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covering very large areas on the Sun: if nanoflares would have heated the whole corona, then they should be distributed so uniformly so as to look like a steady heating. Flares themselves – and microflares, which when studied in detail seem to have the same physics – are highly intermittent in space and time, and would not therefore be relevant to any requirement for continuous heating. On the other hand, in order to explain very rapid and energetic phenomena such as solar flares, the magnetic field should be structured on distances of the order of the metre.
202:
115:
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reconnection, occurring at nearly the same time on small length-scales wherever in the corona, are very numerous, each providing an imperceptibly small fraction of the total energy required in a macroscopic event. These nanoflares might themselves resemble very tiny flares, close one to each other, both in time and in space, effectively heating the corona and underlying many of the phenomena of solar magnetic activity.
304:. Anyway, wavetrain periods observed in the high chromosphere and in the lower transition region are of the order of 3-5 min. These times are longer than the time taken by Alfvén waves to cross a typical coronal loop. This means that most of the dissipative mechanisms may provide enough energy only at distances further from the solar corona. More probably, the Alfvén waves are responsible for the acceleration of the
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154:. These macroscopic signs of solar activity are considered by astrophysicists as the phenomenology related to events of relaxation of stressed magnetic fields, during which part of the energy they have stored is released ultimately into particle kinetic energy (heating); this could be via current dissipation,
233:
where the temperature is about 10 -10 K, radiative losses are too high to be balanced by any form of mechanical heating. The very high temperature gradient observed in this range of temperatures increases the conductive flux in order to supply for the irradiated power. In other words, the transition
224:
is highly ionized and the magnetic field is well organized, the thermal conduction is a competitive process. The energy losses due to the thermal conduction are of the same order of coronal radiative losses. The energy released in the corona which is not radiated externally is conducted back towards
188:
One of the experimental results often cited in supporting the nanoflare theory is the fact that the distribution of the number of flares observed in the hard X-rays is a function of their energy, following a power law with negative spectral index. A sufficiently large power-law index would allow the
97:
emission, over an area of one square arcsec on the Sun, a nanoflare of 10 J should happen every 20 seconds, and 1000 nanoflares per second should occur in a large active region of 10 x 10 km. On the basis of this theory, the emission coming from a big flare could be caused by a series of nanoflares,
315:
The theory initially developed by Parker of micro-nanoflares is one of those explaining the heating of the corona as the dissipation of electric currents generated by a spontaneous relaxation of the magnetic field towards a configuration of lower energy. The magnetic energy is thus transformed into
268:
The problem of coronal heating is complicated by the fact that different coronal features require very different amounts of energy. It is difficult to believe that very dynamic and energetic phenomena such as flares and coronal mass ejections share the same source of energy with stable structures
165:
to explain these outbursts. Rather than a single large-scale episode of such a process, though, modern thinking suggests that a multitude of small-scale versions reconnection, cascading together, might be a better description. The theory of nanoflares then supposes that these events of magnetic
241:
The solar convection can supply the required heating, but in a way not yet known in detail. Actually, it is still unclear how this energy is transmitted from the chromosphere(where it could be absorbed or reflected), and then dissipated into the corona instead of dispersing into the solar wind.
106:, are not adequately sensitive to the range in which this faint emission occurs, making a confident detection impossible. Recent evidence from the EUNIS sounding rocket has provided some spectral evidence for non-flaring plasma at temperatures near 9 MK in active region cores.
358:. These loops were observed to undergo rapid heating from temperatures of a few thousand degrees Celsius to several million degrees within a span of tens of seconds, followed by a gradual cooldown, delivering enough energy to heat the corona to multi-million degree Celsius.
101:
The nanoflare model has long suffered from a lack of observational evidence. Simulations predict that nanoflares produce a faint, hot (~10 MK) component of the emission measure. Current instruments, such as the
Extreme-Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrometer on board
234:
region is so steep (the temperature increases from 10kK to 1MK in a distance of the order of 100 km) because the thermal conduction from the superior hotter atmosphere must balance the high radiative losses, as indicated to the numerous
189:
smallest events to dominate the total energy. In the energy range of normal flares, the index has a value of approximately -1.8 . This falls short of the power-law index which would be required order to maintain the heating of the
149:
Many flux tubes are relatively stable as seen in soft X-ray images, emitting at steady rate. However flickerings, brightenings, small explosions, bright points, flares and mass eruptions are observed very frequently, especially in
1067:
Poletto G; Vaiana GS; Zombeck MV; Krieger AS; et al. (Sep 1975). "A comparison of coronal X-ray structures of active regions with magnetic fields computed from photospheric observations".
146:, which can be seen in the EUV and X-ray images (see the figure on the left), often confine very hot plasmas, with emissions characteristic of temperature of a one to a few million degrees.
209:
The problem of coronal heating is still unsolved, although research is ongoing and other evidence of nanoflares has been found in the solar corona. The amount of energy stored in the
350:
In 2020, a study published in Nature reported the first observation of the complete lifecycle of a nanoflare. The researchers documented the process of selective ion heating via
185:, the stressing of the magnetic field should be enhanced until a small perturbation switches on many small instabilities, happening together as it occurs in avalanches.
181:
could be provoked by cascade effects, similar to those described by the mathematical theories of catastrophes. In the hypothesis that the solar corona is in a state of
93:, and conducted by the free electrons along the magnetic field lines closer to the place where the nanoflare switches on. In order to heat a region of very high
347:, while more energy is released in turbulent regimes when nanoflares happen at much smaller scale-lengths, where non-linear effects are not negligible.
546:(2042). The original reference to Gold's discussion is not available online, but is the second reference made within the paper itself: 20140260.
328:
at small length-scales without a simultaneous alteration of the magnetic field lines at large length-scales. In this way it can be explained why
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via the nanoflare hypothesis, . A power-law index greater than -2 is required to maintain the temperature observed in the corona.
1110:
Rappazzo, A. F.; Velli, M.; Einaudi, G.; Dahlburg, R. B. (2008). "Nonlinear
Dynamics of the Parker Scenario for Coronal Heating".
1210:
939:
Porter, J. G.; Fontenla, J. M.; Simnett, G. M. (1995). "Simultaneous ultraviolet and X-ray observations of solar microflares".
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272:
54:
The hypothesis of small impulsive heating events as a possible explanation of the coronal heating was first suggested by
1736:
814:
Datlowe, D.W.; Elcan, M. J.; Hudson, H. S. (1974). "OSO-7 observations of solar x-rays in the energy range 10?100 keV".
724:
Winebarger, Amy; Warren, Harry; Schmelz, Joan; Cirtain, Jonathan; Mulu-Moor, Fana; Golub, Leon; Kobayashi, Ken (2012).
261:
The importance of the magnetic field is recognized by all the scientists: there is a strict correspondence between the
1534:
775:"Pervasive Faint Fe XIX Emission from a Solar Active Region Observed with EUNIS-13: Evidence for Nanoflare Heating"
335:
The Ohmic dissipation by currents could be a valid alternative to explain the coronal activity. For many years the
182:
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437:
214:
857:
Lin, R. P.; Schwartz, R. A.; Kane, S. R.; Pelling, R. M.; et al. (1984). "Solar hard X-ray microflares".
265:, where the irradiated flux is higher (especially in the X-rays), and the regions of intense magnetic field.
77:. The plasma motion (thought as fluid motion) occurs at length-scales so small that it is soon damped by the
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AR10923, observed close to center of the sun's disk. Blue regions indicate plasma near 10 million degrees
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can account for the coronal heating necessary to maintain the plasma at this temperature and to balance
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Withbroe, G. L.; Noyes, R. W. (1977). "Mass and energy flow in the solar chromosphere and corona".
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Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
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536:"Modelling nanoflares in active regions and implications for coronal heating mechanisms"
320:. The braiding of the field lines of the coronal magnetic flux tubes provokes events of
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Hudson; H.S. (1991). "Solar flares, microflares, nanoflares, and coronal heating".
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or mainly in the higher corona, where the magnetic field lines open into the space
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Bahauddin, Shah
Mohammad; Bradshaw, Stephen J.; Winebarger, Amy R. (March 2021).
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The radiation is not the only mechanism of energy loss in the corona: since the
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726:"Defining the Blind-Spot of Hinode EIS and XRT Temperature Measurements"
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593:"Topological Dissipation and the Small-scale Fields in Turbulent Gases"
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514:"NASA - Tiny Flares Responsible for Outsized Heat of Sun's Atmosphere"
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1211:"This May Be the First Complete Observation of a Nanoflare - NASA"
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Klimchuk, Jim (2006). "On
Solving the Coronal Heating Problem".
343:. However this heating mechanism is not very efficient in large
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1056:. D.Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland. p. 208.
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Tiny Flares
Responsible for Outsized Heat of Sun's Atmosphere.
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534:
Cargill, P. J.; Warren, H. P.; Bradshaw, S. J. (2015-05-28).
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is a very small episodic heating event which happens in the
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According to Parker a nanoflare arises from an event of
134:, which theoretically is "frozen" into the gas of the
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Furthermore, where does it occur exactly? In the low
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and then later developed and dubbed "nanoflares" by
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354:within low-lying, previously unresolved solar
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130:Telescopic observations suggest that the
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69:which converts the energy stored in the
23:"This false-color temperature map shows
634:"Nanoflares and the solar X-ray corona"
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288:generated by convective motions in the
276:Solar Flare and Coronal Mass Ejection (
31:." Credit: Reale, et al. (2009), NASA.
7:
1039:10.1146/annurev.aa.15.090177.002051
169:Episodic heating often observed in
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730:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
173:, including major events such as
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324:with a consequent change of the
110:Nanoflares and coronal activity
197:Nanoflares and coronal heating
16:Type of episodic heating event
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1732:List of heliophysics missions
98:not observable individually.
1737:Category:Missions to the Sun
1054:Solar Magneto-hydrodynamics
800:10.1088/0004-637X/790/2/112
751:10.1088/2041-8205/746/2/L17
632:Parker, E. N. (July 1988).
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1189:10.1038/s41550-020-01263-2
591:Parker, Eugene N. (1972).
205:Solar Magnetic Field Lines
183:self-organized criticality
89:is quickly converted into
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1713:G-type main-sequence star
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1112:The Astrophysical Journal
941:The Astrophysical Journal
894:"Solar hard X-ray bursts"
892:Dennis, Brian R. (1985).
859:The Astrophysical Journal
779:The Astrophysical Journal
703:10.1007/s11207-006-0055-z
638:The Astrophysical Journal
597:The Astrophysical Journal
1576:In mythology and culture
438:Coronal radiative losses
215:coronal radiative losses
1031:1977ARA&A..15..363W
473:Solar transition region
229:along the arcs. In the
73:into the motion of the
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560:10.1098/rsta.2014.0260
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179:coronal mass ejections
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1423:Coronal mass ejection
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211:solar magnetic field
132:solar magnetic field
85:. In such a way the
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742:2012ApJ...746L..17W
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552:2015RSPTA.37340260C
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1632:Solar energy
1627:Solar dynamo
1588:Heliophysics
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1418:Coronal loop
1413:Coronal hole
1390:Moreton wave
1372:Chromosphere
1214:. Retrieved
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517:. Retrieved
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413:Chromosphere
349:
341:solar flares
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286:Alfvén waves
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122:observed by
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1720:Exploration
1598:Solar deity
1545:Heliosheath
1527:Heliosphere
1497:Wolf number
1470:Solar cycle
1334:Photosphere
1025:: 363–387.
468:Solar flare
458:Photosphere
404:Star portal
290:photosphere
248:heliosphere
140:photosphere
56:Thomas Gold
1770:Categories
1672:Solar time
1593:In culture
1550:Heliopause
1502:Solar wind
1433:Prominence
1325:Atmosphere
1310:Tachocline
1216:2023-11-01
982:(2): 357.
785:(2): 112.
736:(2): L17.
500:References
478:Solar wind
306:solar wind
252:solar wind
79:turbulence
45:atmosphere
1555:Bow shock
1462:Variation
1428:Nanoflare
1234:Nasa news
1197:2397-3366
1125:0709.3687
1097:121538547
1004:120428719
926:189827655
844:122521337
760:120517153
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658:0004-637X
254:into the
83:viscosity
37:nanoflare
1755:Category
1150:15598925
578:25897093
362:See also
1571:Eclipse
1564:Related
1385:Spicule
1357:Sunspot
1352:Faculae
1347:Granule
1271:The Sun
1177:Bibcode
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136:plasma
104:Hinode
87:energy
75:plasma
41:corona
1512:Flare
1380:Plage
1146:S2CID
1120:arXiv
1093:S2CID
1000:S2CID
922:S2CID
840:S2CID
756:S2CID
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681:arXiv
124:TRACE
95:X-ray
1692:Star
1603:List
1300:Core
1282:List
1193:ISSN
654:ISSN
574:PMID
521:2014
296:and
284:The
225:the
177:and
91:heat
1781:Sun
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