824:
a study with 100 Bulgarian subjects who at a later age learned
English, German, French or Spanish revealed a name-letter effect for the Roman alphabet as well as for Cyrillic. The researchers concluded mastery pleasure is not the principal cause of the name-letter effect. In a follow-up study Hoorens, Nuttin, Herman and Pavakanun tested the strength of the name-letter effect among elementary-school children, in a cross-sectional experimental design involving Flemish and Hungarian second, fourth, and sixth graders. Instead of finding the name-effect to decrease with age as might be expected, they found it increased, thus proving that mastery pleasure is not the principal cause. They also investigated name-letter effects in bilingual Thai subjects, some of whom had learned the English alphabet at the same time as the Thai alphabet, and others who had learned it later. They found that the time at which students had learned the second alphabet made no difference in the strength of the name-letter effect, thereby ruling out mastery pleasure as a co-determinant.
1017:
liked things starting with J), nor for a within-individuals effect (e.g. Judy did not like jam more than honey). The researchers did discover a small but reliable effect of initials on brand-name preferences within individuals (e.g. Hank did like Honda more than non-matching brands). They speculated that brand names are more likely to communicate identity to others than other everyday things. Stieger extended this research by looking at buying preferences for product names. He found that people were disproportionately more likely to buy products matching their initials. The effect mainly occurred for big brands. No correlation was found between the strength of an individual's name-letter effect and the strength of his or her name-letter-branding effect.
895:, a person's tendency to evaluate him or herself positively in a spontaneous, automatic, or unconscious manner. Most people like themselves. The halo effect of self-esteem spreads to any attributes associated with the self, including the name and its letters. As early as 1926 Syz discovered that a person's own name is special compared to others, eliciting physical responses measurable on the skin. It is thought that when a person recognizes the letters in his or her name, that person experiences positive feelings of implicit self-esteem. These positive feelings induce subjects to unknowingly select the letters of their own name, producing the name-letter effect.
556:. Because the original yoked design did not lend itself well to long-distance research and standardization, it was replaced by a simpler, easier to replicate experimental design. Subjects were asked to mark the six capital letters they liked most in a randomized list containing all letters of the local alphabet, again without giving it much thought. They had to mark their first preference with 1, their second with 2, etc. The new method was first applied in Belgium. When results showed the name-letter effect at work again, it was copied in the other countries. A total of 2,047 subjects participated, all students.
1316:(e.g. ACE or VIP) live significantly longer than those with negative initials (e.g. PIG or DIE). This conclusion was based on analysis of thousands of California death certificates between 1969 and 1995. Morrison and Smith subsequently pointed out that this was an artefact of grouping data by age at death. Frequency of initials changing over time could be a confounding variable. When they grouped the same data by birth year, they found no statistically significant relationship between initials and longevity. Similarly, Smith found statistical errors had led Abel and Kruger wrongly to conclude that
777:
significantly overestimated the frequency of letters in their names, although there was no significant positive correlation between the overestimation of frequency and the name-letter effect. The researchers also asked subjects to rate how much they liked their own name. Subjects who liked their name had a stronger name-letter effect than those who did not like their name, but they did not overestimate the frequency of own-name letters more than subjects who did not like their names. Hoorens and Nuttin concluded that there is no support for the subjective frequency hypothesis.
1149:
565:
effect was present but not to a significant degree. The effect was also found when only looking at letters in family names, as well as only first name letters. The name-letter effect emerged as very significant in all languages when only initials were considered. There was a probability of 0.46 that initial letters were chosen amongst the top-six letters. Further analysis revealed that the overall name-letter effect is not simply due to initials: when excluding initials a name-letter effect was still found across all languages.
3243:
1068:
sample of US first names of living people, Walter is a relatively old-fashioned name. He suggested that when Pelham et al. found a disproportionately high number of dentists whose name started with the letters "Den" compared to with "Wal", they had overlooked that people named Walter would tend to be old, and more likely to be retired. Baby-name fluctuation seemed a better explanation for disproportionately more "Den" dentists than "Wal" than implicit egotism. Using both a different data set (
1172:). They found that people who shared an initial with the hurricane were overrepresented as donors. They concluded that people want to overcome some of the negative feelings associated with the shared name and thus donate. Simonsohn suggested that implicit egotism only applies to cases where people are nearly indifferent between options, and therefore it would not apply to major decisions such as career choices, but would to low-stakes decisions such as choosing a charity.
422:: the penultimate letter from Irma's first name and a letter not part of her name. As can be seen in the table this is repeated for the remaining letters of Irma's first name. The letters of her last name then also appear in reverse order, and finally the letters of both of Jef's names. The shading in the table reveals the pattern hidden to subjects, who would have been told to circle their preferred letter of each pair as fast as possible without thinking.
952:. The task has also been called the Name Letter Preference Task, Name-Letter-Ratings Measure, and Initial Preference Task. There is no standard method for applying the task. The most commonly used one is a letter rating task, which involves having participants judge all the letters of the alphabet. Even within this method there are variations in the instructions (how much you like the letters or how attractive you find them), in the
482:, as reflected in the title of his 1985 article "Narcissism beyond Gestalt and awareness: the name letter effect", in which "beyond Gestalt" refers to the fact that subjects were not shown names, only letters in isolation, and "beyond awareness" to the fact that subjects did not realize that the letters of their own names were used. Nuttin claimed the effect he found was the first to go beyond Gestalt and awareness.
3381:
3281:
3172:
61:, the name-letter effect has been replicated in dozens of studies, involving subjects from over 15 countries, using four different alphabets. It holds across age and gender. People who changed their names many years ago tend to prefer the letters of both their current and original names over non-name letters. The effect is most prominent for
610:
and 2004, 114 times between 2005 and 2009, and approximately 200 times between 2010 and 2014. The name-letter effect is no longer disputed and Nuttin's work has been called "seminal" by
Stieger, Voracek, and Formann in their 2012 meta-analysis of 44 publications on the effect. Their meta-analysis found no trace of
1099:, did reveal a disproportionately large number of deceased people with cityβsurname matches. Dyjas et al. disputed that people gravitate towards cities of their surname, but instead cited Simonsohn's argument that many descendants of founders of these cities may never have moved away, a case of reverse causality.
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preferences for letters and numbers 1 to 50. They made half of them explain their preferences. They found a name-letter effect and birthday-number effect in those subjects asked to answer without thinking, but no effects in those asked to think. This points to the effect being the result of an automatic process.
823:
alphabet was
Cyrillic and their foreign-language alphabet Roman. Because learning a foreign language at a later age does not typically involve extra attention given to name letters, there should be no name-letter effect in the foreign-language alphabet, only in the first-language alphabet. Results of
758:
is a medium frequency letter, yet was still among the least preferred letters. In each of the languages, the least frequent letters were over-represented in the set of least preferred letters, whereas the most preferred letters were rarely the highest frequency letters. The exposure counts in the lab
220:
that people place a higher value on letters that feature in their name. It was crucial to the experimental design to rule out other factors, particularly mere exposure. If letters in a name are also letters that occur with higher frequency, then a preference for one's own letters might arise from the
1102:
Simonsohn also raised the possibility of reverse causality in the case of Anseel and Duyck's analysis of a large data set consisting of
Belgians' last names and the companies they work for. Anseel and Duyck concluded that people tend to choose to work for companies that match their initial. But
737:
and how attractive they were judged to be. Zajonc extended these studies, using foreign symbols and controlling the number of exposures. This led him to formulate the mere-exposure hypothesis: the more something is seen, the more it is liked. Nuttin's original study showed that mere exposure can not
609:
This all changed in 1995, when
Greenwald and Banaji pointed out that Nuttin's work was relevant to indirect measurement of self-esteem, which Nuttin himself had actually already suggested. After that the original study was cited 14 times in the five years between 1995 and 1999, 50 times between 2000
490:
In 1987 Nuttin published his second study, describing experiments done in 1984 and 1985 with the help of Hilde Sas. Because of the far-reaching implications of the name-letter effect for psychological theories, Nuttin found it wise to first test the effect's generality and robustness, before setting
433:
girls circled the letters they preferred in two yoked lists of letter pairs. A significant preference for the letters of one's own name over those of the other person was found. The second experiment used 98 Dutch-speaking local university students, to see if more years of reading made a difference.
1016:
In controlled studies in the lab, Hodson and Olson tried to find evidence of people liking everyday things (e.g. foods, animals) that matched their name initials. No evidence was found, neither for a between-subjects effect (e.g. Judy did not like things starting with J, such as jam, more than Doug
975:
Stieger, Voracek, and
Formann recommend that the task be administered twice, that the effects be calculated separately for first-name initial and last-name initial, that the task be accompanied with the birthday-number task, and that the instructions focus on liking rather than attractiveness. They
857:
Most people should like their name. Those that do not should not like their name letters. Hoorens and Nuttin tested this and found that most people rated their name relatively highly. They also found that subjects who evaluated their own name relatively positively liked their name letters more than
580:
As in the first study, the second one also included a task relating to disliking letters. Subjects were asked to select the six letters they liked the least. As before, merely having a letter in one's own name significantly reduced the chances of disliking it. This task revealed an asymmetry in the
927:
If there is a halo effect spreading to anything connected to the self, then people in relationships should like the name letters of their partners more than other letters. LeBel and
Campbell tested this and found a name-letter effect for initials of subjects' partners. DeHart, Pelham, Fiedorowicz,
923:
technique. They showed subjects the first and last initials of their own name or of a yoked subject's name, too briefly to be noticed. This was immediately followed by words such as "honest" and "lonely". Subjects had to quickly identify the word they had seen as positive or negative. It was found
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frequency was identical. Hoorens and Nuttin tested whether subjective frequency could be an explanation for the name-letter effect by asking subjects to rank-order the entire alphabet twice, once according to their letter preference and once according to estimated letter frequency. Subjects indeed
402:
in which two subjects evaluated the same letters separately. Some of the letters belonged to one subject's name, and some of the letters belonged to the other subject's name, while some were random. In this design, any difference in preference between subjects would have to be based on whether the
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double-correction algorithm (the so-called "I-algorithm"), as originally recommended and named by LeBel and
Gawronski). In her meta-analysis, Hoorens does not recommend a specific algorithm as little is known about how name-letter preference scores obtained from different algorithms relate to the
865:
Similar effects should be found for other attributes connected to the self, such as the numbers of one's birthday. Nickell, Pederson, and Rossow found that people like the numbers representing the month and year of their birth more. They also found that subjects liked the year of their graduation
1125:
In response to
Simonsohn's critical analyses of their earlier methods, Pelham and Carvallo published a new study in 2015, describing how they now controlled for gender, ethnicity, and education confounds. In one study they looked at census data and concluded that men disproportionately worked in
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Simonsohn urged researchers to look hard for confounding variables in field data analysis. An example of a confounding variable is baby-name popularity. This has fluctuated significantly over the decades. Simonsohn found that although Walter and Dennis are of near-identical popularity in a large
915:
has been found to increase under psychological threat. For the effect to be one of unconscious self-regulation it too should increase under threat. Jones, Pelham, Mirenberg, and Hetts found that when people who were high in explicit self-esteem were exposed to a psychological threat, they showed
903:
and Van
Knippenberg investigated this by asking Dutch students to rate each letter of the alphabet, together with some filler questions for distraction, twice within a four-week period. They found that preferences for name letters did not significantly change between the first and second rating.
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Bilinguals using two different alphabets should demonstrate a name-letter effect in both alphabets. A weaker effect should be found in the second alphabet, as names in second alphabets are likely to be less connected to the self. Hoorens and Todorova found that bilinguals with a tendency to like
564:
Across languages and letters, the average probability of a letter being chosen as one of the six preferred letters was 0.30 for name letters and 0.20 for other letters. The strongest effects were observed in the Norwegian and Finnish studies. In the Hungarian, Portuguese, and Italian studies the
50:
are asked to rank all letters of the alphabet, rate each of the letters, choose the letter they prefer out of a set of two, or pick a small set of letters they most prefer, on average people consistently like the letters in their own name the most. Crucially, subjects are not aware that they are
809:
Subjective ownership would occur if subjects knowingly chose the letters from their own name. Nuttin ruled out a conscious response strategy in tests. Despite being given a monetary reward and unlimited time, none of the subjects of his original study were able to find a pattern in the stimulus
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Gender-role orientation, the extent to which an individual adopts and displays traits, attitudes, and behaviors normatively identified as male-typical or female-typical, may also play a part in the name-letter effect. It can be measured by the gender initial-preference task, which requires
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To be an automatic process, the effect should, like other automatic processes involving preferences, be influenced by deliberate thought. Multiple studies have shown that thinking about feelings inhibits automatic responding. Koole, Dijksterhuis, and van Knippenberg had subjects give their
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Loosen's critique stemmed from misinterpreting Nuttin's experimental design. Loosen thought that subjects in the yoked experiments were randomly selected to form a pair. However, this had not been the case. Nuttin had selected pairs based on minimal overlap of syllables in the subjects'
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The data also allowed for an investigation into whether visual prominence is an important factor in the name-letter effect. Cars in Austria and Hungary have a sticker displaying their nationality with a capital letter that does not match the country's name in the local language (A and H
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in 1984, followed by the 1985 and 1987 articles referred to above. His work was met with widespread skepticism, as he had expected. Loosen, a researcher at Nuttin's own university, called the name-letter effect "so strange that a down-to-earth researcher will spontaneously think of an
941:, the name-letter effect has been exploited to measure self-esteem. There are two types of self-esteem: explicit self-esteem (a person's deliberate and conscious evaluation of themselves) and implicit self-esteem. Because by definition implicit self-esteem is not accessible to
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suggest it may be useful to use not just initials but all name letters for measuring implicit self-esteem, something which Hoorens says is her most important recommendation. The Letter Preference Task has been used to measure implicit self-esteem in contexts as diverse as
916:
exaggerated name-letter preferences. In contrast, low self-esteem participants showed evidence of the opposite tendency. Komori and Murata later replicated this response to threat with Japanese bilinguals who were asked to select preferred letters of the English alphabet.
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People may simply like most what they see most. Letters that appear more frequently in everyday usage also occur more often in people's names. Forer, in 1940, and Alluisi and Adams, in 1962, found a positive correlation between the frequency of occurrence of letters and
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has found that people ascribe more value to things merely because they own them. Nuttin puts the name-letter effect down to people automatically liking and valuing anything that is connected to them. As such, the name-letter effect is just one example of a more general
801:) with subjects' own names, and with other names. He found that there was no difference in how much subjects liked the kanji symbol representing their own name or other names. He concluded that evaluative conditioning is not the primary cause of the name-letter effect.
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Nuttin made the assumption that for any given letter, total exposure has been roughly the same for each subject. That is, an adult's name is read or written infrequently compared to all other words. Other researchers agreed; Greenwald and Banaji spoke of "reaching an
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that subjects categorized positive words more quickly if they were first primed with their own initials. There was no effect for negative words. The effects of initial-letter priming were especially strong for subjects with high levels of explicit self-esteem.
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a stimulus appears. Name letters may be noticed more and, consequently, assumed to occur more frequently than other letters. Early research into the impact of exposure showed that differences in subjective frequency yielded different results even when the
1136:. Voracek, Rieder, Stieger, and Swami investigated which way the arrow of causality points when it comes to names influencing choice of occupation. They reported that today's Smiths still tend to have the physical capabilities of their ancestors who were
1091: to show that there are several cities where the opposite happens, people moving away from their name Saint city. They concluded that there is no evidence for an overall effect. A different set of cities containing 30 surnames, such as
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their name letters in Cyrillic also had a tendency to like their name letters in the Roman alphabet. The effect was found to be weaker in the second alphabet. This was replicated in a Thai-English study by Hoorens, Nuttin, Herman and Pavakanun.
568:
Nuttin analyzed the data to see if there was a national-letter effect, but failed to find one. Norwegians did not favor the letter N (for Norge) more than people from other countries did, neither did the Hungarians favor the letter M (for
84:, and hence the letters of the name are preferred, despite the fact that they appear in many other words. People who do not like themselves tend not to exhibit the name-letter effect. A similar effect has been found for numbers related to
1111:, many people work for companies named after themselves or a family member. When he controlled for reverse causality in a large US data set, he could not see any evidence for people choosing to work for companies matching their initial.
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suggests that if the name is liked then the name letters will be liked too. This would occur through repeated visual association of the name letters with the name. Martin and Levey defined evaluative conditioning as a variation of
1272:
The effect was not due to the two alphabets sharing letters. It was found for common letters with identical pronunciation (AEKMT), common letters with different pronunciation (BCFPYU), and Roman capitals not appearing in Cyrillic
499:
processes at work. He wondered whether the effect would be found in all cultural and linguistic communities, or whether the first study revealed an effect due to some unknown idiosyncratic aspect of the Dutch language in Belgium.
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when he noticed that he preferred plates containing letters from his own name. He wondered if people in general would prefer stimuli that are somehow connected to them; a "mere belongingness" as opposed to Zajonc's mere exposure.
1060:, starting with Pelham, Mirenberg, and Jones, has investigated whether people unknowingly make life decisions based on their name letters or name. Sceptics say that a claim that name letters influence life decisions is
3736:
Hoorens, V.; Takano, K.; Franck, E.; Roberts, J.E.; Raes, F. (2015). "Initial and noninitial name-letter preferences as obtained through repeated letter rating tasks continue to reflect (different aspects of) self-esteem".
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continued to show a preference for the initial of their abandoned birth name decades into their marriage. Also, subjects who had been married less than two years already showed a name-letter effect for their new last name
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Wilson, T. D.; Dunn, D. S.; Kraft, D.; Lisle, D. J. (1989). "Introspection, attitude change, and attitude-behavior consistency: The disruptive effects of explaining why we feel the way we do". In Berkowitz, L. (ed.).
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The letters first learned by a child, commonly their own name, may come to have lasting positive associations. Hoorens and Todorova tested this by looking for a name-letter effect in bilingual subjects where their
1043: students they found that groups sharing initials performed better than groups that did not. Groups that had a higher proportion of shared initials exceeded groups with a lower proportion of shared initials.
759:
studies done by Zajonc (20 to 25 times) were minuscule compared to real-life observation counts of any letter, which also caused Nuttin to cast doubt on whether Zajonc's theory could hold true in the real world.
1159:
Research by Chandler, Griffin, and Sorensen into a link between letter names and donations has been widely accepted. They analyzed the records of disaster relief donations after seven hurricanes (among others,
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letter preference hierarchy. While there was a large consensus within each of the 12 languages as to which letters were least preferred, there was not much consensus at all around the most preferred letters.
1188:
This asymmetry is similar to what CzapiΕski found when analyzing school-trip companion preferences: much consensus as to who were the three least preferred students, but little in who were the three most
738:
be the cause of the name-letter effect, as letters with equal frequency were evaluated differently by people who had the letter in their names and those who did not. He also found that whereas the letter
602:, but they doubted its psychological relevance. In the first five years after publication (1985β1989), Nuttin's 1985 article was cited only once and the effect was studied at only one other university (
870:
for the day of the month, especially for numbers higher than 12. The higher numbers may be more uniquely associated with birthdays, whereas lower numbers could be more saturated with other meanings.
1118:(shown on the scoreboard with a 'K'), despite an earlier study by Nelson and Simmons suggesting there was. Nelson and Simmons also found that students with first name initials C or D get lower
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in which we come to like or dislike something through an association. Given the observation that our own name stands out among others as quite an attractive stimulus, as Cherry found in the
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participants to rate letters for their gender typicality. Men have been shown to rate their initial letters as more male-typical, whereas women rate their initials as more female-typical.
1024: "I" and "my" in branding also had an effect on preferences, given the way these pronouns link to the self. They found that brand names with a generic self-referencing pronoun (e.g.
3893:
Kernis, M. H.; Lakey, C. E.; Heppner, W. L. (2008). "Secure versus fragile high self-esteem as a predictor of verbal defensiveness: Converging findings across three different markers".
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Overlooking a cohort confound was also the problem with controversial research that tied initials to death. Christenfeld, Phillips, and Glynn concluded that people who have positive
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Dyjas, Grasman, Wetzels, van der Maas, and Wagenmakers criticized the method Pelham et al. used in their analysis of archives of deaths in 23 "Saint cities" in the US, such as
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A few controversial studies have linked performance to initials. However, McCullough and Williams found no evidence of a name-letter effect for the letter 'K' in baseball players
919:
If the effect is an automatic process, then the subliminal use of name letters should influence other preferences. Wentura, Kulfanek, and Greve investigated this by the use of a
4782:
Spalding, Leah R.; Hardin, Curtis D. (1999). "Unconscious unease and self-handicapping: Behavioral consequences of individual differences in implicit and explicit self-esteem".
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DeHart, Tracy; Pelham, Brett; Fiedorowicz, Luke; Carvallo, Mauricio; Gabriel, Shira (2011). "Including others in the implicit self: Implicit evaluation of significant others".
1036:). The effect behaved like the name-letter effect: when the self was put under threat the effect became stronger, and it disappeared for people with negative self-evaluations.
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for calculating implicit self-esteem. At least six algorithms are in use. In their meta-analysis of the name-letter effect, Stieger, Voracek, and Formann recommend using the
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Jones, John T.; Pelham, Brett W.; Mirenberg, Matthew C.; Hetts, John J. (2002). "Name letter preferences are not merely mere exposure: Implicit egotism as self-regulation".
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Jones, John T.; Pelham, Brett W.; Carvallo, Mauricio; Mirenberg, Matthew C. (2004). "How do I love thee? Let me count the Js: Implicit egotism and interperson attraction".
1087:. Whereas Pelham et al. pooled all data together and concluded that people gravitate towards cities matching their first name (e.g. Louis or Paul), Dyjas et al. used
797:, it could be that the name-letter effect results from evaluative conditioning. Feys set up a controlled study with Flemish subjects, pairing unfamiliar symbols (Japanese
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Wentura, Dirk; Kulfanek, Michael; Greve, Werner (2001). "Masked affective priming by name letters: Evidence for a correspondence of explicit and implicit self-esteem".
1076: accounts) and a different statistical analysis, Kooti, Magno, and Weber found no evidence of people disproportionately having a job matching their name initials.
119:). Studies that investigate the impact of name-letter matching on bigger life decisions (where to live, whom to marry, which occupation to take on) are controversial.
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is rarely used, Hoorens, Nuttin, Herman and Pavakanun found a much stronger effect for first name than family name. Kitayama and Karasawa found no special effect for
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Researchers have looked for evidence of the driving force behind the name-letter effect outside the lab. A body of controversial research under the umbrella of
589:
In the light of how surprising the finding was, Nuttin hesitated for seven years before finally going public with it. He first mentioned it at a conference of the
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Kooti, Farshad; Magno, Gabriel; Weber, Ingmar (2014). "The social name-letter effect on online social networks". In Aiello, Luca Maria; McFarland, Daniel (eds.).
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than others with initials A or B. Again, McCullough and Williams criticized the statistical analysis used and found no evidence to support such a relation.
470:, and frequency characteristics, letters belonging to one's own first and family names are preferred above other letters. He framed the effect in the context of
832:
The effect is thought to arise from unconscious, automatic processes of self-evaluation, with different research groups coming at it from two different angles.
647:, including as to how often family names or initials are used, the effect seems to apply across cultures. In their study with subjects from Thailand, where the
4181:
LeBel, Etienne P.; Gawronski, Bertram (2009). "How to find what's in a name: Scrutinizing the optimality of five scoring algorithms for the name-letter task".
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Stieger, S.; Burger, C.; Schiller, F.R.; Schulze, E.K.; Voracek, M. (2014). "Measuring implicit gender-role orientation: The Gender Initial Preference Task".
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956:(five-point, seven-point, or nine-point), in the order of the letters (random or alphabetical), and in data collection (paper-and-pencil or computer-based).
438:, infrequent in Dutch, included or excluded; own-name letters presented first or last. All conditions gave a name-letter effect, with a stronger effect when
945:, measures of it do not rely on direct self-reports but on the degree to which objects associated with the self generate positive versus negative thoughts.
434:
Four other factors were varied: either pairs or triads of letters; encircling the preferred letter or crossing out the less preferred ones; the letters
4840:
Stieger, S.; LeBel, E. (2012). "Nameβletter preferences for new last name and abandoned birth name initials in the context of name-change via marriage".
3554:
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A study by Polman, Pollmann, and Poehlman found that sharing initials with members in a group can increase the quality of group work. In a study of
88:: people tend to prefer the number signifying the day of the month on which they were born. Alternative explanations for the name-letter effect, such as
4660:
Generality of Nuttin's name letter effect and asymmetrical letter choice effect: Some preliminary results of a cross-sectional and cross-lingual study
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3214:
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Various explanations for the name-letter effect have been explored. Several explanations which seemed plausible at first have since been rejected.
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Scope: The name-letter effect is stronger for initials than for non-initials, but generally still holds even when excluding initials from analysis.
4545:
Pelham, B.; Mirenberg, Matthew C.; Jones, John T. (2002). "Why Susie sells seashells by the seashore: Implicit egotism and major life decisions".
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107:
matching their initials. An analysis of a large database of charity donations revealed that a disproportionately large number of people donate to
4139:
5102:
4257:
4234:
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4059:
3456:
3342:
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173:(e.g. "on" or "off"): in the overwhelming majority of trials the preferred word was also the most common. Zajonc also tested preferences for
4137:
Krizan, Zlatan; Suls, Jerry (2008). "Are implicit and explicit measures of self-esteem related? A meta-analysis for the Name-Letter Test".
3446:
4244:
Martin, I.; Levey, A. B. (1987). "Learning what will happen next: Conditioning, evaluation, and cognitive processes". In Davey, G. (ed.).
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Koole, Sander L.; Smeets, Karianne; van Knippenberg, Ad; Dijksterhuis, Ap (1999). "The cessation of rumination through self-affirmation".
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4337:
3739:
4913:
3252:
3043:
Albers, L.; Rotteveel, M.; Dijksterhuis, A. (2009). "Towards optimizing the name letter test as a measure of implicit self-esteem".
573:). This led Nuttin to conclude that individual ownership has affective consequences that are not observed for collective ownership.
3650:"Mastery pleasure versus mere ownership: A quasi-experimental cross-cultural and cross-alphabetical test of the name letter effect"
4389:
4160:
LeBel, E. P.; Campbell, L. (2009). "Implicit partner affect, relationship satisfaction, and the prediction of romantic breakup".
3872:
4574:
Pelham, Brett; Carvallo, Mauricio (2015). "When Tex and Tess Carpenter build houses in Texas: Moderators of implicit egotism".
4183:
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Corenblum, B.; Armstrong, Helen D. (2012). "Racial-ethnic identity development in children in a racial-ethnic minority group".
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Nuttin, Jozef M. Jr. (1987). "Affective consequences of mere ownership: The name letter effect in twelve European languages".
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Age: The effect has been found in people ranging from school children to university students, middle-aged and old-aged adults.
4811:
Stieger, Stefan (2010). "Name-letter branding under scrutiny: Real products, new algorithms, and the probability of buying".
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Other studies have since also found the effect to increase over age, for instance, Corenblum and Armstrong in their study of
1140:. In the researchers' view a genetic-social hypothesis appeared more viable than the hypothesis of implicit egotism effects.
209:
103:
There is some evidence that the effect has implications for real-life decisions. In the lab, people disproportionately favor
3870:
Kahneman, D.; Knetsch, J. L.; Thaler, R. H. (1991). "Anomalies: The endowment effect, loss aversion, and status quo bias".
3552:
Hodson, G.; Olson, J. M. (2005). "Testing the generality of the name letter effect: Name initials and everyday attitudes".
4981:
Treiman, Rebecca; Broderick, Victor (1998). "What's in a name: Children's knowledge about the letters in their own name".
4952:
4463:
Nickell, Gary; Pederson, Katie; Rossow, Cassie (2003). "The birthdate effect: An extension of the mere ownership effect".
4298:
3780:
1008:
Researchers have looked for wider implications of the name-letter effect on preferences, both inside and outside the lab.
446:
was found using family name rather than first name or both names. While the effect was strongest for initials, subsequent
3118:
1283:
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1225:
Koole, Smeets, van Knippenberg, and Dijksterhuis found an effect only for initials, not for letters in other positions.
3003:
928:
Carvallo, and Gabriel concluded that the effect applies to parent-child, sibling and friendship relationships as well.
4296:
McCullough, B. D.; Williams, Thomas P. (2010). "Baseball players with the initial "K" do not strike out more often".
948:
The Letter Preference Task is the second-most popular method to measure implicit self-esteem, surpassed only by the
3682:
904:
Hoorens and colleagues also found that ratings remained stable when 164 subjects rated letters seven days in a row.
148:
5192:
3961:
Komori, Megumi; Murata, Koji (2008). "Implicit egotism in Japan: Preference for first and family name initials".
993:
977:
949:
912:
189:
3932:
Kitayama, Shinobu; Karasawa, Mayumi (1997). "Implicit self-esteem in Japan: Name letters and birthday numbers".
3674:
3380:
3280:
3250:
Christenfeld, N.; Phillips, D. P.; Glynn, L. M. (1999). "What's in a name: Mortality and the power of symbols".
3171:
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respectively). This did not have any impact on people in those countries liking those letters relatively more.
93:
3996:
3388:
Dyjas, Oliver; Grasman, Raoul P. P. P.; Wetzels, Ruud; van der Maas, Han L. J.; Wagenmakers, Eric-Jan (2012).
1126:
eleven occupations that matched their surnames, for example, Baker, Carpenter, and Farmer, something the
4708:
Simonsohn, Uri (2011b). "Spurious also? Name-similarity effects (implicit egotism) in employment decisions".
3503:
Greenwald, A. G.; Banaji, M R. (1995). "Implicit social cognition: attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes".
3394:
1108:
1096:
899:
To be an automatic process, the effect should, for each specific person, be fairly stable over time. Koole,
785:
671:
508:
Cross-lingual studies were performed at 13 European universities, using 12 different languages, viz. Dutch,
406:
For example, take the fictitious pair Irma Maes and Jef Jacobs as shown in the table. The first stimulus is
4605:"The name-letter-effect in groups: Sharing initials with group members increases the quality of group work"
3242:
1234:
The exceptions are a study by Albers, Rotteveel, and Dijksterhuis, and one by Stieger, Preyss, and Voracek.
1148:
4890:
Stieger, S.; Preyss, A.V.; Voracek, M. (2012). "Romantic jealousy and implicit and explicit self-esteem".
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47:
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and found that people liked them the more they heard them. He interpreted these results as evidence that
5161:
4496:
Opening Lecture of the 7th General Meeting of the European Association of Experimental Social Psychology
4465:
4335:
McCullough, B. D.; Williams, Thomas P. (2011). "Students with the initial "A" don't get better grades".
3123:
1317:
1084:
850:
794:
675:
603:
599:
213:
182:
4950:
Syz, Hans C. (1926). "Observations on the unreliability of subjective reports of emotional reactions".
3085:
Alluisi, E. A.; Adams, O. S. (1962). "Predicting letter preferences: Aesthetics and filtering in man".
5197:
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4307:
4249:
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841:
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178:
156:
152:
97:
89:
3845:
3705:"What's really in a name-letter effect? Name-letter preferences as indirect measures of self-esteem"
3519:
3179:
Beggan, James K. (1992). "On the social nature of nonsocial perception: The mere ownership effect".
626:
of dozens of name-letter effect studies, Hoorens called the effect robust. She noted robustness in:
3907:
549:
492:
166:
5202:
5014:"What's in a surname? Physique, aptitude, and sports type comparisons between Tailors and Smiths"
4938:
4878:
4861:
Stieger, S.; Voracek, M.; Formann, A.K. (2012). "How to administer the Initial Preference Task".
4799:
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3231:
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3102:
3070:
3028:
659:
541:
533:
463:
81:
4503:
Nuttin, Jozef M. Jr. (1985). "Narcissism beyond Gestalt and awareness: the name letter effect".
3436:
5126:
972:. The algorithms are typically applied to initials only, but can be used for all name letters.
5098:
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5000:
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4930:
4828:
4762:
4725:
4688:
4646:
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4253:
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3532:
3423:
3338:
3269:
3140:
3020:
3001:
Abel, Ernest L.; Kruger, Michael L. (2007). "Symbolic significance of initials on longevity".
1161:
1152:
985:
888:
880:
663:
132:
116:
35:
4669:"Spurious? Name similarity effects (implicit egotism) in marriage, job, and moving decisions"
4039:
5170:
5143:
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5043:
5033:
4992:
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4849:
4820:
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3716:
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3491:
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3413:
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3361:
3299:
3261:
3223:
3190:
3132:
3094:
3060:
3052:
3012:
1088:
1057:
1021:
969:
845:
644:
611:
595:
553:
537:
513:
509:
426:
140:
128:
3778:
Horton, David L.; Mecherikoff, Michael (1960). "Letter preferences: Ranking the alphabet".
1320:
players whose names have positive initials live longer than players with negative initials.
5087:
4426:
Nelson, Lief; Simmons, Joseph P. (2007). "Moniker maladies: When names sabotage success".
4366:
Mecherikoff, Michael; Horton, David L. (1959). "Preferences for letters of the alphabet".
1216:, saying there is no need to create the illusion of two phenomena where there is only one.
1169:
981:
900:
705:
Time: In a study on preferences for initials, Stieger and LeBel found that people who had
640:
545:
521:
517:
459:
414:: the last letter of Irma's first name and a letter not in her name. The next stimulus is
131:
studies by researchers Mecherikoff and Horton. These tried to find the relative appeal of
108:
570:
27:
Tendency of people to prefer the letters in their name over other letters in the alphabet
5029:
4622:
4311:
4094:
Social Informatics - Proceedings of SocInfo 2014, Barcelona, Spain, November 11-13, 2014
1208:
Because the effect is most profound for initials, Johnson had christened the effect the
5122:
5048:
5013:
4965:
4641:
4604:
4402:
4069:
Koole, Sander (2007). "Name letter effect". In Baumeister, Roy; Vohs, Kathleen (eds.).
3418:
3389:
1165:
1061:
820:
687:
529:
525:
475:
430:
4824:
3265:
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4700:
4595:
4439:
3953:
3916:
3761:
3728:
3704:
3649:
3620:
3595:
3441:
3373:
3315:
3136:
3106:
3074:
1128:
1040:
997:
942:
667:
652:
623:
447:
196:
174:
162:
39:
5156:
4942:
4774:
4455:
4418:
4327:
4204:
4129:
3583:
3454:
Feys, J. (1995). "Mere ownership: Affective self-bias or evaluative conditioning?".
3235:
3152:
3032:
810:
lists, ruling out the possibility that they knew their own name-letters were there.
4737:
4662:. Leuven, Belgium: Laboratorium voor Experimentele Sociale Psychology, K.U. Leuven.
3544:
1213:
953:
192:
58:
55:
4587:
3621:"Nuttin's affective selfparticles hypothesis and the name letter effect: A review"
1032:) were evaluated more positively than non-self-referencing brand names (e.g.
655:, where name initials are rarely used, but did find an overall name-letter effect.
17:
5088:"Me, myself, and Ikea: Qualifying the role of implicit egotism in brand judgment"
5038:
4926:
4758:
4631:
4111:
3720:
4853:
4043:
1104:
884:
144:
77:
5174:
5078:
4903:
4558:
4173:
4152:
4012:
3987:
3854:
3695:
3194:
891:
and Banaji in 1995, this group states that the name-letter effect results from
5097:. 40. Duluth, Minnesota: Association for Consumer Research. pp. 733β734.
4745:
Smith, Gary (2011). "Another look at baseball player initials and longevity".
4350:
4319:
3528:
3390:"What's in a name: a Bayesian hierarchical analysis of the nameβletter effect"
3365:
3227:
3156:
3098:
3056:
3016:
1137:
695:
633:
Gender: All but two studies found the effect equally strong for women and men.
471:
217:
66:
4973:
4721:
4478:
4358:
4267:
Matlin, Margaret W. (1971). "Response competition, recognition, and affect".
3945:
3567:
3408:
4795:
4537:
4516:
4226:
3665:
3611:
3596:"The name letter effect: Attachment to self or primacy of own name writing?"
3469:
1296:
1115:
1080:
960:
866:
more. In a study of Japanese students, Kitayama and Karasawa found a strong
648:
479:
467:
112:
5057:
4996:
4934:
4832:
4766:
4729:
4692:
4650:
4566:
4486:
4447:
4410:
4040:"On the nature of implicit self-esteem: The case of the name letter effect"
4030:
3924:
3862:
3823:
3770:
3427:
3273:
3206:
3144:
3024:
5004:
4288:
4096:. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. pp. 216β227.
3675:"Overvaluation of own attributes: Mere ownership or subjective frequency?"
3575:
3536:
1073:
458:
Nuttin concluded that the experiments showed that, independent of visual,
147:. While there was not a great deal of agreement amongst the subjects (the
4609:
3648:
Hoorens, Vera; Nuttin, Jozef M. Jr.; Herman, I.E.; Pavakanun, U. (1990).
1313:
964:
691:
85:
43:
5012:
Voracek, Martin; Rieder, Stephan; Stieger, Stefan; Swami, Viren (2015).
3885:
450:
revealed a significant effect even without the first and last initials.
3752:
2578:
2576:
2539:
2537:
1069:
1029:
734:
683:
115:
with names sharing their initial letter (e.g. Kate and Kevin following
70:
62:
4021:
3207:"In the "I" of the storm: Shared initials increase disaster donations"
3065:
2296:
2294:
1829:
1801:
1799:
1155:: people with the initial K especially donated to the disaster relief.
662:, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian,
5147:
4684:
4387:
Morrison, Stilian; Smith, Gary (2005). "Monogrammatic determinism?".
4379:
4280:
3793:
3495:
3303:
3119:"Unconscious applicants: A systematic test of the name-letter effect"
1303:
can not be used in isolation as their sound depends on their context.
1025:
65:, but even when initials are excluded, the remaining letters of both
4874:
4196:
4603:
Polman, Evan; Pollmann, Monique M. H.; Poehlman, T. Andrew (2013).
3639:
5134:
Zajonc, Robert B. (1968). "Attitudinal effects of mere exposure".
1916:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1300:
1253:
The only known exception is a study by Kernis, Lakey, and Heppner.
1147:
840:
Nuttin frames the cause in terms of ownership, which has roots in
798:
398:
To find an effect which ruled out mere exposure, Nuttin created a
104:
3205:
Chandler, Jesse; Griffin, Tiffany M.; Sorensen, Nicholas (2008).
2908:
2906:
2713:
2711:
2146:
2144:
2142:
2117:
2115:
3995:
Koole, Sander L.; Dijksterhuis, Ap; van Knippenberg, Ad (2001).
2408:
2384:
2360:
1033:
699:
606:, where Johnson replicated the effect using American students).
598:". Other researchers did not explicitly say that the effect was
491:
off on a research program aimed at understanding the underlying
442:
were included and the less preferred letter was crossed out. No
170:
127:
Systematic interest in the letter preference began in 1959 with
3997:"What's in a name: implicit self-esteem and the automatic self"
2849:
2837:
2825:
2480:
2039:
2037:
169:, published research in 1968 into preferences between pairs of
879:
Another group of researchers has framed the cause in terms of
1020:
Wiebenga and Fennis investigated whether the use of the
746:
of medium frequency, in experiments with French speakers the
96:, the Name Letter Preference Task is widely used to estimate
2729:
2273:
2210:
2198:
2174:
1932:
1901:
1877:
1865:
3803:
The initial letter effect: ego-attachment or mere exposure?
1841:
1062:
an extraordinary claim that requires extraordinary evidence
135:
for use in package labels. In an extension of the studies,
2372:
5093:. In GΓΌrhan-Canli, Zeynep; Otnes, Cele; Zhu, Rui (eds.).
3480:
Forer, B. R. (1940). "A study of consonant preferences".
2948:
2777:
2420:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1703:
4246:
Cognitive processes and Pavlovian conditioning in humans
3805:. PhD dissertation. Columbus: The Ohio State University.
1534:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1526:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1472:
1470:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1408:
853:. In which case, various verifiable predictions follow.
2960:
2221:
2219:
1433:
1431:
1429:
5157:"Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences"
2690:
2066:
2064:
591:
European Association of Experimental Social Psychology
2582:
2543:
2492:
2285:
2237:
1817:
1805:
639:
Culture: Although there are many differences between
2702:
2444:
2396:
1853:
754:
was among the least liked. Similarly, in Polish the
5114:
4494:Nuttin, Jozef M. Jr. (1984). "What's in a name?".
2924:
2897:
2186:
1889:
159:it occurred as an initial letter of family names.
155:was found between a letter's average rank and how
73:still tend to be preferred over non-name letters.
1351:
1339:
858:subjects who evaluated their own name negatively.
3316:"Positiveβnegative asymmetry on the group level"
2106:
1920:
767:Subjective frequency is how frequently subjects
750:was among the most highly liked letters and the
2765:
2324:
2312:
2300:
2162:
2150:
2133:
2121:
1790:
702:). In all cases a name-letter effect was found.
2717:
2678:
2606:
2555:
2504:
2409:Koole, Dijksterhuis & van Knippenberg 2001
2385:Koole, Dijksterhuis & van Knippenberg 2001
2361:Koole, Dijksterhuis & van Knippenberg 2001
3334:Linguistic anthropology: A brief introduction
2912:
2789:
2468:
2261:
2043:
1956:
742:is of low frequency in French and the letter
185:is sufficient to enhance its attractiveness.
8:
5136:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
4673:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
4547:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
4269:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
4214:The name letter effect: A fascinating idolum
4001:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
3976:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
3833:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
3673:Hoorens, Vera; Nuttin, Jozef M. Jr. (1993).
3182:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
2432:
1980:
1944:
1363:
968:most important psychometric quality of all,
5086:Wiebenga, Jacob H.; Fennis, Bob M. (2012).
4038:Koole, Sander L.; Pelham, Brett W. (2003).
2873:
2642:
2630:
2618:
2456:
2348:
2055:
92:and early mastery, have been ruled out. In
5117:Advances in experimental social psychology
3934:Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
3555:Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
2984:
2972:
2885:
2861:
2813:
2753:
2516:
666:, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Spanish,
5067:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
5047:
5037:
4640:
4630:
4162:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
4101:
4020:
3906:
3844:
3812:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
3760:
3638:
3518:
3417:
3407:
3064:
1842:Albers, Rotteveel & Dijksterhuis 2009
1682:
658:Language: 15 languages have been tested (
143:by the pleasantness of the appearance of
4984:Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
4046:; Mark P. Zanna; James M. Olson (eds.).
3449:from the original on September 18, 2016.
2936:
2082:
228:
34:is the tendency of people to prefer the
3291:Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science
2778:Christenfeld, Phillips & Glynn 1999
2666:
2654:
2594:
2567:
2528:
2094:
1766:
1754:
1717:
1420:
1332:
1181:
4892:Personality and Individual Differences
4140:Personality and Individual Differences
3963:Hitotsubashi Journal of Social Studies
3594:Hoorens, Vera; Todorova, Elka (1988).
3326:(3): 203β205 – via ResearchGate.
2741:
2249:
2028:
2016:
2004:
1992:
1778:
1729:
1694:
1670:
1658:
1646:
1634:
1622:
1610:
1598:
1586:
1574:
1550:
1538:
1517:
1505:
1488:
1476:
1461:
1449:
1437:
1399:
1387:
1375:
4526:European Journal of Social Psychology
4505:European Journal of Social Psychology
3457:European Journal of Social Psychology
3337:. Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press.
2961:Chandler, Griffin & Sorensen 2008
2801:
2225:
1968:
670:), covering four language families (
7:
3709:European Review of Social Psychology
3654:European Review of Social Psychology
3600:European Review of Social Psychology
3117:Anseel, Frederik; Duyck, W. (2008).
2691:Polman, Pollmann & Poehlman 2013
2070:
1103:Simonsohn suspected that, like
195:was driving on a highway looking at
2583:Stieger, Voracek & Formann 2012
2544:Stieger, Voracek & Formann 2012
2493:Stieger, Voracek & Formann 2012
2336:
2286:Nickell, Pederson & Rossow 2003
2238:Kahneman, Knetsch & Thaler 1991
1818:Stieger, Voracek & Formann 2012
1806:Stieger, Voracek & Formann 2012
1562:
5095:NA - Advances in Consumer Research
4966:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1926.tb00415.x
4403:10.1097/01.psy.0000181283.51771.8a
4338:Journal of Research in Personality
2703:Pelham, Mirenberg & Jones 2002
2445:Wentura, Kulfanek & Greve 2001
1854:Stieger, Preyss & Voracek 2012
80:; the name is associated with the
54:Discovered in 1985 by the Belgian
51:choosing letters from their name.
25:
4914:Journal of Personality Assessment
4825:10.2466/01.07.PMS.110.C.1089-1097
4221:Mack, Arien; Rock, Irvin (1998).
4071:Encyclopedia of Social Psychology
3253:Journal of Psychosomatic Research
1212:. Nuttin did not agree with this
707:changed their name after marrying
4440:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.02032.x
3917:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00493.x
3873:Journal of Economic Perspectives
3379:
3279:
3241:
3170:
3137:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02199.x
1890:Kernis, Lakey & Heppner 2008
1299:were presented as stimuli. Thai
4863:European Journal of Personality
4184:European Journal of Personality
1089:Bayesian hierarchical modelling
403:letter occurred in their name.
3435:Feedback (December 17, 1994).
2925:McCullough & Williams 2011
2898:McCullough & Williams 2010
2187:Corenblum & Armstrong 2012
210:Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
1:
4953:British Journal of Psychology
4588:10.1080/15298868.2015.1070745
4368:Journal of Applied Psychology
4299:Journal of Applied Statistics
4073:. Thousand Oaks, California:
3781:Journal of Applied Psychology
3320:Polish Psychological Bulletin
3266:10.1016/S0022-3999(99)00035-5
2766:Kooti, Magno & Weber 2014
1352:Horton & Mecherikoff 1960
1340:Mecherikoff & Horton 1959
5039:10.1371/journal.pone.0131795
4927:10.1080/00223891.2013.825622
4759:10.2466/05.PMS.112.1.211-216
4632:10.1371/journal.pone.0079039
4225:. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
4112:10.1007/978-3-319-13734-6_15
3721:10.1080/10463283.2014.980085
3215:Judgment and Decision Making
2107:Treiman & Broderick 1998
1921:Kitayama & Karasawa 1997
230:First 11 stimuli for a yoke
4813:Perceptual and Motor Skills
4747:Perceptual and Motor Skills
4048:Motivated Social Perception
3087:Perceptual and Motor Skills
3004:Perceptual and Motor Skills
2325:Greenwald & Banaji 1995
2313:Greenwald & Banaji 1995
2301:Greenwald & Banaji 1995
2163:Hoorens & Todorova 1988
2151:Hoorens & Todorova 1988
2134:Hoorens & Todorova 1988
2122:Hoorens & Todorova 1988
1791:Greenwald & Banaji 1995
149:coefficients of concordance
5224:
5175:10.1037/0003-066X.35.2.151
5155:Zajonc, Robert B. (1980).
5079:10.1016/j.jesp.2004.02.005
4904:10.1016/j.paid.2011.08.028
4559:10.1037/0022-3514.82.4.469
4174:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.07.003
4153:10.1016/j.paid.2007.09.017
4013:10.1037/0022-3514.80.4.669
3988:10.1037/0022-3514.77.1.111
3855:10.1037/0022-3514.87.5.665
3696:10.1521/soco.1993.11.2.177
3314:CzapiΕski, Janusz (1980).
3195:10.1037/0022-3514.62.2.229
2718:Pelham & Carvallo 2015
2679:Wiebenga & Fennis 2012
2607:LeBel & Gawronski 2009
2556:LeBel & Gawronski 2009
2505:Spalding & Hardin 1999
42:over other letters in the
4854:10.1027/1864-9335/a000075
4351:10.1016/j.jrp.2011.03.006
4320:10.1080/02664760902889965
3762:10067/1268890151162165141
3529:10.1037/0033-295x.102.1.4
3376:– via Google Books.
3366:10.1080/15298861003687880
3228:10.1017/S1930297500000425
3099:10.2466/pms.1962.14.1.123
3057:10.1080/15298860802091062
3017:10.2466/pms.104.1.179-182
2913:Nelson & Simmons 2007
2790:Morrison & Smith 2005
2469:LeBel & Campbell 2009
2262:Hoorens & Nuttin 1993
2044:Hoorens & Nuttin 1993
1957:Hoorens & Nuttin 1993
950:Implicit Association Test
939:psychological assessments
528:(the only one with a non-
237:
234:
190:experimental psychologist
94:psychological assessments
5121:. 22. Orlando, Florida:
4722:10.1177/0956797611413937
4667:Simonsohn, Uri (2011a).
4479:10.2466/PR0.92.1.161-163
3946:10.1177/0146167297237006
3740:Psychological Assessment
3568:10.1177/0146167205274895
3409:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00334
2433:Komori & Murata 2008
1981:Alluisi & Adams 1962
1945:Stieger & LeBel 2012
1364:Alluisi & Adams 1962
992:, feedback sensitivity,
4796:10.1111/1467-9280.00202
4538:10.1002/ejsp.2420170402
4517:10.1002/ejsp.2420150309
4248:. Chichester, England:
4223:Inattentional Blindness
3801:Johnson, M. S. (1986).
3666:10.1002/ejsp.2420200302
3612:10.1002/ejsp.2420180406
3589:(subscription required)
3475:(subscription required)
3470:10.1002/ejsp.2420250507
3395:Frontiers in Psychology
3331:Danesi, Marcel (2012).
3309:(subscription required)
3200:(subscription required)
3112:(subscription required)
3080:(subscription required)
3038:(subscription required)
2874:Anseel & Duyck 2008
2643:Hodson & Olson 2005
2631:Hodson & Olson 2005
2619:Hodson & Olson 2005
2457:Koole & Pelham 2003
2349:Koole & Pelham 2003
2056:Martin & Levey 1987
887:theory. Beginning with
786:Evaluative conditioning
781:Evaluative conditioning
425:In the first trial, 38
139:were asked to rank the
4997:10.1006/jecp.1998.2448
4819:(3, Pt 2): 1089β1097.
4390:Psychosomatic Medicine
4050:. Mahwah, New Jersey:
3895:Journal of Personality
3824:10.1006/jesp.2001.1497
3703:Hoorens, Vera (2014).
3619:Hoorens, Vera (1990).
3483:Psychological Bulletin
2814:Abel & Kruger 2007
2517:Krizan & Suls 2008
1156:
1134:nominative determinism
1132: has coined
868:birthday-number effect
791:classical conditioning
686:) and five alphabets (
444:significant difference
221:mere-exposure effect.
179:mere repeated exposure
5162:American Psychologist
4784:Psychological Science
4710:Psychological Science
4466:Psychological Reports
4428:Psychological Science
4042:. In Steven Spencer;
3124:Psychological Science
1318:Major League Baseball
1210:initial-letter effect
1151:
1052:Controversial studies
959:There is no standard
851:mere-ownership effect
795:cocktail party effect
604:Ohio State University
188:Around 1977, Belgian
5169:(2, Pt.2): 151β175.
3626:Psychologica Belgica
3506:Psychological Review
2303:, pp. 4, 10β11.
2083:Mack & Rock 1998
990:unrealistic optimism
893:implicit self-esteem
875:Implicit self-esteem
805:Subjective ownership
763:Subjective frequency
400:yoked control design
214:designed experiments
153:positive correlation
151:were low), a strong
98:implicit self-esteem
5030:2015PLoSO..1031795V
4658:Sas, Hilde (1986).
4623:2013PLoSO...879039P
4312:2010JApSt..37..881M
4212:Loosen, F. (1990).
4054:. pp. 93β116.
3886:10.1257/jep.5.1.193
2963:, pp. 404β410.
2949:Voracek et al. 2015
2459:, pp. 101β102.
2411:, pp. 674β676.
2373:Hoorens et al. 2015
2363:, pp. 672β673.
2339:, pp. 119β126.
2288:, pp. 161β163.
2276:, pp. 183β184.
2274:Hoorens et al. 1990
2264:, pp. 177β200.
2213:, pp. 196β201.
2211:Hoorens et al. 1990
2199:Hoorens et al. 1990
2175:Hoorens et al. 1990
2019:, pp. 398β400.
1933:Hoorens et al. 1990
1902:Hoorens et al. 1990
1878:Stieger et al. 2014
1866:Stieger et al. 2014
1661:, pp. 397β398.
1637:, pp. 396β397.
1589:, pp. 385β386.
1520:, pp. 358β359.
1464:, pp. 354β356.
1452:, pp. 354β355.
1366:, pp. 124β125.
883:, specifically the
842:economic psychology
231:
167:social psychologist
4252:. pp. 57β81.
4216:. Leuven: Peeters.
3753:10.1037/pas0000092
3159:on August 28, 2021
2481:DeHart et al. 2011
2397:Wilson et al. 1989
1157:
1144:Undisputed studies
1004:Wider implications
229:
208:In his lab at the
32:name-letter effect
18:Name letter effect
5142:(2, Pt.2): 1β27.
5104:978-0-915552-70-2
4842:Social Psychology
4576:Self and Identity
4434:(12): 1106β1112.
4259:978-0-471-90791-6
4236:978-0-262-13339-5
4121:978-3-319-13733-9
4084:978-1-4129-1670-7
4075:SAGE Publications
4061:978-0-8058-4036-0
3614:– via Limo.
3354:Self and Identity
3344:978-1-55130-489-2
3131:(10): 1059β1061.
3045:Self and Identity
2975:, pp. 44β45.
2850:Dyjas et al. 2012
2838:Dyjas et al. 2012
2826:Dyjas et al. 2012
2730:Jones et al. 2004
2421:Jones et al. 2002
2327:, pp. 10β11.
1830:Koole et al. 1999
1820:, pp. 66β67.
1153:Hurricane Katrina
1022:personal pronouns
986:social acceptance
881:social psychology
653:initials in Japan
431:elementary school
396:
395:
117:Hurricane Katrina
90:frequent exposure
16:(Redirected from
5215:
5193:Cognitive biases
5178:
5151:
5148:10.1037/h0025848
5130:
5120:
5108:
5092:
5082:
5061:
5051:
5041:
5008:
4977:
4946:
4907:
4886:
4857:
4836:
4807:
4778:
4741:
4716:(8): 1087β1089.
4704:
4685:10.1037/a0021990
4663:
4654:
4644:
4634:
4599:
4570:
4541:
4520:
4499:
4490:
4459:
4422:
4383:
4380:10.1037/h0049029
4362:
4331:
4292:
4281:10.1037/h0031352
4263:
4240:
4217:
4208:
4177:
4168:(6): 1291β1294.
4156:
4133:
4105:
4088:
4065:
4052:Lawrence Erlbaum
4034:
4024:
3991:
3970:
3957:
3928:
3910:
3889:
3866:
3848:
3827:
3806:
3797:
3794:10.1037/h0045399
3774:
3764:
3732:
3699:
3683:Social Cognition
3679:
3669:
3644:
3642:
3615:
3590:
3587:
3548:
3522:
3499:
3496:10.1037/h0053393
3476:
3473:
3450:
3431:
3421:
3411:
3384:
3383:
3377:
3348:
3327:
3310:
3307:
3304:10.1037/a0027154
3284:
3283:
3277:
3246:
3245:
3239:
3211:
3201:
3198:
3175:
3174:
3168:
3166:
3164:
3155:. Archived from
3113:
3110:
3081:
3078:
3068:
3039:
3036:
2988:
2982:
2976:
2970:
2964:
2958:
2952:
2946:
2940:
2934:
2928:
2922:
2916:
2910:
2901:
2895:
2889:
2883:
2877:
2871:
2865:
2859:
2853:
2847:
2841:
2835:
2829:
2828:, pp. 7β10.
2823:
2817:
2811:
2805:
2799:
2793:
2787:
2781:
2775:
2769:
2763:
2757:
2756:, p. 22β23.
2751:
2745:
2739:
2733:
2727:
2721:
2715:
2706:
2700:
2694:
2688:
2682:
2676:
2670:
2664:
2658:
2652:
2646:
2640:
2634:
2628:
2622:
2616:
2610:
2604:
2598:
2592:
2586:
2580:
2571:
2565:
2559:
2553:
2547:
2541:
2532:
2526:
2520:
2514:
2508:
2502:
2496:
2490:
2484:
2478:
2472:
2466:
2460:
2454:
2448:
2442:
2436:
2430:
2424:
2418:
2412:
2406:
2400:
2394:
2388:
2382:
2376:
2370:
2364:
2358:
2352:
2346:
2340:
2334:
2328:
2322:
2316:
2310:
2304:
2298:
2289:
2283:
2277:
2271:
2265:
2259:
2253:
2247:
2241:
2235:
2229:
2223:
2214:
2208:
2202:
2196:
2190:
2184:
2178:
2172:
2166:
2160:
2154:
2148:
2137:
2131:
2125:
2119:
2110:
2104:
2098:
2092:
2086:
2080:
2074:
2068:
2059:
2053:
2047:
2041:
2032:
2026:
2020:
2014:
2008:
2002:
1996:
1990:
1984:
1978:
1972:
1966:
1960:
1954:
1948:
1942:
1936:
1930:
1924:
1918:
1905:
1899:
1893:
1887:
1881:
1875:
1869:
1863:
1857:
1851:
1845:
1839:
1833:
1827:
1821:
1815:
1809:
1803:
1794:
1788:
1782:
1776:
1770:
1764:
1758:
1752:
1733:
1727:
1721:
1715:
1698:
1692:
1686:
1680:
1674:
1668:
1662:
1656:
1650:
1644:
1638:
1632:
1626:
1620:
1614:
1608:
1602:
1596:
1590:
1584:
1578:
1572:
1566:
1560:
1554:
1548:
1542:
1536:
1521:
1515:
1509:
1503:
1492:
1486:
1480:
1474:
1465:
1459:
1453:
1447:
1441:
1435:
1424:
1418:
1403:
1397:
1391:
1385:
1379:
1373:
1367:
1361:
1355:
1349:
1343:
1337:
1321:
1310:
1304:
1293:
1287:
1280:
1274:
1270:
1264:
1260:
1254:
1251:
1245:
1241:
1235:
1232:
1226:
1223:
1217:
1206:
1200:
1196:
1190:
1186:
1058:implicit egotism
846:endowment effect
814:Mastery pleasure
723:Disproved causes
645:Western cultures
612:publication bias
232:
141:English alphabet
129:brand-preference
21:
5223:
5222:
5218:
5217:
5216:
5214:
5213:
5212:
5208:1985 in science
5183:
5182:
5181:
5154:
5133:
5111:
5105:
5090:
5085:
5064:
5011:
4980:
4949:
4910:
4889:
4875:10.1002/per.823
4860:
4839:
4810:
4781:
4744:
4707:
4666:
4657:
4602:
4573:
4544:
4523:
4502:
4493:
4462:
4425:
4386:
4365:
4334:
4295:
4266:
4260:
4243:
4237:
4220:
4211:
4197:10.1002/per.705
4180:
4159:
4136:
4122:
4091:
4085:
4068:
4062:
4037:
3994:
3973:
3960:
3931:
3892:
3869:
3846:10.1.1.468.9494
3830:
3809:
3800:
3777:
3735:
3702:
3677:
3672:
3647:
3618:
3593:
3588:
3551:
3520:10.1.1.411.2919
3502:
3479:
3474:
3453:
3434:
3387:
3378:
3351:
3345:
3330:
3313:
3308:
3287:
3278:
3249:
3240:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3178:
3169:
3162:
3160:
3116:
3111:
3084:
3079:
3042:
3037:
3000:
2996:
2991:
2985:Simonsohn 2011a
2983:
2979:
2973:Simonsohn 2011a
2971:
2967:
2959:
2955:
2947:
2943:
2935:
2931:
2923:
2919:
2915:, p. 1106.
2911:
2904:
2896:
2892:
2888:, p. 1087.
2886:Simonsohn 2011b
2884:
2880:
2876:, p. 1059.
2872:
2868:
2862:Simonsohn 2011a
2860:
2856:
2848:
2844:
2840:, pp. 8β9.
2836:
2832:
2824:
2820:
2812:
2808:
2800:
2796:
2788:
2784:
2776:
2772:
2764:
2760:
2754:Simonsohn 2011a
2752:
2748:
2740:
2736:
2728:
2724:
2716:
2709:
2701:
2697:
2689:
2685:
2677:
2673:
2669:, p. 1095.
2665:
2661:
2657:, p. 1089.
2653:
2649:
2645:, p. 1109.
2641:
2637:
2633:, p. 1108.
2629:
2625:
2621:, p. 1099.
2617:
2613:
2605:
2601:
2593:
2589:
2581:
2574:
2566:
2562:
2554:
2550:
2542:
2535:
2527:
2523:
2515:
2511:
2503:
2499:
2491:
2487:
2479:
2475:
2471:, p. 1293.
2467:
2463:
2455:
2451:
2443:
2439:
2431:
2427:
2419:
2415:
2407:
2403:
2395:
2391:
2383:
2379:
2371:
2367:
2359:
2355:
2347:
2343:
2335:
2331:
2323:
2319:
2311:
2307:
2299:
2292:
2284:
2280:
2272:
2268:
2260:
2256:
2248:
2244:
2236:
2232:
2224:
2217:
2209:
2205:
2197:
2193:
2185:
2181:
2173:
2169:
2161:
2157:
2149:
2140:
2132:
2128:
2120:
2113:
2105:
2101:
2093:
2089:
2081:
2077:
2069:
2062:
2054:
2050:
2042:
2035:
2027:
2023:
2015:
2011:
2003:
1999:
1991:
1987:
1979:
1975:
1967:
1963:
1955:
1951:
1943:
1939:
1931:
1927:
1919:
1908:
1900:
1896:
1888:
1884:
1876:
1872:
1864:
1860:
1852:
1848:
1840:
1836:
1828:
1824:
1816:
1812:
1804:
1797:
1789:
1785:
1777:
1773:
1765:
1761:
1753:
1736:
1728:
1724:
1716:
1701:
1693:
1689:
1681:
1677:
1669:
1665:
1657:
1653:
1645:
1641:
1633:
1629:
1621:
1617:
1609:
1605:
1597:
1593:
1585:
1581:
1573:
1569:
1561:
1557:
1549:
1545:
1537:
1524:
1516:
1512:
1504:
1495:
1487:
1483:
1475:
1468:
1460:
1456:
1448:
1444:
1436:
1427:
1419:
1406:
1398:
1394:
1386:
1382:
1378:, pp. 6β7.
1374:
1370:
1362:
1358:
1350:
1346:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1325:
1324:
1311:
1307:
1294:
1290:
1284:Native Canadian
1281:
1277:
1271:
1267:
1261:
1257:
1252:
1248:
1242:
1238:
1233:
1229:
1224:
1220:
1207:
1203:
1197:
1193:
1187:
1183:
1178:
1146:
1083: and
1072: and
1054:
1049:
1047:Outside the lab
1014:
1006:
994:self-regulation
982:physical health
935:
913:self-regulation
877:
838:
830:
816:
807:
783:
765:
730:
725:
717:
620:
618:Characteristics
587:
562:
506:
488:
456:
227:
206:
145:capital letters
125:
109:disaster relief
78:like themselves
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5221:
5219:
5211:
5210:
5205:
5200:
5195:
5185:
5184:
5180:
5179:
5152:
5131:
5123:Academic Press
5109:
5103:
5083:
5073:(6): 657β663.
5062:
5024:(7): 699β702.
5009:
4978:
4960:(2): 119β126.
4947:
4921:(3): 358β367.
4908:
4887:
4858:
4837:
4808:
4790:(6): 535β539.
4779:
4753:(1): 211β216.
4742:
4705:
4664:
4655:
4617:(11): e79039.
4600:
4582:(6): 692β723.
4571:
4553:(4): 469β487.
4542:
4532:(4): 381β402.
4521:
4511:(3): 353β361.
4500:
4491:
4473:(1): 161β163.
4460:
4423:
4397:(5): 820β824.
4384:
4374:(2): 114β116.
4363:
4345:(3): 340β343.
4332:
4306:(6): 881β891.
4293:
4275:(3): 295β300.
4264:
4258:
4241:
4235:
4218:
4209:
4178:
4157:
4147:(2): 521β531.
4134:
4120:
4089:
4083:
4066:
4060:
4035:
4007:(4): 669β685.
3992:
3982:(1): 111β125.
3971:
3958:
3940:(7): 736β742.
3929:
3908:10.1.1.512.462
3901:(3): 477β512.
3890:
3880:(1): 193β206.
3867:
3839:(5): 665β683.
3828:
3818:(2): 170β177.
3807:
3798:
3788:(4): 252β253.
3775:
3747:(3): 905β914.
3733:
3715:(1): 228β262.
3700:
3690:(2): 177β200.
3670:
3660:(3): 181β205.
3645:
3640:10.5334/pb.801
3633:(1β2): 23β48.
3616:
3606:(4): 365β368.
3591:
3549:
3500:
3477:
3464:(5): 559β575.
3451:
3432:
3385:
3360:(1): 127β135.
3349:
3343:
3328:
3311:
3298:(2): 124β137.
3285:
3260:(3): 241β254.
3247:
3222:(5): 404β410.
3202:
3189:(2): 229β237.
3176:
3114:
3082:
3040:
3011:(1): 179β182.
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2989:
2977:
2965:
2953:
2941:
2929:
2927:, p. 340.
2917:
2902:
2900:, p. 881.
2890:
2878:
2866:
2854:
2842:
2830:
2818:
2816:, p. 179.
2806:
2804:, p. 211.
2794:
2792:, p. 820.
2782:
2780:, p. 241.
2770:
2768:, p. 216.
2758:
2746:
2734:
2732:, p. 665.
2722:
2720:, p. 692.
2707:
2705:, p. 479.
2695:
2683:
2681:, p. 733.
2671:
2659:
2647:
2635:
2623:
2611:
2599:
2597:, p. 248.
2587:
2572:
2570:, p. 244.
2560:
2558:, p. 101.
2548:
2533:
2531:, p. 233.
2521:
2519:, p. 522.
2509:
2507:, p. 535.
2497:
2485:
2483:, p. 127.
2473:
2461:
2449:
2447:, p. 657.
2437:
2435:, p. 109.
2425:
2423:, p. 170.
2413:
2401:
2399:, p. 330.
2389:
2387:, p. 673.
2377:
2375:, p. 910.
2365:
2353:
2351:, p. 108.
2341:
2329:
2317:
2305:
2290:
2278:
2266:
2254:
2252:, p. 229.
2242:
2240:, p. 193.
2230:
2228:, p. 603.
2215:
2203:
2201:, p. 192.
2191:
2189:, p. 130.
2179:
2177:, p. 190.
2167:
2165:, p. 368.
2155:
2153:, p. 367.
2138:
2136:, p. 365.
2126:
2124:, p. 366.
2111:
2109:, p. 112.
2099:
2087:
2075:
2073:, p. 560.
2060:
2048:
2046:, p. 177.
2033:
2031:, p. 295.
2021:
2009:
2007:, p. 399.
1997:
1995:, p. 151.
1985:
1983:, p. 123.
1973:
1971:, p. 589.
1961:
1959:, p. 181.
1949:
1937:
1935:, p. 184.
1925:
1923:, p. 740.
1906:
1904:, p. 204.
1894:
1892:, p. 477.
1882:
1870:
1868:, p. 358.
1858:
1846:
1834:
1832:, p. 111.
1822:
1810:
1795:
1783:
1781:, p. 396.
1771:
1759:
1757:, p. 235.
1734:
1722:
1720:, p. 234.
1699:
1687:
1685:, p. 203.
1683:CzapiΕski 1980
1675:
1673:, p. 398.
1663:
1651:
1649:, p. 397.
1639:
1627:
1625:, p. 392.
1615:
1613:, p. 391.
1603:
1601:, p. 390.
1591:
1579:
1577:, p. 384.
1567:
1555:
1553:, p. 381.
1543:
1541:, p. 359.
1522:
1510:
1508:, p. 358.
1493:
1491:, p. 357.
1481:
1479:, p. 356.
1466:
1454:
1442:
1440:, p. 354.
1425:
1423:, p. 230.
1404:
1392:
1380:
1368:
1356:
1354:, p. 253.
1344:
1342:, p. 114.
1331:
1329:
1326:
1323:
1322:
1305:
1288:
1275:
1265:
1255:
1246:
1236:
1227:
1218:
1201:
1191:
1180:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1145:
1142:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1013:
1010:
1005:
1002:
934:
931:
930:
929:
925:
917:
909:
905:
876:
873:
872:
871:
863:
859:
837:
836:Mere ownership
834:
829:
828:Probable cause
826:
815:
812:
806:
803:
782:
779:
775:
770:
764:
761:
729:
726:
724:
721:
716:
713:
712:
711:
703:
656:
637:
634:
631:
619:
616:
586:
583:
561:
558:
530:Roman alphabet
505:
502:
487:
484:
476:Gestalt theory
455:
452:
427:Dutch-speaking
394:
393:
390:
387:
384:
380:
379:
376:
373:
370:
366:
365:
362:
359:
356:
352:
351:
348:
345:
342:
338:
337:
334:
331:
328:
324:
323:
320:
317:
314:
310:
309:
306:
303:
300:
296:
295:
292:
289:
286:
282:
281:
278:
275:
272:
268:
267:
264:
261:
258:
254:
253:
250:
247:
244:
240:
239:
236:
226:
223:
205:
202:
197:license plates
175:nonsense words
124:
121:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5220:
5209:
5206:
5204:
5201:
5199:
5196:
5194:
5191:
5190:
5188:
5176:
5172:
5168:
5164:
5163:
5158:
5153:
5149:
5145:
5141:
5137:
5132:
5128:
5124:
5119:
5118:
5110:
5106:
5100:
5096:
5089:
5084:
5080:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5063:
5059:
5055:
5050:
5045:
5040:
5035:
5031:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5010:
5006:
5002:
4998:
4994:
4991:(2): 97β116.
4990:
4986:
4985:
4979:
4975:
4971:
4967:
4963:
4959:
4955:
4954:
4948:
4944:
4940:
4936:
4932:
4928:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4915:
4909:
4905:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4864:
4859:
4855:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4838:
4834:
4830:
4826:
4822:
4818:
4814:
4809:
4805:
4801:
4797:
4793:
4789:
4785:
4780:
4776:
4772:
4768:
4764:
4760:
4756:
4752:
4748:
4743:
4739:
4735:
4731:
4727:
4723:
4719:
4715:
4711:
4706:
4702:
4698:
4694:
4690:
4686:
4682:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4665:
4661:
4656:
4652:
4648:
4643:
4638:
4633:
4628:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4611:
4606:
4601:
4597:
4593:
4589:
4585:
4581:
4577:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4552:
4548:
4543:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4501:
4497:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4468:
4467:
4461:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4445:
4441:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4404:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4391:
4385:
4381:
4377:
4373:
4369:
4364:
4360:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4339:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4300:
4294:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4270:
4265:
4261:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4242:
4238:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4219:
4215:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4191:(2): 85β106.
4190:
4186:
4185:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4141:
4135:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4095:
4090:
4086:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4067:
4063:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3998:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3972:
3969:(2): 101β109.
3968:
3964:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3909:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3891:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3874:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3808:
3804:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3782:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3741:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3684:
3676:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3592:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3556:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3507:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3484:
3478:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3458:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3443:
3442:New Scientist
3438:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3382:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3350:
3346:
3340:
3336:
3335:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3312:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3292:
3286:
3282:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3254:
3248:
3244:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3216:
3208:
3203:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3183:
3177:
3173:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3083:
3076:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3041:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3005:
2999:
2998:
2993:
2987:, p. 46.
2986:
2981:
2978:
2974:
2969:
2966:
2962:
2957:
2954:
2950:
2945:
2942:
2938:
2937:Feedback 1994
2933:
2930:
2926:
2921:
2918:
2914:
2909:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2894:
2891:
2887:
2882:
2879:
2875:
2870:
2867:
2864:, p. 15.
2863:
2858:
2855:
2851:
2846:
2843:
2839:
2834:
2831:
2827:
2822:
2819:
2815:
2810:
2807:
2803:
2798:
2795:
2791:
2786:
2783:
2779:
2774:
2771:
2767:
2762:
2759:
2755:
2750:
2747:
2744:, p. 84.
2743:
2738:
2735:
2731:
2726:
2723:
2719:
2714:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2699:
2696:
2692:
2687:
2684:
2680:
2675:
2672:
2668:
2663:
2660:
2656:
2651:
2648:
2644:
2639:
2636:
2632:
2627:
2624:
2620:
2615:
2612:
2609:, p. 86.
2608:
2603:
2600:
2596:
2591:
2588:
2585:, p. 76.
2584:
2579:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2564:
2561:
2557:
2552:
2549:
2546:, p. 71.
2545:
2540:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2525:
2522:
2518:
2513:
2510:
2506:
2501:
2498:
2495:, p. 64.
2494:
2489:
2486:
2482:
2477:
2474:
2470:
2465:
2462:
2458:
2453:
2450:
2446:
2441:
2438:
2434:
2429:
2426:
2422:
2417:
2414:
2410:
2405:
2402:
2398:
2393:
2390:
2386:
2381:
2378:
2374:
2369:
2366:
2362:
2357:
2354:
2350:
2345:
2342:
2338:
2333:
2330:
2326:
2321:
2318:
2315:, p. 10.
2314:
2309:
2306:
2302:
2297:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2282:
2279:
2275:
2270:
2267:
2263:
2258:
2255:
2251:
2246:
2243:
2239:
2234:
2231:
2227:
2222:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2204:
2200:
2195:
2192:
2188:
2183:
2180:
2176:
2171:
2168:
2164:
2159:
2156:
2152:
2147:
2145:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2130:
2127:
2123:
2118:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2103:
2100:
2097:, p. 29.
2096:
2091:
2088:
2085:, p. 18.
2084:
2079:
2076:
2072:
2067:
2065:
2061:
2058:, p. 69.
2057:
2052:
2049:
2045:
2040:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2025:
2022:
2018:
2013:
2010:
2006:
2001:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1986:
1982:
1977:
1974:
1970:
1965:
1962:
1958:
1953:
1950:
1947:, p. 10.
1946:
1941:
1938:
1934:
1929:
1926:
1922:
1917:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1898:
1895:
1891:
1886:
1883:
1879:
1874:
1871:
1867:
1862:
1859:
1856:, p. 51.
1855:
1850:
1847:
1844:, p. 63.
1843:
1838:
1835:
1831:
1826:
1823:
1819:
1814:
1811:
1808:, p. 63.
1807:
1802:
1800:
1796:
1793:, p. 11.
1792:
1787:
1784:
1780:
1775:
1772:
1768:
1763:
1760:
1756:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1745:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1735:
1732:, p. 11.
1731:
1726:
1723:
1719:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1691:
1688:
1684:
1679:
1676:
1672:
1667:
1664:
1660:
1655:
1652:
1648:
1643:
1640:
1636:
1631:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1616:
1612:
1607:
1604:
1600:
1595:
1592:
1588:
1583:
1580:
1576:
1571:
1568:
1564:
1559:
1556:
1552:
1547:
1544:
1540:
1535:
1533:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1514:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1500:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1485:
1482:
1478:
1473:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1458:
1455:
1451:
1446:
1443:
1439:
1434:
1432:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1411:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1396:
1393:
1390:, p. 24.
1389:
1384:
1381:
1377:
1372:
1369:
1365:
1360:
1357:
1353:
1348:
1345:
1341:
1336:
1333:
1327:
1319:
1315:
1309:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1292:
1289:
1285:
1279:
1276:
1273:(DFGIJNRVWZ).
1269:
1266:
1259:
1256:
1250:
1247:
1240:
1237:
1231:
1228:
1222:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1205:
1202:
1195:
1192:
1185:
1182:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1154:
1150:
1143:
1141:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1130:
1129:New Scientist
1123:
1121:
1117:
1112:
1110:
1106:
1100:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1075:
1071:
1065:
1063:
1059:
1051:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1041:undergraduate
1037:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1018:
1011:
1009:
1003:
1001:
999:
998:defensiveness
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
973:
971:
966:
962:
957:
955:
954:rating scales
951:
946:
944:
943:introspection
940:
932:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
897:
896:
894:
890:
886:
882:
874:
869:
864:
860:
856:
855:
854:
852:
847:
843:
835:
833:
827:
825:
822:
821:mother tongue
813:
811:
804:
802:
800:
796:
792:
787:
780:
778:
773:
768:
762:
760:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
736:
728:Mere exposure
727:
722:
720:
714:
708:
704:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
672:Indo-European
669:
665:
661:
657:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
635:
632:
629:
628:
627:
625:
624:meta-analysis
617:
615:
613:
607:
605:
601:
597:
592:
584:
582:
578:
574:
572:
566:
559:
557:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
503:
501:
498:
494:
485:
483:
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
453:
451:
449:
448:data analysis
445:
441:
437:
432:
428:
423:
421:
417:
413:
409:
404:
401:
391:
388:
385:
382:
381:
377:
374:
371:
368:
367:
363:
360:
357:
354:
353:
349:
346:
343:
340:
339:
335:
332:
329:
326:
325:
321:
318:
315:
312:
311:
307:
304:
301:
298:
297:
293:
290:
287:
284:
283:
279:
276:
273:
270:
269:
265:
262:
259:
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1993:Zajonc 1980
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1695:Nuttin 1984
1671:Nuttin 1987
1659:Nuttin 1987
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1635:Nuttin 1987
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1611:Nuttin 1987
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1575:Nuttin 1987
1551:Nuttin 1987
1539:Nuttin 1985
1518:Nuttin 1985
1506:Nuttin 1985
1489:Nuttin 1985
1477:Nuttin 1985
1462:Nuttin 1985
1450:Nuttin 1985
1438:Nuttin 1985
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