398:, polymeric coatings, and adhesives, nanocapsules can reduce damage caused by high loads. The healing of cracks within these materials is alleviated by dispersing nanocapsules within the polymer. The healing substances include dicyclopentadiene (DCPD), which is prepared on site within the material by sonication. The nanoencapsulated material is first emulsified within the host material by creating an oil-in-water self-healing epoxy. The emulsified material is then agitated within the host material to form particles which then bond to the host material.
70:
Poly-e-caprolactone (PCL), poly(lactide) (PLA), and poly(lactide-co-glicolide) (PLGA) are typical polymers used in nanocapsule formation. Other polymers include thiolated poly(methacrylic acid) and poly(N-vinyl
Pyrrolidone). As synthetic polymers have proven to be more pure and reproducible when compared naturally occurring polymers, they are often preferred for the construction nanocapsules. However, some natural occurring polymers such as
320:
considered for nasal delivery, to prolong the life of the drug within the nose. Drugs can also be transferred through the skin (transdermal). Inhalers are also of interest, as for example, asthma drugs consist of macromolecules. Currently, the inhalation systems are undesirable to patients, and it is hoped that there will be advances in this delivery system at some time.
119:
forms a surface film. The organic phase is slowly injected in the aqueous phase which then is agitated to form the colloidal suspension. Once the colloidal suspension is formed it will be agitated until nanocapsules begin to form. The size and shape of the nanocapsule depend on the rate of injection along with the rate of agitation.
374:) are substances that are placed in food to enhance nutrition. The increased bioavailability of these substances is relative to the size of the nanocarrier. The smaller the nanocarrier, the better the delivery properties and the solubility of the nutraceuticals; the nanocarrier is able to enter the bloodstream easier if smaller.
106:
low solubility with the polymer membrane to ensure that the drug will be carried throughout the system properly and be released at the proper time and location. When the proper emulsion is obtained, the drug should be uniformly dispersed throughout the entire internal cavity of the polymeric membrane.
385:
Relatively new research involves the encapsulation of digestive enzymes within a non-toxic polymer shell. The enzyme filled nanoshell has been proven in lab mice to absorb ethyl alcohol from the bloodstream, therefore resulting in reduced blood alcohol levels. It has been concluded that the particles
105:
The core of a nanocapsule is composed of an oil surfactant that is specifically selected to coordinate with the selected drug within the polymeric membrane. The specific oil used must be highly soluble with the drug, and non-toxic when used in a biological environment. The oil-drug emulsion must have
122:
Another common way to prepare nanocapsules is the emulsion diffusion method. This method consists of three phases: organic, aqueous, and dilution phase. In this method the organic phase is added to the aqueous phase under conditions of high agitation which form an emulsion. During this process water
319:
Some other ways include oral, which is the most active, nasal, transdermal, and through the lung. Oral is the most common, and the most challenging. Demands for consistent release persist, although developments are being made for drugs to bioadhere to the intestinal tract. Bioadhesion is also being
276:
The nano-sized structure of nanocapsules allows permeating through basal membranes, which makes them effective carriers of medicine in biological systems. The specific processing of nanocapsules gives them unique properties in how they release drugs in certain situations. Generally, there are three
118:
In the nanoprecipitation method, also termed solvent displacement method, nanocapsules are formed by creating a colloidal suspension between two separate phases. The organic phase consists of a solution and a mixture of organic solvents. The aqueous phase consists of a mixture of non-solvents that
114:
The encapsulation method depends on the requirements for any given drug or substance. These processes depend on the physiochemical properties of the core material, the wall material, and the required size. The most common ways to produce nanocapsules are nanoprecipitation, emulsion-diffusion, and
333:
Water-soluble polymer shells are being created to deliver a protein, apoptin, into cancer cells. The protein goes into the nucleus of the cancer cells while leaving healthy cells alone, unlike other conventional therapies as gene therapies and chemotherapy. The capsules are 100 nm in size.
406:
As of 2016, it is unknown what the impacts of nano-sized materials are to human health and the environment. It is only via chemical risk and toxic assessments over time can affirm any effects. The measures for testing are currently insufficient, and the approval for the use of nanoparticles,
286:
Hydration and diffusion – In this release mechanism the nanocapsule will swell due to the effects of hydration. Once the nanocapsule has swollen to a point where it stretches, the polymeric membrane will allow for diffusion of the drug through the polymeric membrane and into the biological
316:) is enhanced through LFUS, which then further allows the drug to be released. Since the wave of HFUS is higher, success of drug delivery has been demonstrated through the form of bubbles. The bubbles with in the capsule are formed and collapsed due to the higher temperatures of the wave.
69:
Nanocapsule structure consists of nanovesicular system that is formed in a core-shell arrangement. The shell of a typical nanocapsule is made of a polymeric membrane or coating. The type of polymers used is of biodegradable polyester, as nanocapsules are often used in biological systems.
243:
Spray drying – Solutions are sprayed into a drying medium. This method is more widely used in the food industry and used for encapsulation of many food products as flavors, minerals, colors, and vitamins. This method makes nanocapsules more stable, and increases shelf-life of foods.
307:
Magnetic fields: Magnetic bars of millimeter-scale are embedded in poly(vinyl alcohol). The magnetic field within the bars is alternated, which results in the change of shape and ultimate collapse of the nanocapsules. The change in the structure then triggers the drug release.
303:
Near-infrared light: Drug release is triggered from heat. The infrared technology can be absorbed deep in the body, turn to heat. The heat-sensitive material, particularly a polymer shell that swells upon heating, collapses. The action of deflating is what releases the drug.
290:
Enzymatic reaction – The polymer shell must be first selected to coordinate with the enzymes produced by the human body to produce and enzymatic reaction. This reaction will cause a rupture in the polymeric membrane which allows the drug to be dispersed into the
251:
process without changing the structure or shape of the nanoparticles. Freeze-drying involves four states: freezing, primary drying, secondary drying, and storage. Because of the multiple stages involved, this method is considered to demand more energy and time.
311:
Ultrasound: Another option of drug release is through ultrasound, which is a "longitudinal pressure wave". The ultrasound can either be low-frequency, or LFUS, (between ~20 and ~100 kHz) or high-frequency, HFUS, (>1 MHz). Transdermal delivery
341:
that bind to malignant cells for cell delivery. This method is especially beneficial for those drugs that are not as permeable through the cell membrane, and where tissues are diseased, the nanoparticles are able to bond easier with the malignant cells.
31:, and for self-healing materials. The benefits of encapsulation methods are for protection of these substances to protect in the adverse environment, for controlled release, and for precision targeting. Nanocapsules can potentially be used as MRI-guided
131:
or ultrasonication is used to form small particle size in the nanoparticle suspension. Once the suspension is stable, the solvents are evaporated using either continuous magnetic stirring at room temperature, or by reducing the ambient pressure.
779:
Long, Li-xia; Yuan, Xu-bo; Chang, Jiang; Zhang, Zhi-hua; Gu, Ming-qi; Song, Tian-Tian; Xing, Ying; Yuan, Xiao-yan; et al. (2012). "Self-assembly of polylactic acid and cholesterol-modified dextran into hollow nanocapsules".
27:. They are vesicular systems made of a polymeric membrane which encapsulates an inner liquid core at the nanoscale. Nanocapsules have many uses, including promising medical applications for drug delivery, food enhancement,
876:
Zhao, Muxun; Hu, Biliang; Gu, Zhen; Joo, Kye-Il; Wang, Pin; Tang, Yi (2013). "Degradable polymeric nanocapsule for efficient intracellular delivery of a high molecular weight tumor-selective protein complex".
126:
Solvent evaporation is another effective method to prepare nanocapsules. In this process, single or double emulsions are formed from solvents and are used to formulate a nanoparticle suspension. High speed
135:
The table below displays how nanocapsules exhibit different traits based on the method by which they were prepared. Nanocapsule types vary by size, drug concentration, and active substance release time.
66:
The typical size of the nanocapsule used for various applications ranges from 10-1000 nm. However, depending on the preparation and use of the nanocapsule, the size will be more specific.
268:
affects the ability of the nanocapsule to penetrate tumor cells. Low aspect ratios (spherical capsules) tend to penetrate cells more easily than high aspect ratios (rod-shaped capsules).
43:
232:
Nanocapsules tend to aggregate and become unstable. Thus, substances within capsules can leak. To control the instability, nanocapsules can be dried either through
386:
act as organelles, which proposes other benefits to enzyme therapies. This discovery is introducing other studies, such as encapsulation methods for hair loss.
971:
377:
Lipid or polymer-based (natural biodegradable) are used for encapsulation for nutraceuticals. Types of polymers used include collagen, gelatin, and albumin.
441:
Ezhilarasi, P. N.; Karthik, P.; Chhanwal, N.; Anandharamakrishnan, C. (2012). "Nanoencapsulation
Techniques for Food Bioactive Components: A Review".
525:
Vert, Michel; Doi, Yoshiharu; Hellwich, Karl-Heinz; Hess, Michael; Hodge, Philip; Kubisa, Przemyslaw; Rinaudo, Marguerite; Schué, François (2012).
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247:
Freeze-drying – This process involves dehydration of materials that are heat-sensitive. Unlike spray drying, water is removed through the
744:
277:
physico-chemical release mechanisms that are used to release the drug or medicine from the polymeric shell of the nanocapsule.
123:
is added to the emulsion which causes the solvent to diffuse. The result of this emulsion-diffusion is nanocapsule formation.
248:
742:; Gao, Weiwei; Kohane, Daniel S.; Farokhzad, Omid; Anderson, Daniel; Langer, Robert (2011). "Advances in Drug Delivery".
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Dissociation of the drug – The drug dissociates from the swelled nanocapsule and diffuses out into the rest of the cell.
919:
Liu, Yang; Du, Juanjuan; Yan, Ming; Lau, Mo Yin; Hu, Jay; Han, Hui; Yang, Otto O.; Liang, Sheng; et al. (2013).
899:
534:
128:
979:
921:"Biomimetic enzyme nanocomplexes and their use as antidotes and preventive measures for alcohol intoxication"
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Active targeting of cancer cells is also being researched. Through active targeting, the nanocapsules form
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Nanoencapuslation in foods involves the changing of textures, flavorings, colorings, and stability in
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Mora-Huertas, C.E.; Fessi, H.; Elaissari, A. (2010). "Polymer-based nanocapsules for drug delivery".
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Blaiszik, B.J.; Sottos, N.R.; White, S.R. (2008). "Nanocapsules for self-healing materials".
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Nagavarma, B V N; Yadav, Hemant K S; Ayaz, A; Vasudha, L S; Shivakumar, H G (2012).
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527:"Terminology for biorelated polymers and applications (IUPAC Recommendations 2012)"
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836:. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 465. pp. 153–61.
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are used in some drug delivering nanocapsules. Other nanocapsule shells include
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586:"Different Techniques for Preparation of Polymeric Nanoparticles – A Review"
478:"MRI-Guided Nanorobotic Systems for Therapeutic and Diagnostic Applications"
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98:. Polysaccharides and saccharides are used due to their non-toxicity and
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24:
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Vartholomeos, P.; Fruchard, M.; Ferreira, A.; Mavroidis, C. (2011).
102:. They are attractive to use as they resemble biological membranes.
832:
Pietersen, Alexandra; Noteborn, Mathieu H. M. (2000). "Apoptin".
661:"Shape-Dependent Cellular Processing of Polyelectrolyte Capsules"
834:
Cancer Gene
Therapy: Past Achievements and Future Challenges
659:
Shimoni, Olga; Yan, Yan; Wang, Yajun; Caruso, Frank (2013).
900:"Nanocapsules Battle Cancer without Harming Healthy Cells"
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Other delivery methods: substance delivery in medical use
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composed of a solid shell that surrounds a core-forming
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http://www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-eng/Biotech-Environ/LYO/
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Asian
Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research
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Drug concentration in concentrated dispersion (mg/ml)
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808:"Dictionary of nanotechnology - Nanoprecipitation"
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147:Drug concentration in diluted dispersion (mg/ml)
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706:"Nanocapsule shape matters for drug delivery"
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153:Active substance release time (90%) (min)
23:is a nanoscale shell made from a nontoxic
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623:International Journal of Pharmaceutics
56:space available to entrap substances.
7:
972:"Nanocapsules Sober Up Drunken Mice"
766:10.1146/annurev-matsci-062910-100359
495:10.1146/annurev-bioeng-071910-124724
394:For materials such as components in
745:Annual Review of Materials Research
407:especially in food, is ambiguous.
14:
1009:10.1016/j.compscitech.2007.07.021
997:Composites Science and Technology
970:Mike Orcutt (February 17, 2013).
898:Bill Kisliuk (February 7, 2013).
16:Nanoscale shell made from polymer
704:Belle Dumé (December 21, 2012).
228:Processing issues and solutions
443:Food and Bioprocess Technology
39:, although challenges remain.
1:
794:10.1016/j.carbpol.2011.11.032
635:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2009.10.018
891:10.1016/j.nantod.2012.12.003
209:Emulsification coacervation
1029:Nanoparticles by morphology
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535:Pure and Applied Chemistry
455:10.1007/s11947-012-0944-0
842:10.1007/0-306-46817-4_14
548:10.1351/PAC-REC-10-12-04
381:Ethyl alcohol absorption
945:10.1038/nnano.2012.264
390:Self-healing materials
192:Double emulsification
58:
976:MIT Technology Review
925:Nature Nanotechnology
782:Carbohydrate Polymers
362:Nutraceuticals (from
115:solvent-evaporation.
937:2013NatNa...8..187L
758:2011AnRMS..41....1T
482:Annu Rev Biomed Eng
175:Emulsion-diffusion
740:Whitehead, Kathryn
240:(lyophilization).
158:Nanoprecipitation
851:978-0-306-46817-9
738:Timko, Brian P.;
678:10.1021/nn3046117
599:(Suppl 3): 16–23.
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879:Nano Today
488:: 157–84.
411:References
352:shelf-life
346:Food usage
256:Properties
164:0.002–0.09
110:Processing
46:definition
33:nanorobots
885:: 11–20.
272:Structure
221:>2000
88:liposomes
62:Structure
1023:Category
963:23416793
860:10810623
752:: 1–20.
697:23234433
665:ACS Nano
643:19825408
556:98107080
512:32852758
504:21529162
463:98381808
365:nutrient
281:Delivery
167:0.15–6.5
72:chitosan
37:nanobots
954:3670615
933:Bibcode
754:Bibcode
339:ligands
291:system.
287:system.
84:albumin
76:gelatin
50:Hollow
25:polymer
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215:~0.24
201:20–50
44:IUPAC
959:PMID
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181:~0.2
170:750
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