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220:. "For my part", he says, "I take my stand in human anatomy"; elsewhere he insists upon "the necessity, in each particular case, of an intelligent designing mind for the contriving and determining of the forms which organized bodies bear". In making his argument, Paley employed a wide variety of metaphors and analogies. Perhaps the most famous is his analogy between a watch and the world. Historians, philosophers and theologians often call this the
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law of natural selection has been discovered. We can no longer argue that, for instance, the beautiful hinge of a bivalve shell must have been made by an intelligent being, like the hinge of a door by man. There seems to be no more design in the variability of organic beings and in the action of natural selection, than in the course which the wind blows. Everything in nature is the result of fixed laws.
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1003:. Some of the modern creationists have changed the conclusion of his arguments to be refutation of evolution. As such, they have been rejected by "virtually all biologists". Evolution has been widely accepted by scientists from Darwin onwards, and Darwin persuaded "most educated people" that processes such as evolution were governed by natural laws. This has not stopped
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Paley made a tactical retreat from traditional attributes of God to a more limited definition, in which unity went "no further than to a unity of counsel". It sufficed that God demonstrated plan, intelligence and foresight, had inconceivable power, and showed goodness through perceived design being beneficial in the clear majority of cases.
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be only one creator god. After all, wrote Hume, "what shadow of an argument... can you produce from your hypothesis to prove the unity of the Deity? A great number of men join in building a house or ship, in rearing a city, in framing a commonwealth; why may not several deities combine in contriving and framing a world?"
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Although I did not think much about the existence of a personal God until a considerably later period of my life, I will here give the vague conclusions to which I have been driven. The old argument of design in nature, as given by Paley, which formerly seemed to me so conclusive, fails, now that the
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and that of inanimate objects. Living organisms can reproduce themselves, so they can change to become more complex from generation to generation. Inanimate objects such as watches are unable to pass on any changes, so they never become more complex unless a watchmaker redesigns them. The comparison
147:
is an extended argument, constructed around a series of examples including finding a watch; comparing the eye to a telescope; and the existence of finely adapted mechanical structures in animals, such as joints which function like hinges or manmade ball and socket joints. Paley argues that these all
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between the world and a human artifact such as a watch, since these are so dissimilar that any analogy must be very weak and unreliable. Secondly, Hume argued that even if one accepted the analogy, it would not prove that the creator is infinite, good, or perfectly intelligent, nor that there would
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The book was republished in many editions by publishers in cities including London, Oxford, Cambridge, Edinburgh and
Philadelphia. The twentieth reprint was made in 1820. Versions appeared in years including 1802, 1807, 1809, 1813, 1818, 1819, 1821, 1823, 1825, 1826, 1829, 1830, 1840, 1854 and many
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To counter the first argument, Paley strongly defended the analogy, emphasising complex mechanisms in living organisms seen as machines designed for purpose and contending that, in a sense "That an animal is a machine is neither correctly true nor wholly false". In replying to the second argument,
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could indicate the goodness of a loving God, with the justification that it felt so good when the pain stopped. Gould makes it clear he finds Paley's argument incorrect scientifically, but states that he respects it as a coherent and well-defended philosophy. Gould particularly respects Paley's
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God must be good, Paley argues, because in many cases the designs seen in nature are beneficial, and because animals perceive pleasure, beyond what would be strictly necessary. Pain is admitted to exist, but even such things as venomous bites of snakes exist to a good end, namely defence or the
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Throughout the book, Paley presented difficulties in examples or analogies that had been presented to support evolutionary explanations or the doctrine of "appetencies". He objected that
Erasmus Darwin's concept could only explain adaptation directly relating to activity, and could not explain
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The review agreed with Paley that "No thinking man, we conceive, can doubt that there are marks of design in the universe" and that either a single example like the eye would be conclusive, or no quantity of examples would be. Paley is praised for relying on "mechanical phenomena" rather than
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With less learning and less originality than some of his distinguished predecessors , it would be difficult, perhaps, to point out his superior in soundness of judgement, or in vigilant and comprehensive sagacity. With great strength of reasoning and power of decision, he has also united more
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was published in 1802 in London by J. Faulder. In the United States, the book was published and released by E Sargeant and
Company of New York on December 15, 1802. A later edition published by E. S. Gorham contained revisions by F. LeGros Clark in order to "harmonize with modern science".
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moderation and liberality of sentiment, than is usually to be found among disputants; and added weight to his argument by a certain plainness and sobriety of manner, that is infinitely better calculated to produce conviction than the sallies of an ambitious eloquence.
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Although proponents of ID claim that their premises differ from Paley's, and, unlike Paley, do not specify who or what the designer is, most evolutionary biologists see ID as a version of Paley's arguments updated to account for advances in our understanding of
152:
is more than the sum of its parts. The last chapters are more theological in character, arguing that the attributes of God must be sufficient for the extent of his operations, and that God must be good because designs seen in nature are beneficial.
224:. Building on this mechanical analogy, Paley presents examples from planetary astronomy and argues that the regular movements of the solar system resemble the workings of a giant clock. To bolster his views he cites the work of his old friend
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Paley considers how some structures are seen to be prepared for future function, like the milk-teeth of a baby, ready formed inside the gums at birth. Similarly, the circulation of the foetus is supported by temporary short-circuits with the
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Paley concludes that natural theology offers many proofs of the goodness of God, though any one would be sufficient. The many proofs show that the conclusion is stable, and together they can make a suitable impression on those who study
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Admitting that plants generally have less obvious evidence of 'a designed and studied mechanism' than animals, still Paley adds some examples, as of the parts of the seed, the delicate germ being protected by a tough or spiny husk, and
787:. Paley objected to it dispensing with "the necessity, in each particular case, of an intelligent, designing mind", and to it lacking evidence or observations of the process. More specifically, Darwin had adopted the common idea of
28:
445:
Paley considers the equivalents of human anatomy in other animals. Human clothing is compared to the fur, feathers, quills and scales of animals. The structure of the feather is admired. The teeth and jaws of
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is that God's design of the whole creation can be seen in the general happiness, or well-being, that is evident in the physical and social order of things. This sets the book within the broad tradition of the
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Animals use muscles to move; even if we don't understand how they work, we can see they work mechanically, argues Paley, moving joints to and fro. Other organs such as the stomach work chemically to digest
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The bible commentator
William Jenks described the book in 1838 as "a work highly celebrated for the justness of its reflections, and the benevolence, good sense, and piety which it breathes."
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Early evolutionary ideas presented a new threat to the analogy between living organisms and designed object, as life differs in reproducing itself. In chapter XXIII Paley explicitly dismissed
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kind of evolution and rebuts it with the observation that men have not lost their nipples through disuse. However, Gould writes, Paley did not manage to think of one more alternative,
590:"WE are not writing a system of natural history", begins Paley, apologising for not covering every class systematically. He mentions insects for some examples unique to them, as the
791:, and Paley raised objections including the persistence of unused male nipples, and (discreetly put in Latin) the effect of circumcision not being inherited by generations of Jews.
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769:'s concept of "organic molecules", then turned to an unattributed concept: "Another system, which has lately been brought forward, and with much ingenuity, is that of
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later years. The book remains in print, with more recent editions for example in 2006, 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2014. The book was also republished in editions of Paley's
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included two other texts by Paley, and in his final exams in
January 1831 he did well in questions on these texts. He had to stay on until June, and read Paley's
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All the above items show the 'contrivances' in existence, which Paley argues prove the personality of the Deity, arguing that only persons can contrive or design.
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The argument is extended to 'all the organized parts of the works of nature'. Paley considers whether chance alone could explain these, and concludes not.
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has, Paley argues, a short neck because its head is so heavy, but in compensation it has a long trunk, enabling it to reach out. Similarly the
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No argument, writes Paley, other than 'the necessity of an intelligent
Creator', can explain the eye (or any other elaborate living structure).
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Paley says it is atheism not to agree with the watchmaker argument. He compares the eye to a telescope, and argues from the eye's construction.
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The muscles exactly relate to the joints, operating them mechanically like the wires and strings of a puppet. A complex case is the tongue.
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Paley admits that astronomy is not the best proof of 'the agency of an intelligent
Creator', but all the same it shows his magnificence.
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has no wings to enable it to chase its flying prey, but has a web, and organs adapted to produce it, which compensates for the lack.
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William Paley
Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity editions early versions translations.
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948:, the man who could argue any case (however hopeless). Gould is struck that Paley can claim that even the agonising pain of
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method of identifying alternative possibilities and then systematically refuting them. Gould notes that Paley envisages a
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to illustrate the divine order of the world. These types of examples can be seen in the work of the ancient philosopher
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Natural
Theology: or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity; Collected from the Appearances of Nature
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The attributes of God must, Paley argues, be 'adequate to the magnitude, extent, and multiplicity of his operations'.
140:, argued for the existence and goodness of God from the general well-being of living things and the physical world.
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Paley wrote decades before Darwin, was writing about the existence of God, and did not have anything to say about
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The book was written in the context of the natural theology tradition. In earlier centuries, theologians such as
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Search results for 'William Paley "Natural
Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity"'
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is more than the sum of its parts. This is seen to be so both in a mechanical watch and in living systems.
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of animals, and how well-packaged all the delicate organs are, resulting in both beauty and utility.
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748:) had criticised arguments from design on several grounds. Firstly, he rejected the making of an
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Chapter VII. Of the Mechanical And Immechanical Parts and Functions of Animals and Vegetables
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which are beneficial to sufferers. The appearance of chance, too, is necessary in the world.
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Paley considers organs which seem to have no comparison, like the oil glands of birds and
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The book was many times republished and remains in print. It continues to be consulted by
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joints, etc., to provide both support and suitable flexibility. He compares the spine to
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He later stated in his autobiography that he was initially convinced by the argument:
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The Blind Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe Without Design
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Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2004). "The Science and Rhetoric of Paley's Natural Theology".
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Paley argues that the uniformity of plan seen in the universe indicates a single God.
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The bones and joints form a mechanical structure with features comparable to hinges,
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took its arguments seriously and responded to them; evolutionary biologists such as
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Darwin C. R. 'Books to be read' and 'Books Read' notebook. (1838–1851) CUL-DAR119,
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capture of prey. Pain too is mitigated, as in intervals between the acute pain of
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itself. Paley argues that the watchmaker must have power, and specific intentions.
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in 1766, criticised arguments from design; he did not live to see Paley's book.
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are considered. Similarly, the adaptations of birds' bills in species like the
1704:(with introduction by Norman Kemp Smith ed.). Social Sciences Publishers.
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437:; the crossbill's beak is cited by Paley as being well-suited to its function.
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University of Sussex: Enlightening Science: Natural Theology and Creationism
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Natural Theology: or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity
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Natural Theology: or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity
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Paley considers how the 'elements' of water, air etc. are exactly as needed.
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256:, ii. 87 and 97. The watch analogy was widely used in the Enlightenment, by
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Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity
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The 'defects' of one organ are remedied by the structure of another. The
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breaks down, in Dawkins's view, because of this important distinction.
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711:. It has been translated into languages including French and Welsh.
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Chapter XVII. The Relation of animated Bodies to inanimate Nature
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enable newly hatched young of salmon to find food, and later to
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Paley argues from the properties of plant seeds and animal eggs.
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The germ of the idea is to be found in ancient writers who used
1125:. Oxford University Press. pp. Appendix entry on Brinkley.
602:(he calls them 'awls') for laying eggs deep in plants or wood,
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744:(who died in 1776, before Paley assembled his arguments into
1803:
Lander University: William Paley, The Teleological Argument
197:; and this explains why Paley based much of his thought on
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Chapter VIII. Of Mechanical Arrangement in the human Frame
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also responded to such ideas by referencing Paley's book.
1011:(ID) movement from continuing to use Paley's arguments:
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Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy
291:: if you find a watch, you suppose there's a watchmaker.
409:
Chapter XI. Of the Animal Structure regarded as a Mass
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to the sea and finally back to their rivers to spawn.
136:, as well as philosophers of classical times such as
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Reports of the National Center for Science Education
1506:
Eight Little Piggies: Reflections in Natural History
1400:
Jenks, William, ed. (1838). "Paley, William, D.D.".
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Eddy, Matthew Daniel & Knight, David M. (2006).
880:: these books inspired "a burning zeal" to research
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Chapter XXIV. Of the natural Attributes of the Deity
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70:
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38:
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905:: I could almost formerly have said it by heart."
547:of fish are expressly adapted to the surrounding '
316:Chapter IV Of the Succession of Plants and Animals
109:(1743–1805). The book expounds his arguments from
1456:"Letter no. 2532, Charles Darwin to John Lubbock"
773:": the term and his description clearly refer to
1207:. Kansas City, Missouri. 7 March 1911. p. 6
1138:Introduction to the Literature of Europe, Vol II
503:, as the lungs are not yet in use for breathing.
324:Chapter V. Application of the Argument continued
1428:sfn error: no target: CITEREFDesmondMoore1991 (
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761:Evolutionary biology: Buffon and Erasmus Darwin
1403:The Comprehensive Commentary on the Holy Bible
8:
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1363:Science in the Nineteenth-Century Periodical
21:
1233:Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography
296:Chapter II. State of the Argument continued
148:lead to an intelligent Creator, and that a
1640:. University of California Press. p.
610:of bees, the light-producing organ of the
381:Chapter X. Of the Vessels of Animal Bodies
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20:
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551:' of air or water in which they operate.
308:Chapter III. Application of the Argument
212:Paley's argument is built mainly around
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831:Charles Darwin and evolutionary biology
789:inheritance of acquired characteristics
672:Chapter XXVI. The Goodness of the Deity
648:Chapter XXIII. Personality of the Deity
400:could not have formed gradually (as by
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891:he began development of his theory of
664:Chapter XXV. Of the Unity of the Deity
1701:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
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1080:National Center for Science Education
487:Chapter XIV. Prospective Contrivances
276:, introducing Paley's version of the
7:
1715:(1st ed.), London: J. Faulder,
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1268:
1082:"Paley the Plagiarist?" Glenn Branch
824:arguments about human intelligence.
475:Chapter XIII. Peculiar Organizations
33:Title Page of first American edition
1749:, Archive.org: 1879 Sheldon edition
1406:. Fessenden & Company. p.
921:The Autobiography of Charles Darwin
511:Paley considers how the whole of a
332:Chapter VI. The Argument cumulative
1838:Religious philosophical literature
1823:Arguments for the existence of God
14:
1636:Evolution: The History of an Idea
1759:
1547:. W. W. Norton. pp. 43–76.
582:, able to lay eggs deep in wood.
442:Chapter XII. Comparative Anatomy
284:Chapter I. State of the Argument
228:and the Dublin Astronomer Royal
1664:Burbridge, David (April 1998).
1047:William Paley, Natural Theology
1798:NCSE: William Paley, 1743–1805
1140:. London: Murray. p. 385.
1:
1741:, Darwin online: 12th edition
1460:Darwin Correspondence Project
1172:. 21 December 1802. p. 4
1121:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008).
799:Opinions on Paley's arguments
627:by wings or other appendages.
121:, notably beginning with the
1671:Science and Christian Belief
1608:New Thinking about Evolution
1527:. Harper and Row. p. 4.
1509:. Vintage. pp. 142–148.
1490:, Da Capo Press, 2007. p. 94
632:Chapter XXI. Of the Elements
1769:public domain audiobook at
968:The evolutionary biologist
929:Modern evolutionary biology
427:skull and jaw anatomy from
1854:
1582:"William Paley, 1743–1805"
1049:. Oxford University Press.
846:
434:A History of British Birds
369:Chapter IX. Of the Muscles
16:1802 book by William Paley
1632:Bowler, Peter J. (2003).
1605:Rafferty, John P (2011).
798:
740:The Scottish philosopher
723:The Scottish philosopher
685:Chapter XXVII. Conclusion
520:Chapter XVI. Compensation
376:muscles are admired also.
105:by the English clergyman
76:John Morgan, Philadelphia
26:
1424:Desmond & Moore 1991
898:On the Origin of Species
779:transmutation of species
556:Chapter XVIII. Instincts
1709:Paley, William (1802),
1095:Literature and Theology
972:described himself as a
858:University of Cambridge
814:of 1803 commented that
640:Chapter XXII. Astronomy
587:Chapter XIX. Of Insects
260:and Christians alike.
1818:1802 non-fiction books
1136:Hallam, Henry (1847).
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935:evolutionary biologist
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874:Alexander von Humboldt
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804:Contemporary reception
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103:philosophy of religion
65:philosophy of religion
1833:Philosophy of biology
1611:. Rosen. p. 53.
1580:Moore, Randy (2009).
1336:"Art. III. Review of
1169:New York Evening Post
1108:10.1093/litthe/18.1.1
1007:such as those in the
847:Further information:
843:re-read Paley's book.
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698:The first edition of
619:Chapter XX. Of Plants
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508:Chapter XV. Relations
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115:teleological argument
99:Christian apologetics
61:Christian apologetics
1828:Evolutionary biology
1525:Evolution as Process
1488:Christopher Hitchens
1483:The Portable Atheist
979:The Blind Watchmaker
849:Teleology in biology
795:passive adaptation.
727:, portrayed here by
598:(scaly wing-cases),
412:Paley considers the
392:are considered, the
364:at Bishop Wearmouth.
250:, especially in his
1678:(1). Archived from
1340:, by William Paley"
839:In the late 1830s,
578:of insects such as
574:Paley mentions the
539:Organs such as the
394:valves of the heart
180:The main thrust of
97:is an 1802 work of
23:
1781:2020-07-06 at the
1682:on 2 December 2020
1501:Gould, Stephen Jay
1462:. 22 November 1859
1230:"Paley, William".
1009:Intelligent Design
940:compared Paley to
878:Personal Narrative
856:'s studies at the
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466:and (long-billed)
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299:Now the watch can
289:watchmaker analogy
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278:watchmaker analogy
272:The first page of
222:watchmaker analogy
207:Bernard Nieuwentyt
123:watchmaker analogy
74:R. Faulder, London
1776:William Paley.com
1554:978-0-393-31570-7
1426:, pp. 87–88.
1379:External link in
1319:, pp. 66–67.
1307:, pp. 65–66.
1295:, pp. 64–65.
1250:. OCLC WorldCat.
1204:Kansas City Times
1027:Parson-naturalist
963:natural selection
938:Stephen Jay Gould
893:natural selection
715:Topics of dispute
543:of birds and the
500:ductus arteriosus
354:mortice and tenon
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362:The Iron Bridge
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1684:. Retrieved
1680:the original
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1558:. Retrieved
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1464:. Retrieved
1459:
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1372:cite journal
1362:
1360:– via
1354:. Retrieved
1352:(2): 287–305
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1215:– via
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1174:. Retrieved
1167:
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1005:creationists
998:
977:
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933:In 1993 the
932:
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884:. After the
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729:Allan Ramsay
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158:creationists
155:
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93:
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18:
1696:Hume, David
1686:22 December
1594:(4): 26–27.
1466:24 December
1063:|work=
995:Creationism
974:neo-Paleyan
864:as well as
771:appetencies
600:ovipositors
576:ovipositors
205:(1711) and
113:, making a
1812:Categories
1480:Quoted in
1382:|via=
1271:, Part II.
1211:9 November
1151:Paley 1802
1033:References
959:Lamarckist
950:gallstones
742:David Hume
736:Philosophy
725:David Hume
614:and so on.
580:ichneumons
482:of fishes.
452:herbivores
448:carnivores
398:epiglottis
287:The basic
1503:(2007) .
1356:2 January
1283:, Part V.
1281:Hume 1948
1269:Hume 1948
1256:252643475
1195:"Paley's
1176:2 January
1065:ignored (
1055:cite book
1001:evolution
988:organisms
625:dispersed
612:glow-worm
608:proboscis
560:Instincts
464:spoonbill
460:crossbill
456:omnivores
402:evolution
374:Sphincter
301:reproduce
244:epicycles
241:Ptolemaic
71:Publisher
1779:Archived
1771:LibriVox
1731:Editions
1698:(1948).
1541:(1986).
1523:(1953).
1102:: 1–22.
1021:See also
1016:biology.
942:Voltaire
916:—
784:Zoonomia
694:Editions
592:antennae
549:elements
525:elephant
497:and the
237:sundials
226:John Law
209:(1750).
201:(1691),
199:John Ray
143:Paley's
130:John Ray
117:for the
49:Language
1236:. 2008.
750:analogy
564:migrate
264:Outline
214:anatomy
176:Context
52:English
1719:
1648:
1615:
1551:
1254:
1164:"(Ad)"
889:voyage
887:Beagle
767:Buffon
606:, the
604:stings
596:elytra
529:spider
513:system
258:deists
248:Cicero
150:system
138:Cicero
39:Author
689:them.
541:wings
468:snipe
344:food.
57:Genre
1717:ISBN
1688:2016
1646:ISBN
1613:ISBN
1562:2014
1549:ISBN
1468:2016
1430:help
1387:help
1358:2020
1252:OCLC
1213:2014
1178:2020
1067:help
954:gout
872:and
808:The
678:gout
545:fins
454:and
388:and
384:The
356:and
239:and
216:and
168:and
132:and
101:and
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