-2
3905:978-0-8020-2682-8
3839:978-0-674-01683-5
3818:978-1-86064-331-6
3788:978-0-86554-373-7
3741:978-1-78346-381-7
3734:. Pen and Sword.
3720:978-1-315-47856-2
3699:978-0-19-967072-7
3678:978-3-16-145240-6
3636:978-91-85058-57-0
3545:978-0-674-77756-9
3440:978-1-84836-066-2
3355:978-0-14-044420-9
3342:Josephus, Flavius
3327:978-0-297-79091-4
3017:, pp. 17–18.
2492:Alexander Severus
2319:Hasmonean dynasty
2222:is attributed to
2203:high-priest Jason
2182:in military dress
1795:Semitic languages
1784:Arabian peninsula
1665:Nabataean Aramaic
1661:Nabataean Kingdom
1657:
1656:
1622:
1621:
1397:
1396:
1389:Tippu Tip's State
1287:
1286:
1259:Emirate of Beihan
991:Arabian Peninsula
982:
981:
737:
736:
521:Eastern dynasties
512:
511:
457:
456:
369:Nabataean Kingdom
359:Kingdom of Lihyan
320:
319:
316:
315:
312:
311:
292:
291:
107:Nabataean Aramaic
34:Nabataean Kingdom
16:(Redirected from
5093:
4979:Palmyrene Empire
4949:Herodian kingdom
4923:Byzantine Empire
4738:Israel (Samaria)
4099:
4092:
4085:
4076:
4065:
4064:
4063:VIA NOVA TRAIANA
4035:Nabatean Kingdom
4004:Negev, Avraham.
3972:
3951:
3930:
3909:
3888:
3843:
3822:
3801:
3792:
3771:
3765:
3757:
3745:
3724:
3703:
3682:
3671:. Mohr Siebeck.
3661:
3640:
3616:
3571:
3560:
3549:
3528:
3507:
3494:
3476:
3475:
3473:
3471:
3454:'Al Kanfei Yonah
3448:
3442:
3432:
3423:
3413:
3398:
3397:
3395:
3393:
3366:
3360:
3359:
3338:
3332:
3331:
3313:
3307:
3301:
3288:
3282:
3271:
3265:
3259:
3253:
3247:
3241:
3235:
3229:
3223:
3217:
3206:
3200:
3194:
3188:
3182:
3176:
3170:
3164:
3158:
3152:
3143:
3137:
3131:
3125:
3112:
3106:
3100:
3094:
3085:
3079:
3073:
3067:
3054:
3048:
3042:
3036:
3030:
3024:
3018:
3012:
3006:
3000:
2994:
2988:
2979:
2973:
2958:
2952:
2946:
2940:
2934:
2928:
2919:
2913:
2898:
2892:
2886:
2880:
2874:
2868:
2855:
2849:
2843:
2837:
2828:
2822:
2785:
2779:
2773:
2767:
2761:
2755:
2749:
2743:
2737:
2731:
2725:
2719:
2704:
2703:
2701:
2699:
2672:
2653:
2647:
2612:
2608:
2523:Sinai Peninsulas
2511:Palmyrene Empire
2498:power under the
2421:Roman annexation
2368:Battle of Gadara
2212:Judas Maccabaeus
2074:deposits in the
2003:Diodorus Siculus
1923:Diodorus Siculus
1802:Nabataean Arabic
1712:
1711:
1708:
1707:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1689:
1686:
1683:
1649:
1642:
1635:
1410:
1409:
1374:Nabahani dynasty
1319:Nabahani dynasty
1304:Makhzumi dynasty
1300:
1299:
995:
994:
750:
749:
549:Emirate of Crete
525:
524:
470:
469:
449:Kingdom of Kinda
399:Kingdom of Hatra
349:Kingdom of Qedar
345:
344:
334:
322:
308:
307:
296:
295:
283:
282:
269:
268:
255:
254:
248:
247:
232:
231:
113:Nabataean Arabic
96:
95:
93:
92:
91:
90:30.3286; 35.4419
86:
82:
79:
78:
77:
74:
52:
30:
21:
18:Nabatean kingdom
5101:
5100:
5096:
5095:
5094:
5092:
5091:
5090:
5086:Former kingdoms
5031:
5030:
5029:
5024:
5003:
4994:Sasanian Empire
4989:Seleucid Empire
4984:Parthian Empire
4934:Emesene Dynasty
4897:
4743:Israel (united)
4658:Aramaean states
4638:
4185:Akkadian Empire
4171:
4113:
4103:
4062:
4061:
4055:
4054:
4053:
4038:
4037:
4033:
4026:
3980:
3978:Further reading
3975:
3969:
3954:
3948:
3933:
3927:
3912:
3906:
3891:
3861:10.2307/3209134
3846:
3840:
3825:
3819:
3804:
3795:
3789:
3774:
3758:
3748:
3742:
3727:
3721:
3706:
3700:
3685:
3679:
3664:
3658:
3643:
3637:
3619:
3589:10.2307/3209307
3574:
3563:
3552:
3546:
3531:
3510:
3497:
3488:
3484:
3479:
3469:
3467:
3465:
3450:
3449:
3445:
3433:
3426:
3414:
3401:
3391:
3389:
3387:
3368:
3367:
3363:
3356:
3340:
3339:
3335:
3328:
3315:
3314:
3310:
3302:
3291:
3283:
3274:
3266:
3262:
3254:
3250:
3242:
3238:
3230:
3226:
3218:
3209:
3201:
3197:
3189:
3185:
3177:
3173:
3165:
3161:
3153:
3146:
3138:
3134:
3126:
3115:
3107:
3103:
3095:
3088:
3080:
3076:
3068:
3057:
3049:
3045:
3037:
3033:
3025:
3021:
3013:
3009:
3001:
2997:
2989:
2982:
2974:
2961:
2953:
2949:
2943:Waterfield 2012
2941:
2937:
2929:
2922:
2916:McLaughlin 2014
2914:
2901:
2895:McLaughlin 2014
2893:
2889:
2881:
2877:
2869:
2858:
2850:
2846:
2838:
2831:
2823:
2788:
2780:
2776:
2768:
2764:
2756:
2752:
2744:
2740:
2732:
2728:
2720:
2707:
2697:
2695:
2693:
2674:
2673:
2656:
2648:
2625:
2621:
2616:
2615:
2609:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2578:
2531:Ptolemaic Egypt
2519:
2500:Sassanid Empire
2454:Cornelius Palma
2449:Rabbel II Soter
2441:
2423:
2388:Temple of Oboda
2287:
2210:Nabataeans and
2116:
2053:Marble bust of
1916:Edomite Kingdom
1863:
1857:
1764:
1758:
1753:
1680:
1676:
1653:
1624:
1623:
1407:
1399:
1398:
1334:Mahdali dynasty
1297:
1289:
1288:
1229:Muscat and Oman
999:Imamate of Oman
992:
984:
983:
747:
739:
738:
522:
514:
513:
467:
459:
458:
389:Emesene Dynasty
342:
305:
280:
266:
252:
209:
196:
178:
89:
87:
83:
80:
75:
72:
70:
68:
67:
66:
55:
38:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5099:
5097:
5089:
5088:
5083:
5078:
5073:
5068:
5063:
5058:
5053:
5048:
5043:
5033:
5032:
5026:
5025:
5023:
5022:
5017:
5015:Amarna letters
5011:
5009:
5005:
5004:
5002:
5001:
4996:
4991:
4986:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4936:
4931:
4926:
4915:Roman Republic
4907:
4905:
4899:
4898:
4896:
4895:
4894:
4893:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4861:
4860:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4836:
4831:
4830:
4829:
4828:
4827:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4802:
4792:
4791:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4770:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4718:
4713:
4708:
4707:
4706:
4701:
4696:
4691:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4654:
4648:
4646:
4640:
4639:
4637:
4636:
4635:
4634:
4622:
4617:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4601:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4578:
4577:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4554:
4553:
4552:
4547:
4542:
4537:
4528:
4523:
4518:
4509:
4508:
4507:
4490:
4485:
4480:
4475:
4474:
4473:
4472:
4471:
4461:
4456:
4444:
4442:Hittite Empire
4439:
4434:
4433:
4432:
4427:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4342:
4333:
4328:
4323:
4318:
4313:
4308:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4280:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4244:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4196:Amorite states
4192:
4187:
4181:
4179:
4173:
4172:
4170:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4134:
4129:
4123:
4121:
4115:
4114:
4104:
4102:
4101:
4094:
4087:
4079:
4073:
4072:
4052:
4051:
4046:
4040:
4039:
4028:
4027:
4025:
4024:External links
4022:
4021:
4020:
4013:
4002:
3995:
3988:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3973:
3967:
3952:
3946:
3931:
3925:
3919:. I.B.Tauris.
3910:
3904:
3889:
3844:
3838:
3823:
3817:
3811:. I.B.Tauris.
3802:
3793:
3787:
3772:
3746:
3740:
3725:
3719:
3704:
3698:
3692:. OUP Oxford.
3683:
3677:
3662:
3656:
3641:
3635:
3617:
3572:
3561:
3550:
3544:
3529:
3508:
3495:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3477:
3463:
3443:
3424:
3399:
3385:
3379:. p. 65.
3361:
3354:
3346:The Jewish War
3333:
3326:
3308:
3304:Bowersock 1994
3289:
3285:Bowersock 1994
3272:
3260:
3258:, p. 219.
3248:
3236:
3224:
3207:
3195:
3183:
3171:
3159:
3157:, p. 433.
3144:
3142:, p. 335.
3132:
3113:
3109:Bowersock 1994
3101:
3099:, p. 147.
3086:
3084:, p. 275.
3074:
3055:
3053:, p. 106.
3043:
3031:
3027:Bowersock 1994
3019:
3015:Bowersock 1994
3007:
3005:, p. 136.
2995:
2980:
2959:
2947:
2945:, p. 123.
2935:
2920:
2899:
2887:
2875:
2871:Bowersock 1994
2856:
2844:
2829:
2786:
2774:
2772:, p. 598.
2762:
2758:Bowersock 1994
2750:
2738:
2726:
2705:
2691:
2654:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2614:
2613:
2602:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2590:
2589:
2584:
2577:
2574:
2518:
2515:
2479:limes Arabicus
2470:Arabia Petraea
2439:Arabia Petraea
2437:Main article:
2422:
2419:
2415:client kingdom
2376:Battle of Cana
2370:around 93 BC.
2337:trade caravans
2286:
2283:
2115:
2112:
1985:, Saudi Arabia
1969:Painting of a
1856:
1853:
1772:Arabian Desert
1760:Main article:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1745:Arabia Petraea
1671:), also named
1655:
1654:
1652:
1651:
1644:
1637:
1629:
1626:
1625:
1620:
1619:
1616:
1605:
1604:
1601:
1590:
1589:
1586:
1575:
1574:
1571:
1560:
1559:
1556:
1545:
1544:
1541:
1530:
1529:
1526:
1515:
1514:
1511:
1500:
1499:
1496:
1485:
1484:
1481:
1470:
1469:
1466:
1455:
1454:
1451:
1440:
1439:
1436:
1433:Ras al Khaymah
1425:
1424:
1421:
1408:
1405:
1404:
1401:
1400:
1395:
1394:
1391:
1385:
1384:
1381:
1370:
1369:
1366:
1360:
1359:
1356:
1349:Mazrui dynasty
1345:
1344:
1341:
1330:
1329:
1326:
1315:
1314:
1311:
1298:
1295:
1294:
1291:
1290:
1285:
1284:
1281:
1275:
1274:
1271:
1265:
1264:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1251:
1245:
1244:
1241:
1235:
1234:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1211:
1205:
1204:
1201:
1195:
1194:
1191:
1185:
1184:
1181:
1175:
1174:
1171:
1165:
1164:
1161:
1155:
1154:
1151:
1145:
1144:
1141:
1135:
1134:
1131:
1125:
1124:
1121:
1115:
1114:
1111:
1105:
1104:
1101:
1095:
1094:
1091:
1085:
1084:
1081:
1075:
1074:
1071:
1065:
1064:
1061:
1055:
1054:
1051:
1045:
1044:
1041:
1035:
1034:
1031:
1025:
1024:
1021:
1015:
1014:
1011:
1005:
1004:
1001:
993:
990:
989:
986:
985:
980:
979:
976:
970:
969:
966:
960:
959:
956:
950:
949:
946:
940:
939:
936:
930:
929:
926:
920:
919:
916:
910:
909:
906:
900:
899:
896:
890:
889:
886:
880:
879:
876:
870:
869:
866:
860:
859:
856:
850:
849:
846:
840:
839:
836:
830:
829:
826:
820:
819:
816:
810:
809:
806:
800:
799:
796:
790:
789:
786:
780:
779:
776:
770:
769:
766:
764:Fihrid Emirate
760:
759:
756:
748:
745:
744:
741:
740:
735:
734:
731:
725:
724:
721:
715:
714:
711:
705:
704:
701:
695:
694:
691:
685:
684:
681:
675:
674:
671:
665:
664:
661:
655:
654:
651:
645:
644:
641:
635:
634:
631:
625:
624:
621:
615:
614:
611:
605:
604:
601:
595:
594:
591:
585:
584:
581:
575:
574:
571:
565:
564:
561:
555:
554:
551:
545:
544:
541:
535:
534:
531:
523:
520:
519:
516:
515:
510:
509:
506:
500:
499:
496:
490:
489:
486:
480:
479:
476:
468:
465:
464:
461:
460:
455:
454:
451:
445:
444:
441:
435:
434:
431:
425:
424:
421:
415:
414:
411:
405:
404:
401:
395:
394:
391:
385:
384:
381:
375:
374:
371:
365:
364:
361:
355:
354:
351:
343:
340:
339:
336:
335:
327:
326:
318:
317:
314:
313:
310:
309:
302:
300:Arabia Petraea
293:
290:
289:
284:
276:
275:
270:
262:
261:
256:
244:
243:
238:
228:
227:
222:
218:
217:
214:
213:
210:
204:
201:
200:
197:
186:
183:
182:
181:3rd century BC
179:
176:
173:
172:
169:
168:
163:
162:Historical era
159:
158:
155:
149:
148:
145:
141:
140:
135:
129:
128:
123:
119:
118:
117:
116:
110:
102:
98:
97:
61:
57:
56:
53:
45:
44:
40:
39:
36:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5098:
5087:
5084:
5082:
5079:
5077:
5074:
5072:
5069:
5067:
5064:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5052:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5042:
5039:
5038:
5036:
5021:
5018:
5016:
5013:
5012:
5010:
5006:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4912:
4909:
4908:
4906:
4904:
4903:Classical Age
4900:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4868:
4867:
4866:
4862:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4847:
4844:
4843:
4842:
4841:
4837:
4835:
4832:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4797:
4796:
4793:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4765:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4725:
4724:
4723:
4719:
4717:
4714:
4712:
4709:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4664:Aram-Damascus
4662:
4661:
4660:
4659:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4649:
4647:
4645:
4641:
4633:
4630:
4629:
4628:
4627:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4585:
4584:
4583:
4579:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4561:
4560:
4559:
4555:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4513:
4510:
4506:
4503:
4502:
4501:
4498:
4497:
4496:
4495:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4470:
4467:
4466:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4451:
4450:
4449:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4438:
4435:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4329:
4327:
4324:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4312:
4309:
4307:
4304:
4303:
4302:
4301:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4222:First Babylon
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4199:
4198:
4197:
4193:
4191:
4188:
4186:
4183:
4182:
4180:
4178:
4174:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4124:
4122:
4120:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4100:
4095:
4093:
4088:
4086:
4081:
4080:
4077:
4071:
4067:
4066:
4059:A map of the
4057:
4056:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4023:
4018:
4014:
4011:
4007:
4003:
4000:
3996:
3993:
3989:
3986:
3982:
3981:
3977:
3970:
3964:
3960:
3959:
3953:
3949:
3943:
3939:
3938:
3932:
3928:
3922:
3918:
3917:
3911:
3907:
3901:
3897:
3896:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3855:(4): 84–106.
3854:
3850:
3845:
3841:
3835:
3831:
3830:
3824:
3820:
3814:
3810:
3809:
3803:
3799:
3794:
3790:
3784:
3780:
3779:
3773:
3769:
3763:
3756:
3753:(in French),
3752:
3747:
3743:
3737:
3733:
3732:
3726:
3722:
3716:
3713:. Routledge.
3712:
3711:
3705:
3701:
3695:
3691:
3690:
3684:
3680:
3674:
3670:
3669:
3663:
3659:
3657:90-04-10754-1
3653:
3649:
3648:
3642:
3638:
3632:
3628:
3627:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3573:
3569:
3568:
3562:
3558:
3557:
3551:
3547:
3541:
3537:
3536:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3496:
3492:
3487:
3486:
3481:
3466:
3460:
3456:
3455:
3447:
3444:
3441:
3437:
3431:
3429:
3425:
3422:
3421:9957-451-04-9
3418:
3412:
3410:
3408:
3406:
3404:
3400:
3388:
3386:9781317296355
3382:
3378:
3374:
3373:
3365:
3362:
3357:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3337:
3334:
3329:
3323:
3319:
3312:
3309:
3306:, p. 20.
3305:
3300:
3298:
3296:
3294:
3290:
3287:, p. 19.
3286:
3281:
3279:
3277:
3273:
3270:, p. 13.
3269:
3264:
3261:
3257:
3252:
3249:
3246:, p. 17.
3245:
3240:
3237:
3234:, p. 41.
3233:
3228:
3225:
3222:, p. 24.
3221:
3216:
3214:
3212:
3208:
3205:, p. 84.
3204:
3199:
3196:
3192:
3187:
3184:
3181:, p. 72.
3180:
3179:Sullivan 1990
3175:
3172:
3169:, p. 69.
3168:
3163:
3160:
3156:
3151:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3136:
3133:
3130:, p. 40.
3129:
3124:
3122:
3120:
3118:
3114:
3111:, p. 17.
3110:
3105:
3102:
3098:
3093:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3078:
3075:
3072:, p. 10.
3071:
3066:
3064:
3062:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3047:
3044:
3040:
3035:
3032:
3029:, p. 18.
3028:
3023:
3020:
3016:
3011:
3008:
3004:
2999:
2996:
2992:
2987:
2985:
2981:
2978:, p. 38.
2977:
2972:
2970:
2968:
2966:
2964:
2960:
2957:, p. 10.
2956:
2951:
2948:
2944:
2939:
2936:
2933:, p. 68.
2932:
2927:
2925:
2921:
2918:, p. 52.
2917:
2912:
2910:
2908:
2906:
2904:
2900:
2897:, p. 51.
2896:
2891:
2888:
2885:, p. 28.
2884:
2879:
2876:
2873:, p. 14.
2872:
2867:
2865:
2863:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2848:
2845:
2842:, p. 31.
2841:
2836:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2821:
2819:
2817:
2815:
2813:
2811:
2809:
2807:
2805:
2803:
2801:
2799:
2797:
2795:
2793:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2778:
2775:
2771:
2766:
2763:
2760:, p. 13.
2759:
2754:
2751:
2748:, p. 30.
2747:
2742:
2739:
2736:, p. 17.
2735:
2730:
2727:
2724:, p. 26.
2723:
2718:
2716:
2714:
2712:
2710:
2706:
2694:
2692:9781860645082
2688:
2684:
2680:
2679:
2671:
2669:
2667:
2665:
2663:
2661:
2659:
2655:
2652:, p. 14.
2651:
2646:
2644:
2642:
2640:
2638:
2636:
2634:
2632:
2630:
2628:
2624:
2618:
2607:
2604:
2597:
2592:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2579:
2575:
2573:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2562:Incense Route
2559:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2547:Mada'in Saleh
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2503:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2488:Gulf of Aqaba
2485:
2481:
2480:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2450:
2446:
2440:
2432:
2429:A map of the
2427:
2420:
2418:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2395:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2380:Antiochus XII
2377:
2371:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2344:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2311:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2291:
2284:
2282:
2280:
2276:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2253:
2249:
2244:
2240:
2239:Romano-Jewish
2236:
2231:
2229:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2213:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2188:
2181:
2178:Coin showing
2176:
2172:
2169:
2163:
2161:
2157:
2156:Milan Papyrus
2152:
2149:
2143:
2141:
2137:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2113:
2111:
2109:
2108:
2103:
2097:
2095:
2091:
2086:
2084:
2079:
2077:
2073:
2068:
2067:smoke signals
2064:
2056:
2051:
2047:
2044:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1984:
1980:
1979:Mada'in Saleh
1977:, located at
1976:
1975:Qasr al-Farid
1972:
1967:
1962:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1942:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1919:
1917:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1854:
1852:
1848:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1817:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1798:
1796:
1792:
1787:
1785:
1781:
1776:
1773:
1769:
1763:
1755:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1742:
1737:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1720:
1716:
1710:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1650:
1645:
1643:
1638:
1636:
1631:
1630:
1628:
1627:
1617:
1614:
1610:
1607:
1606:
1602:
1599:
1595:
1592:
1591:
1587:
1584:
1580:
1577:
1576:
1572:
1569:
1565:
1562:
1561:
1557:
1554:
1550:
1547:
1546:
1542:
1539:
1535:
1532:
1531:
1527:
1524:
1523:Umm al-Quwain
1520:
1517:
1516:
1512:
1509:
1505:
1502:
1501:
1497:
1494:
1490:
1487:
1486:
1482:
1479:
1475:
1472:
1471:
1467:
1464:
1460:
1457:
1456:
1452:
1449:
1445:
1442:
1441:
1437:
1434:
1430:
1427:
1426:
1422:
1419:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1403:
1402:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1386:
1382:
1379:
1375:
1372:
1371:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1361:
1357:
1354:
1350:
1347:
1346:
1342:
1339:
1335:
1332:
1331:
1327:
1324:
1320:
1317:
1316:
1312:
1309:
1305:
1302:
1301:
1293:
1292:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1276:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1266:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1256:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1246:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1236:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1216:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1206:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1196:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1186:
1182:
1180:
1177:
1176:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1156:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1136:
1132:
1130:
1127:
1126:
1122:
1120:
1117:
1116:
1112:
1110:
1107:
1106:
1102:
1100:
1097:
1096:
1092:
1090:
1087:
1086:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1076:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1066:
1062:
1060:
1057:
1056:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1046:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1036:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1026:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1016:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1006:
1002:
1000:
997:
996:
988:
987:
977:
975:
972:
971:
967:
965:
962:
961:
957:
955:
952:
951:
947:
945:
942:
941:
937:
935:
932:
931:
927:
925:
922:
921:
917:
915:
912:
911:
907:
905:
902:
901:
897:
895:
892:
891:
887:
885:
882:
881:
877:
875:
872:
871:
867:
865:
862:
861:
857:
855:
852:
851:
847:
845:
842:
841:
837:
835:
832:
831:
827:
825:
824:Muslim Sicily
822:
821:
817:
815:
812:
811:
807:
805:
802:
801:
797:
795:
792:
791:
787:
785:
782:
781:
777:
775:
772:
771:
767:
765:
762:
761:
757:
755:
752:
751:
743:
742:
732:
730:
727:
726:
722:
720:
717:
716:
712:
710:
707:
706:
702:
700:
697:
696:
692:
690:
687:
686:
682:
680:
677:
676:
672:
670:
667:
666:
662:
660:
657:
656:
652:
650:
647:
646:
642:
640:
637:
636:
632:
630:
627:
626:
622:
620:
617:
616:
612:
610:
607:
606:
602:
600:
597:
596:
592:
590:
587:
586:
582:
580:
577:
576:
572:
570:
567:
566:
562:
560:
557:
556:
552:
550:
547:
546:
542:
540:
537:
536:
532:
530:
527:
526:
518:
517:
507:
505:
502:
501:
497:
495:
492:
491:
487:
485:
482:
481:
477:
475:
472:
471:
463:
462:
453:450 AD–550 AD
452:
450:
447:
446:
442:
440:
437:
436:
432:
430:
427:
426:
422:
420:
417:
416:
412:
410:
407:
406:
402:
400:
397:
396:
393:64 BC–300s AD
392:
390:
387:
386:
383:132 BC–244 AD
382:
380:
377:
376:
373:400 BC–106 AD
372:
370:
367:
366:
363:600 BC–100 BC
362:
360:
357:
356:
353:800 BC–300 BC
352:
350:
347:
346:
338:
337:
333:
329:
328:
323:
303:
301:
298:
297:
294:
288:
285:
278:
277:
274:
271:
264:
263:
260:
257:
250:
249:
246:
245:
242:
239:
237:
234:
233:
229:
226:
223:
219:
215:
211:
208:
198:
194:
190:
180:
167:
164:
160:
156:
154:
146:
142:
139:
136:
134:
130:
127:
124:
120:
114:
111:
108:
105:
104:
103:
99:
94:
65:
62:
58:
51:
46:
41:
31:
19:
4968:
4919:Roman Empire
4911:Ancient Rome
4863:
4838:
4720:
4656:
4624:
4580:
4556:
4492:
4446:
4298:
4194:
4137:Chagar Bazar
4069:
4060:
4034:
4016:
4008:. New York:
4005:
3998:
3991:
3984:
3957:
3936:
3915:
3894:
3852:
3848:
3828:
3807:
3797:
3777:
3750:
3730:
3709:
3688:
3667:
3646:
3625:
3583:(2): 40–48.
3580:
3576:
3566:
3555:
3535:Roman Arabia
3534:
3516:
3512:
3503:
3499:
3490:
3468:. Retrieved
3453:
3446:
3390:. Retrieved
3371:
3364:
3345:
3336:
3317:
3311:
3268:Pearson 2011
3263:
3251:
3239:
3227:
3203:Starcky 1955
3198:
3193:, p. 1.
3186:
3174:
3162:
3135:
3104:
3077:
3070:Pearson 2011
3046:
3041:, p. 4.
3034:
3022:
3010:
2998:
2993:, p. 8.
2950:
2938:
2931:Hammond 1973
2890:
2878:
2854:, p. 7.
2847:
2784:, p. 8.
2777:
2765:
2753:
2741:
2729:
2722:Wenning 2007
2696:. Retrieved
2677:
2606:
2570:frankincense
2558:trade routes
2555:
2520:
2505:The city of
2504:
2477:
2442:
2431:Roman Empire
2411:Roman Empire
2396:
2372:
2345:
2331:
2316:
2272:
2269:
2232:
2216:
2193:
2164:
2153:
2144:
2139:
2132:
2105:
2098:
2087:
2080:
2060:
2039:
2035:Port of Gaza
2019:frankincense
2006:
1991:the conflict
1988:
1958:
1945:neither the
1944:
1920:
1883:
1879:Port of Gaza
1849:
1837:Hebrew Bible
1829:Ashurbanipal
1818:
1810:Neo-Assyrian
1799:
1790:
1788:
1777:
1765:
1741:Roman Empire
1738:
1723:
1672:
1668:
1660:
1658:
1618:1921–present
1603:1900–present
1588:1868–present
1573:1833–present
1558:1810–present
1543:1783–present
1528:1775–present
1513:1761–present
1498:1752–present
1483:1749–present
1468:1744–present
1463:Saudi Arabia
1453:1727–present
1438:1727–present
1423:1631–present
433:300s–500s AD
368:
241:Succeeded by
240:
235:
207:Roman Empire
4684:Bit Bahiani
4469:Tell Hadidi
3256:Taylor 2001
3244:Sartre 2005
3220:Kasher 1988
3167:Barkay 2011
3155:Barkay 2015
3128:Taylor 2001
2976:Taylor 2001
2955:Salibi 1998
2883:Healey 2001
2840:Taylor 2001
2782:Taylor 2001
2746:Taylor 2001
2734:Taylor 2001
2650:Taylor 2001
2348:Transjordan
2168:Hellenistic
1955:Macedonians
1941:in 312 BC.
1939:Antigonus I
1871:Middle East
1808:during the
1806:Mesopotamia
1667:: 𐢕𐢃𐢋𐢈
1323:Pate Island
1296:East Africa
1089:Sulaymanids
1029:Ukhaidhirds
814:Sulaymanids
784:Muhallabids
689:Munqidhites
589:Shirvanshah
443:300s–602 AD
413:196–1100 AD
403:100s–241 AD
236:Preceded by
88: /
5035:Categories
4871:Carchemish
4852:Nabataeans
4669:Aram Rehob
4437:Carchemish
4247:Third Mari
4227:Third Ebla
4177:Bronze Age
4132:Tell Halaf
4119:Copper Age
3506:: 431–439.
3464:9004121706
3232:Kropp 2013
3082:Milik 2003
3051:Bowes 1998
3039:Bowes 1998
2852:Groot 1879
2683:I.B.Tauris
2593:References
2553:/Nessana.
2399:Aretas III
2279:Alexandria
2241:historian
2123:Al-Khazneh
1903:Evagoras I
1887:Achaemenid
1859:See also:
1797:of Hejaz.
1762:Nabataeans
1756:Nabataeans
1715:Nabataeans
1609:Hashemites
1564:Al Maktoum
1534:Al Khalifa
1219:Upper Yafa
1209:Ya'arubids
1049:Qarmatians
934:Sumadihids
423:220–638 AD
419:Ghassanids
259:Nabataeans
144:Government
133:Demonym(s)
109:(official)
76:35°26′31″E
73:30°19′43″N
4964:Macedonia
4929:Commagene
4857:Qedarites
4795:Phoenicia
4763:Philistia
4679:Bit Agusi
4674:Bit-Adini
4516:Tall Bazi
4410:Phoenicia
4380:Jerusalem
4232:Ekallatum
3885:134256604
3869:0006-0895
3650:. BRILL.
3613:133997328
3597:0006-0895
3519:: 67–73.
3470:27 August
3457:. BRILL.
3377:Routledge
2619:Citations
2545:, Hegra (
2527:Hasmonean
2517:Geography
2333:Gaza City
2235:Maccabees
2228:Aretas II
2180:Aretas IV
2094:Seleucids
2090:Ptolemies
2063:Demetrius
2015:Phoenicia
1971:Nabataean
1947:Assyrians
1929:, one of
1911:Qedarites
1889:province
1855:Emergence
1814:Assyrians
1728:into the
1594:Al Sharqi
1549:Al Nuaimi
1519:Al Mualla
1508:Abu Dhabi
1504:Al Nahyan
1444:Al Qasimi
1429:Al Qasimi
1393:1860–1887
1383:1858–1895
1368:1856–1964
1358:1746–1828
1343:1277–1495
1328:1203–1894
1283:1926–1970
1273:1906–1934
1263:1903–1967
1253:1858–1967
1249:Qu'aitids
1243:1836–1921
1239:Rashidids
1233:1820–1970
1223:1800–1967
1213:1624–1742
1203:1597–1872
1193:1463–1521
1183:1454–1526
1173:1395–1967
1169:Kathirids
1163:1305–1487
1159:Jarwanids
1153:1253–1320
1143:1229–1454
1133:1159–1174
1123:1154–1624
1119:Nabhanids
1113:1083–1174
1103:1076–1253
1093:1063–1174
1083:1047–1138
1079:Sulayhids
978:1837–1969
974:Senussids
968:1554–1659
958:1230–1492
948:1049–1078
938:1041–1091
928:1039–1110
918:1031–1091
914:Jawharids
908:1027–1063
904:Muzaynids
898:1026–1057
894:Hammudids
888:1023–1062
884:Yahsubids
878:1023–1091
868:1020–1086
858:1013–1039
848:1012–1051
838:1004–1412
804:Aghlabids
733:1697–1842
723:1517–1865
713:1480–1677
703:1517–1697
693:1025–1157
683:1024–1080
679:Mirdasids
669:Numayrids
649:Jarrahids
639:Mazyadids
619:Hamdanids
609:Hashimids
569:Habbarids
559:Dulafids
409:Tanukhids
287:Qedarites
195:invasion
193:Hasmonean
166:Antiquity
138:Nabataean
122:Religion
5061:Nabataea
4886:Palistin
4846:Itureans
4644:Iron Age
4448:Hurrians
4190:Alashiya
4142:Hamoukar
3762:citation
3623:(1973).
3525:42667225
3344:(1981).
2576:See also
2364:Obodas I
2352:Damascus
2303:Obodas I
2243:Josephus
2224:Aretas I
2195:Aretas I
2076:Dead Sea
2027:Eudaemon
1959:Diodorus
1937:general
1907:Persians
1847:'s son.
1833:Nebaioth
1825:Assyrian
1734:Damascus
1598:Fujairah
1579:Al Thani
1489:Al Sabah
1378:Wituland
1313:896–1279
1269:Idrisids
1199:Qasimids
1179:Tahirids
1149:Usfurids
1139:Rasulids
1109:Zurayids
1073:968–1925
1059:Wajihids
1053:899–1077
1043:897–1962
1033:865–1066
1019:Yufirids
1013:819–1138
1009:Ziyadids
1003:751–1970
944:Tahirids
874:Abbadids
854:Tujibids
828:831–1091
794:Idrisids
778:756–1031
758:710–1019
754:Salihids
719:Harfushs
709:Turabays
673:990–1081
663:990–1096
659:Uqaylids
653:970–1107
643:961–1150
633:955–1071
629:Rawadids
623:890–1004
613:869–1075
593:861–1538
579:Kaysites
573:854–1011
543:736–1122
508:909–1171
504:Fatimids
498:750–1258
494:Abbasids
484:Umayyads
474:Rashidun
439:Lakhmids
429:Salihids
221:Currency
189:Obodas I
147:Monarchy
115:(native)
37:𐢕𐢃𐢋𐢈
5008:Sources
4974:Osroene
4773:Ascalon
4748:Jericho
4626:Nuhašše
4574:Suteans
4512:Armanum
4464:Mitanni
4459:Nuhašše
4420:Shechem
4400:Megiddo
4395:Lakisha
4385:Kenites
4375:Jericho
4355:Dimasqu
4326:Aštartu
4321:Ascalon
4257:Palmyra
4212:Andarig
4202:Alalakh
4147:Jericho
4109:of the
4107:history
4012:, 1986.
3877:3209134
3605:3209307
3482:Sources
3392:10 July
2551:Nitzana
2549:), and
2507:Palmyra
2496:Persian
2474:Hadrian
2297:in the
2102:monsoon
2072:bitumen
2043:stadion
1891:Idumaea
1873:, when
1845:Abraham
1841:Ishmael
1835:of the
1768:Bedouin
1751:History
1726:Tihamah
1717:during
1673:Nabatea
1538:Bahrain
1474:Al Said
1459:Al Saud
1448:Sharjah
1418:Morocco
1414:'Alawis
1353:Mombasa
1189:Jabrids
1129:Mahdids
1099:Uyunids
1063:926–965
1039:Rassids
1023:847–997
964:Saadids
954:Nasrids
864:Amirids
844:Bakrids
834:Kanzids
818:814–922
808:800–909
798:788–974
788:771–793
768:745-757
729:Shihabs
699:Ma'nids
603:864–928
599:Alavids
583:860–964
563:840–897
553:824–961
533:654–884
488:661–750
478:632–661
191:repels
187:•
60:Capital
5081:Gilead
5041:168 BC
4959:Iturea
4891:Pattin
4881:Luhuti
4876:Kummuh
4815:Tartus
4768:Ashdod
4722:Canaan
4699:Sam'al
4694:Hamath
4689:Geshur
4615:Ugarit
4605:Tadmor
4588:ʿApiru
4569:Aḫlamū
4564:ʿApiru
4550:Tuttul
4505:Aleppo
4478:Naziba
4415:Qadesh
4405:Midian
4390:Kumidi
4365:Gibeon
4345:Beruta
4340:Hauran
4336:Bashan
4331:Azzati
4306:Amalek
4277:Yamhad
4267:Ṭābetu
4252:Mukish
4207:Amurru
4167:Urkesh
4162:Ugarit
4152:Byblos
4111:Levant
4032:about
3999:Boreas
3965:
3944:
3923:
3902:
3883:
3875:
3867:
3836:
3815:
3785:
3755:Beirut
3738:
3717:
3696:
3675:
3654:
3633:
3611:
3603:
3595:
3542:
3523:
3461:
3438:
3419:
3383:
3352:
3324:
2698:8 July
2689:
2539:Jordan
2476:, the
2445:Trajan
2360:Gilead
2323:Pompey
2275:Priene
2265:Romans
2261:Madaba
2248:Galaad
2160:Strabo
2148:Nabatu
2136:Hauran
1995:Levant
1973:tomb,
1909:. The
1821:Jordan
1669:Nabāṭū
1613:Jordan
1493:Kuwait
924:Hudids
273:Lihyan
212:106 AD
157:
4840:Arabs
4825:Sidon
4810:Gebal
4805:Arwad
4800:Amrit
4778:Ekron
4753:Judah
4728:Ammon
4704:Zobah
4610:Tunip
4598:Shutu
4593:Shasu
4558:Suhum
4545:Nagar
4535:Terqa
4531:Khana
4454:Urshu
4425:Sidon
4370:Hazor
4360:Gezer
4350:Gebal
4316:Arwad
4294:Barga
4262:Qatna
4242:Kurda
4070:limes
3881:S2CID
3873:JSTOR
3609:S2CID
3601:JSTOR
3521:JSTOR
2598:Notes
2566:myrrh
2543:Bosra
2535:Raqmu
2484:Aqaba
2466:Egypt
2462:Egypt
2458:Syria
2407:Roman
2392:Avdat
2299:Negev
2295:Avdat
2219:Negev
2127:Petra
2031:Petra
2023:myrrh
2011:Syria
1983:Hejaz
1951:Medes
1935:Greek
1899:Egypt
1895:Hakor
1875:Petra
1827:king
1780:Yemen
1730:Hejaz
1583:Qatar
1568:Dubai
1553:Ajman
1338:Kilwa
1308:Shewa
199:90 BC
64:Petra
4820:Tyre
4788:Gaza
4783:Gath
4758:Moab
4733:Edom
4632:Niya
4582:Amqu
4540:Mari
4526:Emar
4521:Ebla
4500:Armi
4483:Niya
4430:Tyre
4311:Arqa
4289:Aram
4284:Amqu
4237:Emar
4217:Apum
4157:Ebla
3963:ISBN
3942:ISBN
3921:ISBN
3900:ISBN
3865:ISSN
3834:ISBN
3813:ISBN
3783:ISBN
3768:link
3736:ISBN
3715:ISBN
3694:ISBN
3673:ISBN
3652:ISBN
3631:ISBN
3593:ISSN
3540:ISBN
3500:ARAM
3472:2014
3459:ISBN
3436:ISBN
3417:ISBN
3394:2016
3381:ISBN
3350:ISBN
3322:ISBN
2700:2016
2687:ISBN
2568:and
2358:and
2356:Moab
2257:John
2013:and
1999:Edom
1901:and
1791:nbṭw
1659:The
1478:Oman
153:King
4620:Upu
3857:doi
3585:doi
3517:171
2537:in
2390:in
2325:'s
2110:).
1897:of
5037::
4921:-
4917:-
3879:.
3871:.
3863:.
3853:18
3851:.
3764:}}
3760:{{
3607:.
3599:.
3591:.
3581:22
3579:.
3515:.
3504:27
3502:.
3427:^
3402:^
3375:.
3292:^
3275:^
3210:^
3147:^
3116:^
3089:^
3058:^
2983:^
2962:^
2923:^
2902:^
2859:^
2832:^
2789:^
2708:^
2657:^
2626:^
2502:.
2329:.
2230:.
2021:,
1981:,
1843:,
1747:.
1721:.
1703:iː
4925:)
4913:(
4848:?
4533:/
4514:/
4338:/
4098:e
4091:t
4084:v
3971:.
3950:.
3929:.
3908:.
3887:.
3859::
3842:.
3821:.
3791:.
3770:)
3744:.
3723:.
3702:.
3681:.
3660:.
3639:.
3615:.
3587::
3548:.
3527:.
3474:.
3396:.
3358:.
3330:.
2702:.
2129:.
1961:.
1709:/
1706:ə
1700:t
1697:ˈ
1694:ə
1691:b
1688:æ
1685:n
1682:ˌ
1679:/
1675:(
1663:(
1648:e
1641:t
1634:v
1615:)
1611:(
1600:)
1596:(
1585:)
1581:(
1570:)
1566:(
1555:)
1551:(
1540:)
1536:(
1525:)
1521:(
1510:)
1506:(
1495:)
1491:(
1480:)
1476:(
1465:)
1461:(
1450:)
1446:(
1435:)
1431:(
1420:)
1416:(
1380:)
1376:(
1355:)
1351:(
1340:)
1336:(
1325:)
1321:(
1310:)
1306:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.